Nervous Tissue made up of two principle cell populations:

1. Neurons: transmit nerve impulses from one part of the body to another
A single cell process
2. Neuroglia: surround neurons and protect them (act as phagocytes, create myelin sheath)
Nerve/Tract: bundle of neurons

Classified according to the direction in which they transmit impulses

Ependymal Cells line the central canal

Form permeable membrane in spinal cord

Help propel spinal fluid

Unipolar:

One short process that divides into peripheral and central processes, extends from cell body
Nearly all neurons that conduct impulses toward the CNS
Primarily found in dorsal root ganglion

Bipolar:

Have two processes attached to the cell body

Quite rare; found in retina of the eye, ear and olfactory mucosa

Multipolar:

Many processes from the cell body (one axon, many dendrites)
Most neurons in the brain and spinal cord and those carrying impulses away from CNS

CT (endo, peri, epi-neurioum) associated with a nerve hold all the fibers, BV, lymphatics together and
provides support and insulation
Spinal Cord:
2 functions of spinal cord:
1. Spinal reflex activity
2. Provides neural pathways to and from higher nervous centers
Conus Medullaris: where the spinal cord terminates (1st or 2nd lumbar)
Cauda equine: nerve fibers extending from the inferior end of the spinal cord (horses tail)
Filum terminale: fibrous extension of the pia mater, extends into the coccygeal canal to attach to the
posterior coccyx

Spinal or lumbar taps and caudal anesthesia procedures:

Done below the spinal cord ending in order to prevent injury to the spinal cord

Central Canal:

Oval shaped
Lined with ependymal cells
Multipolar association
Contains CSF

Plexus:

Complex networks of nerves

Serve the motor and sensory needs of the muscles and skin of limbs

Flow of CSF:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Choroid Plexus
Through the cerebral aqueduct in to the 3rd ventricle
Through cerebral aqueduct into 4th ventricle
Some CSF flows through central canal but most through aperatures of 4th ventricle to
subarachnoid space
5. Fluid return to the blood in the dural sinuses via arachnoid villi
Reflex: rapid, predictable, involuntary motor responses to stimuli

Mediated over neural pathways called reflex arcs

Categorized into:
1. Autonomic Reflexes:
Through ANS
Usually not aware of them
Activate smooth muscles, cardiac muscle, and gland
Regulate body functions: digestion, elimination, BP, salivation and sweating
2. Somatic Reflexes:
Involve stimulation of skeletal muscles by somatic division
Ex. Rapid withdrawal of hand from hot object
5 Essential components of reflex arcs:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Receptor: Site of stimulus action

Sensory Neuron: transmits afferent impulses to the CNS
Integration Center: consists of one or more neurons in CNS
Motor Neuron: conducts efferent impulses from integration to effector organ

5. Effector: muscle fibers or glands that respond to efferent impulses

Somatic Reflexes:
1. Stretch Reflex:
Spinal
Maintain posture, balance and locomotion
Example: Knee-jerk reflex (Patellar Reflex) and (Achilles)
2. Crossed-Extensor Reflex:
Spinal
Flexor, or withdrawal, reflex followed by extension of the opposite limb
Example: person grabs your hand, you jerk away and push with the other hand
3. Superficial Cord Reflex:
Spinal
Result from pain and temperature changes
Initiated by receptors in the skin and mucosae
Example: (Plantar reflex)-causes toes to flex and move closer together
4. Corneal:
Cranial
Mediated through the trigeminal nerve V
Absence indicates damage to the brain
5. Gag:
Cranial
Tests somatic motor responses of cranial nerve IX and X
Stretch Reflex pathway:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Stimuli (tapping a tendon-stretches the muscle) acts onto a muscle spindle

Afferent impulses travel to the spinal cord
Synapses occur with motor neurons and interneurons
Motor neuron sends an impulse to quadriceps to contract
Interneuron prevents hamstring from resisting contraction

2 reflexes in which reflex pathways is initiated and completed at the spinal cord level
1. Stretch
2. Crossed-extensor
Superficial Cord Reflex (Somatic reflex)

Results from pain and temperature changes

Initiated by stimulation of receptors in the skin and mucosae
Depends both on functional upper-motor pathways and on the cord-level reflex arc
Test: toes curl (Normal)

