Study Guide: Advanced Bio Final Semester One

Jack Lavey
Chapter One:
1. Know the characteristics of life and related terminology: heterotroph,
autotroph, unicellular, multicellular, homeostasis, sexual reproduction,
asexual reproduction, metabolism.
Characteristics of Life: Organization & cells, homeostasis, response to stimuli,
reproduction, metabolism, adaptation, growth & development.
Heterotroph- Takes in nutrition
Autotroph- Makes its own nutrition
Uni/multicellular- One/multiple cells
Homeostasis- Regulation of the internal body to compensate for the outside
world
Sexual/Asexual Reproduction-No mate/mate reproduction
Metabolism- All chem. Processes that transform food into energy
2. Know the order and steps of the scientific method.
Observation ask question
Form a hypothesis
Experiment
Draw conclusions
Publish
3. Be able to identify a controlled experiment. Define or identify
hypothesis, control group, dependent variable, independent variable.
Hypothesis- ifthen statement
Control- Group that doesnt get altered
Dep Var- Thing thatll change bc of IV
IV- The thing that changes causing DV
4. What is SI. Know SI units and how to convert them.
SI- Standard Internationale units of measuremetric untisKHDbdcm
5. Be able to identify the parts of a compound light microscope and their
functions. Know how to calculate magnification.

Mag=eye lens x objective

Chapters Two and Three:

1. What is an element? A compound?
Element- Any pure substance from the periodic table
Compound- A mix of elements
2. Which three elements are most often found in organic compounds?
Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen
3. What is the structure of carbon and how does it bond with other
elements?
Carbon has 4 valence electrons, allowing it to easily make single, double,
triple, and even quadruple bonds.
4. What is a polar molecule?
Any molecule with an uneven distribution of charges.

5. Why is water important to life?

It is required for anything to live. It makes up about 70% of our bodies. It
helps in hydrogen bondingDNA replication It ionizes allowing it to be either
an acid or base.
6. Describe monomers and polymers in reference to biological molecules.
Monomers- A simple molecule that can combine to make polymers
Polymers- A large molecule made up of 5+ monomers.
7. Know the basic structure of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic
acids. Know the monomer in each chain, the elements found in each, and
examples of each.
Carbohydrates- C, H, O, soluble in water, monomer-sugar (monosaccharide),
Polymer- Starch (polysaccharide), function- provides immediate energy &
structure
Lipids- C, H, O, nonsoluble in water, monomer-fatty acids COOH one end polar
and one end nonpolar, polymer- triglycerides (E), function- energy storage,
insulation, cell membrane
Proteins- C, H, O, N, soluble in water, monomer- amino acids (20), polymerlong chain of amino acids, function- catalyze all chemical reactions on an
organism(enzymes)extremely important

Nucleic Acids- C, H, N, O, monomer- nucleotides (A,T,C,G,U), polymer- DNA &

RNA, function- carry and store genetic info
8. Are lipids soluble? If so, in what?
Not in water. Yes in oil.
9. What kind of molecule is an enzyme? What is its function? Why does it
speed up a chemical reaction? What is the lock and key theory as it
applies to enzymes?
Enzymes are proteins which catalyze chemical reactions by fitting in with
substrates through the lock & key method.

Chapters Four and Five

1.Describe the differences between plant and animal cells.
Plant cells are square with cell walls and water retaining vacuoles. Animal
cells are round with no vacuoles an

d have cell
membranes instead of cell walls.
2. Describe the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and
give examples of organisms that have each.
Prokaryotes- Single celled organism with no nucleus and membrane bound
organelles
Eukaryotes- The opposite

3. Know the different functions and locations of the cell organelles. Be

ableto identify organelles from a sketch.

4. Describe the structure of a cell membrane. How does a protein fit into
that structure?
The cell membrane is made of a lipid bilayer.
Proteins- Peripheral- on the surfaces of the membrane.
Integral- Embedded in the bilayer

5. List the order of organization in structures of living things from simplest

to most complex.
Atom, element, compound, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system
6. Describe the difference between active and passive transport.
Active- Passing things through the bilayer using energy (protein pump)

Passive- Passing things through the bilayer without using energy (regular
diffusion)
7. Describe diffusion and osmosis in terms of concentration.
Diffusion- movement from high low concentration
Osmosis- occurs when water comes in or out. Both concentration gradients
implicated.
--Turgor Pressure- Pressure of water on cell wall
--Cytolysis- Cell pops
--Plasmolysis- Membrane shrinks away from cell wall
--Hypertonic- Anything that makes water move outta cell
--Hypotonic- Anything that makes water move into cell
--Isotonic- Causes no movement of water
Chapters Six and Seven
1. Describe the events of light reactions.

