EE2001

Circuit Theory
Professor Wen Changyun
S2-B2-b45
Email: ecywen@ntu.edu.sg
Homepage:
www.ntu.edu.sg/home/ecywen
1

Topics (to be covered)

Energy Storage Elements and Transient Responses (6 hours)
Laplace Transforms in Circuit Analysis (6 hours)
Textbook:
1. Alexander Charles K and Sadiku Matthew N O, Fundamentals
of Electric Circuits, 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2009.
References:
1. Nilsson James William and Riedel Susan A, Electric Circuits,
9th Edition, Pearson/Prentice- Hall, 2011.
2. Hayt William Hart, Kemmerly Jack Ellsworth and Durbin Steven
M, Engineering Circuit Analysis, 8th Edition,McGraw-Hill,
2012.
2

Energy Storage Elements

1
2
3
4
5

Capacitors
Series and Parallel Capacitors
Inductors
Series and Parallel Inductors
Mutual Inductance

Capacitors
A capacitor is a passive element designed
to store energy in its electric field.
It is a two terminal device that consists of two
conducting plates separated by an insulator (or
dielectric).

Capacitors
Capacitance C is the ratio of the charge q on one
plate of a capacitor to the voltage difference v
between the two plates, measured in farads (F).

q=C v

and

C=

A
d

where is the permittivity of the dielectric material

between the plates, A is the surface area of each
plate, d is the distance between the plates.
Unit: F, pF (1012), nF (109), and F (106)
5

Capacitors
If i is flowing into the +ve
terminal of C
Charging => i is +ve
Discharging => i is ve

The current-voltage relationship of capacitor

according to above convention is

dv
i=C
dt

or

1
v=
C

t0

i d t + v(t0 )
6

Example 1
The current through a 100-F capacitor is

i(t) = 50 sin(120 t) mA.

Calculate the voltage across it at t =1 ms
and t = 5 ms. Take v(0) =0.

Example 2
An initially uncharged 1-mF capacitor has the
current shown below across it.
Calculate the voltage across it at t = 2 ms and
t = 5 ms.

Important notes on capacitors behaviour:

i = 0 when v is constant. Hence, a capacitor
acts like an open circuit to a DC voltage.
When the voltage changes, the corresponding
current is nonzero. The more rapidly v changes,
the larger is i.
An abrupt or instantaneous change in voltage
requires an infinite current (meaning infinite
power), which is physically impossible.
Thus, abrupt or instantaneous changes in
voltages across capacitor are not possible, even
though the current may be discontinuous.
9

DC steady-state operating condition

Suppose all the independent sources in a circuit

are DC sources. For a sufficient long time, all
currents and voltages in the circuit settle down to
constant values. Then the circuit is said to be in a
DC steady state.

10

Example 3

11

Power and Energy

The power in a capacitor is

dv
dt

p = vi = Cv
The energy in a capacitor at time t is

wC (t ) =

p dt =

vi dt =

dv
C v dt = C
dt

1 2
1 2
wC (t ) = Cv (t ) - Cv ()
2
2
1 2
= Cv (t ), as v() = 0
2
Example 4:
For a capacitor of 1F, with 10 V across it, the energy
stored is
1 2 1
2

wC =

Cv =

1 10 = 50J

v di

Example 5:
Obtain the energy stored in each capacitor
in the figure shown under dc conditions.
Under dc conditions, the capacitors act
like open-circuits as shown below:

13

Series and Parallel Capacitors

i = i1 + i2 + ... + iN
= C1

dv
dv
dv
+ C2
+ ... + C N
dt
dt
dt

i = (C1 + C2 + ... + C N )
= Ceq

dv
dt

dv
dt

The equivalent capacitance of N parallelconnected capacitors is the sum of the individual

capacitances.