 Babinskis sign- toes flare up

Babinski sign is normal in infants because myelination of the NS is incomplete
Gag Reflex:
Controlled by cranial nerves IX (glossopharyngeal) and X (Vagus)
Autonomic Reflexes
Pupillary Reflexes Pathway:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Stimuli is picked up by the receptor (retina)

afferent pathways by the optic nerve (II)
CNS is integration
Oculomotoer nerve (III) is efferent
Smooth muscle of the iris is the effector
Shine a flashlight the pupil constricts. The right eye slightly constricts (consensual response)
o Indicating that the pathways are interconnected
Sympathetic is for dilation
Parasympathetic is for constriction
o Protect the retina from too much stimuli that may cause damage
Ciliospinal Reflex (ANS)
Kind of like pupillary Reflex
While stroking the skin (or the hairs) on the left side of the back of the subjects neck, the left
eye dilated and so did the right eye- indicating that the nerves are interconnected
Salivary Reflex (ANS)
Lemon Juice makes it more acidic and increases the amount of saliva inside once a few drops are
added
Parasympathetic division mediates the reflex release of saliva
Autonomic Reflexes:
Micturation
Organ: Bladder
Receptor stimulated: Visceral afferent impulse
Action of Effector: internal urethral sphincter opens so does external
Herring-Breuer:
Organ: Lungs
Receptor Stimulate: Stretch receptor
Action of Effector: inhabitation of inhalation and allows expiration to occur

Defecation:
Organ: Rectum
Receptor Stimulated: Stretch receptor
Action of Effector: relaxes and sphincter retracts sigmoid colon
Carotid sinus:
Organ: Dilation of internal carotid arteries
Receptors Stimulated: Baro receptor/ stretch receptor
Action of Effector: vaso dilation of arteries, veins and decline in BP
Somatic:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Gag reflex
Crossed extensor
Patellar reflex
Achilles reflex
Plantar reflex

Simple stretch of somatic reflex

1. Patellar reflex
2. Achilles reflex
Superficial cord reflex of somatic reflex
1. Plantar reflex
Reflex mediated by cranial nerves of somatic reflex
1. Gag reflex
Reflexes classified as Autonomic reflexes
1. Pupillary light reflex
2. Ciliospinal reflex
3. Salivary reflex
Interoceptor: located in BVs and viscera; provides info. From internal environment (pain, fatigue)
Exteroceptors: located near surface of body; provides info. From outside body (hearing, smell, touch,
temp)
Backing into a warm iron railing: Exteroceptors: Simple cutaneous receptor (nocioceptor)
Someone steps on your foot: Exteroceptors: Pacinian corpuscle

Reading a book: Exteroceptors: Photoreceptors

Leaning on your elbow: Exteroceptors: Ruffinis corpuscle
Doing sit-ups: Exteroceptors: Proprioceptors
The too-full sensation: Interoceptors: Visceral
Seasickness: Exteroceptors: equilibrium senses
Feeling the wind on your face: Exteroceptors: Simple cutaneous
Sticking your finger with a pin: Exteroceptors: simple cutaneous
Sensory receptors act as transducers because they change environmental stimuli into afferent nerve
impulses
Two-point discrimination:
How many receptors are on each cm2 of skin on different parts of the body (density of touch
receptors)
Lips and Fingertips most sensitive, back of hand and face least sensitive
Tactile localization (ability to discriminate which portion of the skin has been touched) was worse than
two-point discrimination
Palm of hand and back of neck worst
Fingertips best results
Receptors that respond to cold are more numerous than those that respond to heat
Referred Pain: a sensory experience in which pain is perceived as arising in one area of the body when in
fact another, often quite remote area is receiving the painful stimulus
Explanation: nerves of the viscera are interconnected with the nerves of somatic origin, making
the brain interpret the pain from multiple locations
Gallbladder: right side of chest
Kidney: Medial and lateral sides of upper tights, and the entire abdominopelvic region
Appendix: to the right of the ubilicas
Heart: chest wall and left shoulder
Adaptation: when stimulus is applied for a long time, the rate of receptor discharge slows, and
conscious feeling of stimulus declines