2. Know the reactants and products of photosynthesis ad respiration, and

the equation for each process.
Photosynthesis- 6 H2O + 6 CO2 ---> C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Water + Carbon Dioxide yield Glucose + Oxygen
Cellular Respiration- C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (as ATP) glucose
and oxygen yields carbon dioxide and water.
3. What substance from the light reaction is the source of energy for the
dark reactions.
Glucose
4. Know what occurs during the dark reaction of photosynthesis.

5. Describe fermentation. What are two types? Under what conditions does
fermentation occur?
Fermentation- the anaerobic process in which pyruvate is converted into
ethyl alcohol or lactic acid.
Lactic acid fermentation occurs when the body needs quick energy, so it
basically starts using itself.
Ethanol fermentation occurs when things like yeast become ethanol
6. Know the net number of ATP molecules produced from one molecule of
glucose during glycolysis, fermentation, and respiration.
Glycolysis- 2 ATP
Fermentation- 2 ATP
Respiration- 34 ATP
7. Know where glycolysis and fermentation occur in the cell.
Glycolysis-Glucose breaking apart in the cytoplasm
Fermentation- Anaerobic occurs in the cytosol
8. Know the role of water in photosynthesis, and the role of oxygen in
respiration.
Water is used to change NADP+ to NADPH. In photosynthesis for use in the
Calvin Cycle.
Oxygen is used in respiration as the final electron acceptor in the ETC. It is
also the initial substrate needed to start glycolysis.
9. Know the terms pigment, photosystem, Calvin Cycle, Krebs Cycle,
photosynthetic membrane, chemiosmosis, proton pump.
Pigment-A substance that gives another substance or mixture its color
Photosystem-The thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts, a cluster of
chlorophyll and other pigment molecules, that harvest light energy for the
light reactions of photosynthesis

Calvin Cycle-A biological pathway of photosynthesis in which carbon dioxide

Is converted to glucose using ATP

Krebs Cycle-A series of biochemical reactions that convert pyruvic acid into

CO2 and H2O, releases energy.

Photosynthetic membrane-The area that contains the chloroplasts and

thylakoids, all of which are involved in photosynthesis.

Chemiosmosis- In chloroplasts and mitochondria, a process in which the

movement of protons down their concentration gradient across a membrane
is coupled to the synthesis of ATP

Proton Pump- integral membrane protein that is capable of moving protons

across a cell membrane

Chapter Eight
1. How is cell division related to the surface area to volume ratio of the
cell?
The smaller a cells surface area:volume, the less able it is to get nutrients all
the way through. This can be see using the agar lab. Big SA:V>small SA:V

2. Identify the components of a cell related to mitosis: chromatin, histone,

nucleosome, chromatid, centromere, chromosome, spindle fiber, nuclear
membrane.
From smallest to largest, the breakdown of a chromosome goes: Histone: The
protein that each DNA strand wraps aroundNucleosome-One DNA+Histone
unitChromatin-coils of nucleosomesChromatid-Chromatin wound tight
enough to make half of a chromosomeChromosome- Two chromatids made
of bunched up chromatin *Centromere- glues two chromatids together to
make a chromosome
Spindle Fibers- strings that form between centrioles in animal cells to assist
throughout mit/meiosis
Nuclear Membrane- The layer surrounding the nucleus which disappears in
prophase, then reappears during telophase
3. Know the stages of mitosis and meiosis and the events that take place in
each phase.
MITOSIS: The division of a cell for maturation purposes
Prophase- Chromosomes appear, nuclear things break down, centrioles
appear at the cells poles, spindle fibers appear