C eq = C1 + C 2 + ... + C N

14

Series and Parallel Capacitors

v = v1 + v2 + ... + vN
=

1 t
1 t
t0 i dt + v1 (t0 ) +
t0 i dt + v2 (t0 )
C1
C2
+ ... +

1 t
i dt + vN (t0 )
C N t0

1 t
1
1
1 t
i
dt
+
v
t
=
+
+
+
(
)
(
...
) t i dt
t0
eq 0
Ceq
C1 C2
CN 0
+ v1 (t0 ) + v2 (t0 ) + ... + vN (t0 )

The equivalent capacitance of N series-connected

capacitors is the reciprocal of the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual capacitances.
1
1
1
1
=
+
+ ... +
C eq C1 C 2
CN
Equivalent initial voltage

veq (t0 ) = v1 (t0 ) + v2 (t0 ) + ... + vN (t0 )

15

Example 6
Find the equivalent
capacitance seen at
the terminals of the
circuit in the circuit
shown :

16

Example 7
Find the voltage across
each of the capacitors
in the circuit shown

Note that

q3 = C3 v3 =
Then

v3 C4 1

=
=
q4 = C4 v4
v4 C3 2

v3 + v4 = 3v3 = 30 v3 = 10

v4 = 20

17

Inductors
An inductor is a two terminal device designed
to store energy in its magnetic field.
An inductor consists of a coil of conducting wire.

18

Inductors
The current-voltage relationship of an inductor:
or

1 t
i = v(t) d t + i(t0 )
L t0

where i(t0) is the current buildup from -

to t0 and L is the inductance

The unit of inductors is Henry (H), mH (103)

and H (106).
19

Power and energy

The power in an inductor is

di
p = vi = Li
dt
The energy stored in an inductor is

wL (t ) =

p dt =

vi dt =

di
L i dt = L
dt

1 2
wL (t ) = Li (t ) J , as i () = 0
2

i di

Example 8
The terminal voltage of a 2-H inductor is
v = 10(1-t) V
Find the current flowing through it at
t = 4 s and the energy stored in it
within 0 < t < 4 s. Assume i(0) = 2 A.

21

22

Example 9

23

Example 10
Determine vc, iL, and the
energy stored in the capacitor
and inductor in the circuit of
circuit shown under dc conditions.
Under dc conditions, the
circuit is equivalent to
6
iL =
4 = 3A
6+2

24

Example 11
Suppose the switch in the RLC circuit has been
closed for long time before it is open at t= 0. Find
the voltage v and current i at t= 0+.

25

26

Series-parallel connections of inductance

Inductors in series share the same current,
v1 = L1

di
dt

; v2 = L2

di
dt

; v3 = L3

v = v1 + v2 + v3 = ( L1 + L2 + L3 )

di
dt

For n inductors in series,

Leq = L1 + L2 + ... + LN

di
dt

 Inductors in parallel have the same voltage,

1 t
1
i1 = v d + i1 ( t0 ) ; i2 =
L1 t0
L2

t0

v d + i2 ( t0 )

1
; i3 =
L3

1 1 1 t
i = i1 + i2 + i3 = + + v d + i1 ( t0 ) + i2 ( t0 ) + i3 ( t0 )
t
L1 L3 L3 0
For n inductors in parallel,

1
1
1
1
=
+
+ ... +
Leq L1 L2
LN
Equivalent initial current,

i ( t0 ) = i1 ( t0 ) + i2 ( t0 ) + i3 ( t0 ) + " + in ( t0 )

t0

v d + i3 ( t0 )

Example 12
Calculate the equivalent inductance for the
inductive ladder network in the circuit
shown below:

29

Mutual Inductance
When two coils are linked by
magnetic field, the voltage induced
across one coil is related to the
time-varying current in the other
coil due to mutual inductance

30

 How to determine the polarity of the induced voltages?

If a current enters the dotted terminal of one coil, the

reference polarity of the mutual voltage in the second coil
is positive at the dotted terminal of the second coil.

31

Example 13

32

T-equivalent circuit for magnetically

coupled coils
For coil 1,
R1

di1
di2
+ M
v1 = i1R1 + L1
dt
dt
di
d
v1 = i1R1 + (L1 - M ) 1 + M (i1 + i2 )
dt
dt

+
v1

i1

R2
+
L2

L1

v2

i2

For coil 2,

di2
di
+ M 1
dt
dt
di
d
v2 = i2 R2 + (L2 - M ) 2 + M (i1 + i2 )
dt
dt
v2 = i2 R2 + L2

The circuit is equivalent to that

on the right

+
v1
-

R1
i1

(L1-M)
M

(L2-M)

R2
i2

+
v2
-

 The coupling coefficient, k, is a measure of the

magnetic coupling between two coils; 0k1.