It is advantageous to have pain recetpors that are sensitive to all vigorous stimuli (cold, head, pressure)
because it reduces the need for multiple receptors
Non-adaptability of pain receptors is important for protection; pain often indicates tissue damage

Special Senses
Lateral rectus: moves the eye laterally
Medial rectus: moves the eye medially
Superior rectus: elevates the eye and moves it medially
Inferior oblique: elevates the eye and moves it laterally
Inferior rectus: depresses the eye and turns it medially
Superior oblique: depresses the eye and turns it laterally
Fibrous Tunic
1. Sclera: protects and shapes the eyeball and provides a sturdy anchoring site for the extrinsic eye
muscles
2. Cornea: lets light enter the eye; major part of the light-bending apparatus of the eye
3. Conjuctiva: creates mucus, which aids in lubricating the eyeball
Vascular Tunic
1. Choroid: BV rich, dark brown membrane; provides nutrition to all eye layers and helps absorb
light
2. Ciliary Body: encircles the lens; consists of smooth cilliary muscles important in controlling lens
shape
Suspensory ligaments: hold the lens in shape; attach lens to cilliary body
3. Iris: regulates the amount of light entering through the pupil
Made of two layers of smooth muscle:
o Circular: constricts pupil (anterior/constricts/ parasympathetic)
o Radial: dilates pupil (posterior/dilates/sympathetic)
Nervous tunic
1. Retina: absorbs light and prevent it from scattering in the eye
2. Optic disc (blind spot) where optic nerve exists eye

Vitreous humor:
transmits light,
2) supports the posterior surface of the lens and hold the neural retina firmly against the
pigmented layer, and
3) Contributes to intraocular pressure, helping counteract the pulling force of extrinsic eye
muscles.
Aqueous humor:

Clear fluid similar to blood plasma.

Forms and drains continually and is in constant motion.
Filters from the capillaries of the cilliary processes into the posterior chamber.
Supplies nutrients and oxygen to the lens and cornea and some cells of the retina and
carries away their metabolic wastes

Accommodation: Bulging of the lens in order to increase the refractory power

Tapetum lucidum: only in animals (not in humans)

function is to reflect the light within the eye

this is beneficial to the cow because it increases the amount of light
improves vision in low light condition
eyes glow in the dark

Highest Range Tunic fork was the most difficult to heart because most receptors are based for low range
Conduction deafness: occurs when something hampers sound conduction to the fluids of the internal
ear

ear wax
ruptured eardrum
middle ear inflammations (otitis media)
otosclerosis of the ossicles (hardening of the ear) (fusion of ossicles)

Sensorineural deafness: damage to the neural structures at any point from cochlear hair cells to and
including auditory cortical cells:

gradual loss of hair cells throughout life (can be destroyed by loud noise, high intensity sounds
degeneration of the cochlear nerve, cerebral infarcts and tumors in the auditory cortex

Nystagmus: involuntary rolling of the eyes in any directions or the trailing of the eyes slowly in one
direction, followed by rapid movement in the opposite direction
Vertigo: sensation of dizziness and rotational movement when such movement is not occurring or has
ceased due to dysfunction of the vestibular system in the inner ear

Taste:
3 sites where receptors for taste are found
1. Papillae (most)
2. Soft palate
3. Cheek mucosa
Circumvallate papillae: arranged in a V formation
Foliate papillae: side of tongue
Fungiform papillae: on top of the tongue (mushroom shaped)
Facial nerve (VII): 2/3 of the anterior tongue
Glossopharyngeal (IX): 1/3 of posterior tongue
Taste and smell receptors are both chemoreceptors because they both respond to chemicals in foods
and scents
Substance must dissolve in saliva, diffuse into taste pore, and contact the gustatory hairs. Dry tongue
cannot do this and thus little taste is noticed with it.
Salt-side of tongue
Bitter- back of tongue
Sour- side of tongue
Sweet- tip of tongue
Smell (80%) for appreciation of foods
Babies like bland food because they dont have tolerance for seasoned food like adults do
Nasal congestion blocks olfactory receptors ; blocks 80% of taste and thus causes a loss of palatability of
food
Olfactory adaptation: allows us to adapt to a smell so it becomes less noticeable