Metaphase- Spindle fibers move chromosomes to the cells equator

Anaphase- Chromatids split and move towards opposite poles

Telophase- Centrioles and spindles disappear, chromatids unwind into

chromatin, new nuclear membrane forms along with a nucleolus, cell plate
(plants or cleavage furrow (animals) forms, creates two DIPLOID (46

chromosomes) cells

MEIOSIS: The division of cells to create gametes

Meiosis I-separation of homologous chromosomes

Prophase I- Each chromosome finds its homologous chromosome to form
tetrads- a mosh of 2 homologous chromosomes
Metaphase I- Tetrads line up at the equator
Anaphase I- Homologous chromosomes separate
Telophase I- Two new cells are formed. These two cells dont have
homologous pairs, they have one complete set of replicated chromosomes.
Meiosis II- separation of sister chromatids
Prophase II- No DNA replication takes place. Each chromosome from meisis I
already contains two chromatids
Metaphase II- Chromosomes line up at equator.
Anaphase II- Sister chromatids split
Telophase II- Four new HAPLOID (23 chromosomes) cells are formed
4. How does the process of cytokinesis differ in plants and animals?
Cytokinesis-Division of a cells cytoplasm
Animals-cleavage furrow
Plants-cell plate
5. Know why meiosis occurs and in what types of cells it occurs.
Understand the difference between meiosis in human males and
females.
Mitosis- maturation and growth
Meiosis- creation of gametes
--males creates XY
--females creates XX

6. Be able to define haploid, diploid, gamete, somatic, tetrad, homologous,

crossing over.
Haploid- a cell with half of the chromosomes of an organism
Diploid- a cell with all of an organisms required chromosomes
Gamete- Sex cell (haploid)
Somatic- physically
Tetrad- a mixture of two homologous chromosomes
Crossing over- When two homologous chromosomes meet and cross sections
of their legs, causing a little bit of each other to be imprinted on the
othernothing is really identical
Chapter Nine
1. Know the difference between homozygous and heterozygous, and
recessive and dominant.
Homozygous (pure)- has identical alleles for a trait on both chromosomes ex.
NN
Heterozygous (hybrid)- has different alleles for a trait ex. Nn
Recessive- A trait which is written as a lowercase letter. These traits can be
passed genetically but do not show up until they find a homozygous match
(nn)
Dominant- A trait written as an uppercase letter. These traits are the ones
that show up in the organisms phenotype either hetero or homzygously
(Nn/NN)
2. Understand Punnet Squares and the probable results that the provide.
Know how to work Punnet Square problems and calculate probabilities.

3. Understand genotype and phenotype, genotypic ratio and phenotypic

ratio.
Genotype-the letters represented on the inner squares of a punnet square
problem
Phenotype- the physical trait each genotype produces
Genotypic ratio- the ratio of each genotypethe letters represented on the
inner squares of a punnet square problem
Phenotypic ratio- the ratio of each phenotype produced by the genotypic
ratio
4. Know why a large sample group is preferred when trying to match a
probability.
A large group allows for much better reliability. In small groups there can be
defects that may be counted as correct when they are in fact not. Gregor
Mendel knew this, so he tested thousands of pea plants.
5. Understand P1, F1, F2, etc.
P1-parental generation
F1- the P1s offspring
F2- the F1s offspring (not incest)
Usw, Usf.
6. Know how to solve genetic problems including gamete linked traits,
incomplete dominance, co-dominance , and two factor crosses.
To solve sex linked problems, you must include for females XtraitXtrait, and for
males XtraitY.
Incomplete dominance- when neither allele wins out in the end, resulting in a
mixed phenotype like a pink rose
Co-dominance- when both alleles are visible in the phenotype like a red and
white rose
Two factor crosses
7. Know how to interpret a pedigree.

Chapter Ten **more questions on this chapter than the others

1. Know the structure of DNA, what makes up a nucleotide, types of
bonding in the DNA molecule. Know which part of the molecule carries
the genetic code. Know where the DNA is located in the cell, and how it
can be extracted from a cell.
DNAs structure is a double helix made up of many nucleotides.
Each nucleotide is made up of a base, phosphate, and a deoxyribose.
The bases in DNA are all bonded using weak hydrogen bonds which allow for
easy unzipping later.
The sugar/phosphate backbone is connected using strong covalent bonds.
The bases carry all of the genetic information.
DNA is located in the inner nucleus of the cell.
It can be extracted by the process described in the kiwi DNA extraction lab. In
short, several barriers leading up to the nucleus must be broken down in
order to get to the DNA.
2. Describe the process of DNA replication. Know the roles of enzymes,
and the semi-conservative nature of the process. Understand the
importance of 3 to 5 orientation of the DNA strands.