M = k L1 L2

34

Summary:
Current, voltage and energy relationships for L and C
Circuit
Element

Voltage

Capacitor

1 t
dv
v = t i d t + v(t0 ) i = C
dt
C 0

Inductors

Current

Energy

1
wC (t )= Cv 2 (t )
2

1 t
1
i = v(t) d t + i(t0 ) wL (t ) = Li 2 (t )
2
L t0

35

 DC steady-state operating condition

If all the independent sources in a circuit are DC sources, such as batteries or

sufficient long time,

as all currents and voltages

current sources, for a
settle down to constant values, the circuit is said to be in a DC steady state.
At DC steady state:
Capacitors act like Open Circuits, ic = 0
Inductors act like Short Circuits, vL = 0

Note, when a switch is opened or closed at t = 0,

vC(0-) = vC(0) = vC(0+)
iL(0-) = iL(0) = iL(0+)

Energy
1
wC (t ) = Cv 2 (t )
2

wL (t ) =

1 2
Li (t )
2

Series and Parallel Capacitors

1
1
1
1
=
+
+ ... +
C eq C1 C 2
CN

C eq = C1 + C 2 + ... + C N

Series and Parallel Inductors

Leq = L1 + L2 + ... + LN

1
1
1
1
=
+
+ ... +
Leq L1 L2
LN

Mutual Inductance
dot convention
T-equivalent circuit for magnetically
coupled coils
coupling coefficient k

37

Exercises ( Problems in Chapter 6 of the textbook)

6.4

Ans: 1.75 0.75 cos 4t V

6.9

Ans: 13.624 V, 70.66 W

6.16

Ans:

6.46

Ans: 0V, 4A, 0J, 4J

6.56

Ans:

20 F

5
L
8

6.60, Ans: -30e2t V,

6.64

(3e2t + 1) A

Ans: 120V, 0V

Also try problems 6.39 to 6.41 in Reference 1.

38

EE2001
Circuit Theory
First--Order Circuits
First

First--Order Circuits
First
1
2
3
4
5

The Source-Free RC Circuit

The Source-Free RL Circuit
Unit-step Function
Step Response of an RC Circuit
Step Response of an RL Circuit

The SourceSource-Free
RC Circuit
A first-order circuit is characterized by a firstorder differential equation.
By KCL

iR iC 0
Ohms law

v
dv
C
0
R
dt
Capacitor law

Apply Kirchhoffs laws to purely resistive circuit results in

algebraic equations.
Apply the laws to RC and RL circuits produces differential
equations.

The SourceSource-Free
RC Circuit
The natural response of a circuit refers to the behavior
(in terms of voltages and currents) of the circuit itself,
with no external sources of excitation.

After switching
at t = 0+

As voltage across capacitor cannot change abruptly,

v 0 v 0 v 0 Vg V0
We can solve for the natural response with the initial
condition v(0)=V0

v(t)=V0e-t/RC for t>0

Define

=RC
is called the time constant.

v(t ) V0 e t /
5

 The time constant of a circuit is the time required for the

response to decay by a factor of 1/e or 36.8% of its initial value.

v decays faster for small and slower for large .

Time constant

RC

Calculation of the natural response of

an RC circuit
The key to working with a source-free RC circuit is
finding:
1. The initial voltage v(0) = V0
across the capacitor.
2. The time constant = RC.

v(t ) V0 e

t /

where

RC

Example 1

Refer to the circuit, determine

vC, vx, and io for t 0.
Assume that vC(0) = 30 V.
The circuit is equivalent to

Example 2

The switch in circuit is

opened at t = 0, find
v(t) for t 0.
When t < 0, the switch is closed as
shown in Fig. (a).

When t > 0, the switch is open as

shown in Fig. (b).

Example 3

10

11

The SourceSource-Free
RL Circuit
A first-order RL circuit consists of an
inductor L (or its equivalent) and a resistor (or
its equivalent)
By KVL

vL vR 0
di
L
iR 0
dt

Inductors law

Ohms law

di
R
dt
i
L

i (t ) I 0 e

Rt / L
12

A general form representing an RL

i (t ) I 0 e
where

t /

The time constant of a circuit is the time required for

the response to decay by a factor of 1/e or 36.8% of its
initial value.
i(t) decays faster for small and slower for large .
The general form is very similar to a RC source-free
circuit.

13

Comparison between a RL and RC circuit

A RL source-free circuit

i (t ) I 0 e

t /

where

A RC source-free circuit

v(t ) V0 e t /

where

RC

14

The key to working with a source-free

circuit is finding:

RL

1. The initial voltage i(0) = I0 through the

inductor.
2. The time constant = L/R.

i(t ) I 0 e t /

where

15

Example 4
Find i and vx in the circuit.
Assume that i(0) = 5 A.

Applying mesh analysis gives

16

Example 5

For the circuit,

find i(t) for t > 0.

17

Unit--Step Function
Unit
The unit step function u(t) is 0 for negative
values of t and 1 for positive values of t.

0,
u (t )
1,

t0
t0

0,
u(t to )
1,

t to
t to

0,
u(t to )
1,

t to
t to

18

Represent an abrupt change for:

1. voltage source.

2.

for current source:

19

The StepStep-Response
of a RC Circuit
The step response of a circuit is its behavior when the
excitation is the step function, which may be a voltage
or a current source.
Initial condition:
v(0-) = v(0+) = V0
Applying KCL,

dv v Vs u (t )
c
0
dt
R
or

v Vs
dv

u (t )
dt
RC
Where u(t) is the unit-step function

20

For t>0

21

The Step
Step--Response
of an RC Circuit
V0
v(t )
t /
V

(
V

V
)
e
0
s
s

Final value
at t ->

t0
t 0

Initial value
at t = 0

Complete Response = Natural response + Forced Response

(stored energy)
(independent source)

= V0et/

Vs(1et/)
22

The Step
Step--Response
of an RC Circuit
Three steps to find out the step response
of an RC circuit:
1. The initial capacitor voltage v(0).
2. The final capacitor voltage v() DC
voltage across C.
3. The time constant .

v (t ) v () [v (0) v ()] e

t /

23

Example 6

Find v(t) for t > 0 in the circuit.

Assume the switch has been
open for a long time and is closed
at t = 0. Calculate v(t) at t = 0.5.

24

The StepStep-response
of a RL Circuit
The step response of a circuit is its behavior when the
excitation is the step function, which may be a voltage or
a current source.

Initial current
i(0-) = i(0+) = Io

Final inductor current

i() = Vs/R

Time constant = L/R

Vs
Vs
i(t ) ( I o )e u(t )
R
R

25

For t>0,

26

The StepStep-Response
of a RL Circuit
Three steps to find out the step response
of an RL circuit:
1. The initial inductor current i(0) at t = 0+.
2. The final inductor current i().
3. The time constant .

i (t ) i () [i (0) i ()] e t /

27

Example 7

The switch in the circuit has

been closed for a long time.
It opens at t = 0. Find i(t)
for t > 0.
Applying source transformation, the circuit is equivalent to

At t < 0, the switch is closed so that

the 5 ohm resistor is short circuited.

For t > 0, the switch is open.

28

Example 8
The switch in the circuit has been open for a long time. At t = 0 the switch is closed.
Find the expression for i(t) when t 0
At t < 0, switch is open and the inductor acts
as an short-circuit.
The initial value of i,

20
i(0 )
5A
1+3
After the switch is closed, the 3 resistor is bypassed.

L 80m

0.08s
R
1

i t i i 0

20V

20
i ()
20A
1

i e

20 5 20 e

0.08

i(t)
+
v(t)
-

80mH

20 15e12.5t A, t 0

Exercise

Show that

i(t)=25+25(1-e-t/2)u(t) A

30

Summary: The general solution of a variable:

x(t ) x f [ x (t0 ) x f ]e
Final Value
SteadyState

( t t0 )

Time Constant
Initial Value

Steps to compute step and natural

responses of circuits

Identify the variable of interest for the circuit.

For RC circuits, it is most convenient to choose the
capacitive voltage.
For RL circuits, it is best to choose the inductive
current.
Determine the initial value of the variable, which is its
value at time t = t0.
Calculate the final value of the variable, which is its value
as t .
Calculate the time constant for the circuit.
With these quantities, write out the solution using the
above general expression
Three key values: initial value, final value and time
constant

32

Exercises ( Problems in Chapter 7 of the textbook)

7.7

Ans: [6 + 2et/20] V for all t > 0.