First DNA helicase breaks the hydrogen bonds between each baseat the
replication fork DNA polymerase move along the strand and add free
nucleotides according to base pairs. Covalent bonds form between the sugar
of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next. Hydrogen bonds form
between the basespolymerases detachDNA synthesis occurs in opposite
directions on each strand. The strand copying in the opposite direction of the
replication fork creates small okazaki fragments that later fuse together with
ligase.
Enzymes involved:
Topoisomerase- Prepares the DNA to be unwound by nicking it
DNA Helicase- Unwinds the DNA
DNA Binding Proteins- Make sure the original strands dont come back
together

RNA Primase- Marks where RNA Polymerase will start

DNA Polymerase- Adds nucleotides, replaces RNA with DNA
Ligase- Connects DNA with covalent bonds
Semi-Conservative- of the created is new and is old
3, and 5, importance-

3. Know the contributions of the scientists who led to the discovery of

DNAs structure.
Frederick Griffin- Found that genetic info could be transferred to another
cell-transformation 1928
Oswald Avery- Found that DNA, not RNA causes transformation. 1940s
Martha Chase and Alfred Hershey- Found that viruses inject DNA when they
infect bacterium. 1952
Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins- Took pictures of DNA crystals using
x-ray diffraction. Early 1950s
James Watson and Francis Crick- Double helix structure proposed. 1953
4. Know the three different forms of RNA, their structures, and how DNA
differs from RNA.
Messenger RNA- single stranded, contains codons,

Transfer RNA- clover leaf shape, anti codon on one end, specific amino acid

attached to the other end

Ribosomal RNA- in ribosomes
5. Understand the process of protein synthesis. Describe the role of DNA
and all the forms of RNA in this process. Know the location in the cell for
each part of this process.
Messenger RNA copies a particular strand of DNA in the nucleus by matching
up with its respective base pair. Starts when RNA polymerase splits specific
section of DNA. RNA stops copying at stop sognal-transcription
mRNA then goes out of the nucleus to a ribosome. It bonds to AUG start
codon. A tRNA with the complementary anti-codon also bonds with it,
Peptide bonds start to form between this process amino acids. Amino acid
chain grows until it reaches a stop codon. The polypeptide (baby protein) is

then shipped off for completion.-translation

6. Be able to convert the genetic code from its representation in DNA,

mRNA, tRNA, and amino acid sequences (using a chart like the one in
the book).

7. Know the importance of proteins in cellular function, why the shape of

proteins is important, and what determines a proteins shape.
Proteins catalyze every chemical reaction in the body. Wed be very dead
without them.
Protein shape is important because their shape fits in with specific substrates
in order to react.

This shape is determined by attraction of amino acids to each other through

hydrogen bonds. This creates bends in the protein, giving each one a unique
shape.
8. Describe how replication and protein synthesis differ in prokaryotic
and eukaryotic organisms.
Prokaryotic DNA is arranged in a circular shape, and there is only one
replication origin when replication starts. By contrast, eukaryotic DNA is
linear; it does not connect end to end to form a circle. When it is replicated,
there are as many as 1000 replication origins. Despite these differences,
however, the underlying process of replication is the same for both
prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA.
9. Explain the role the enzymes play in replication and protein synthesis.
They do all of the processes of splitting, preparing, nicking, copying, etc. of
DNA.
Lorenzos Oil
1. Know the name of the disease that afflicted Lorenzo. Be able to explain
its cause, how it is inherited, its symptoms, and its treatment.
Loernzo was afflicted with ALD (Adreno leuko dystrophy).
It is a genetic disease inherited from the mother that only appears in boys
aged 5-10.
It is caused by excess triglycerides in the blood stream which break down the
signal sending structure myosin in the brain, causing the brain to basically
liquefy if untreated.
Its symptoms are bad balance, weak hearing, insanity, seizures, blindness,
deafness, muteness, dementia, quadriplegia, coma, death, etc.
Its treatment is