7.10

Ans: 15e16.667t V, 65.92 ms.

7.14

Ans:

7.44:

Ans:

7.48

Ans:

7.50:

Ans: 7.5 3 e -4t mA, t 0

7.56:

Ans:

- 4 e -20t V

7.64:

Ans:

1.6667 1 e - t V

0.2083 s

- 3 e -0.25t A

2e-t 3 A

60 e -t 3 V ,

33

EE2001
Circuit Theory
Second--Order Circuits
Second

Second--Order Circuits
Second
1
2
3
4
5

Examples of 2nd order RCL circuit

The source-free series RLC circuit
The source-free parallel RLC circuit
Step response of a series RLC circuit
Step response of a parallel RLC

Examples of Second
Order RLC circuits
What is a 2nd order circuit?
A second-order circuit is characterized by a secondorder differential equation. It consists of resistors
and the equivalent of two energy storage elements.

RLC Series

RLC Parallel

RL T-config

RC Pi-config
3

Source-Free Series
SourceRLC Circuits
The solution of the source-free
series RLC circuit is called as the
natural response of the circuit.
The circuit is excited by the energy
initially stored in the capacitor and
inductor.

The 2nd
order of
expression

d 2 i R di i

0
2
L dt LC
dt

How to derive and how to solve?

General solution of second-order

differential equation

Source-Free Series
SourceRLC Circuits
Solutions for the following 2nd order differential
equation:

d 2 i R di i

0
2
L dt LC
dt

d 2i
di
2

2
a

w
0i 0
2
dt
dt

where

R
a
2L

1
and w0
LC

General 2nd order Form

Characteristic Equation:

s 2 2a s w02 0

The types of solutions for i(t) depend

on the relative values of a and w.

Corresponding to the solutions of the following 2nd

order characteristic equation, there are three
possible responses for the RLC circuit
a

s 2 2a s w02 0

w0

1. If a > wo, over-damped case

i(t ) A1e s1t A2e s2t

2
where s1, 2 a a w0

2. If a = wo, critical damped case

i(t ) ( A2 A1t )eat

where

s1, 2 a

3. If a < wo, under-damped case

i(t ) e at ( B1 cosw d t B2 sin w d t ) where wd w02 a 2

9

Finding Initial Values

To find the coefficients in the solutions, the
initials v(0) [or i(0)] and dv(0)/dt [or di(0)/dt]
are required.
Two key points:
1) At t = 0, time instant of switching (or change in circuit)
Voltage across capacitor cannot change abruptly,
vC(0-) = vC(0) = vC(0+)
Current through inductor cannot change abruptly,
iL(0-) = iL(0) = iL(0+)
2) At t = 0-, which is usually corresponding to steady state of
the circuit before switching

A capacitor acts like an open circuit to a DC voltage

An inductor acts as a short circuit to a DC current
10

Example 1
The circuit was open for a long
time, but closed at t = 0.
Determine i(0+), v(0+),
di(0+)/dt, d v(0+)/dt.
At t = 0-, the equivalent circuit is
i(0+)=
v(0+)=
At t = 0+, the equivalent circuit is .

But at node a, KCL gives

11

Example 2

If R = 10 , L = 5 H, and
C = 2 mF, find a , w0 , s1, s2

What type of natural

response will the circuit
have?

12

Example 3
The circuit has reached steady
state at t = 0-. If the switch
moves to position b at t = 0,
calculate i(t) for t > 0.
For t < 0, the inductor acts like a
short circuit.

The voltage across the capacitor is

For t > 0, we have a source-free RLC circuit.

13

i(t) = e2.5t[5cos1.6583t 7.538sin1.6583t] A

14

Source-Free Parallel
SourceRLC Circuits
0

Let

1
i (0) I 0 v (t ) dt
L

v(0) = V0
Apply KCL to the top node:
t

v 1
dv
vdt C 0
R L
dt

Taking the derivative with

respect to t and dividing by C

The 2nd
order of
expression

d 2 v 1 dv 1

v 0
2
RC dt LC
dt
15

That is:

d 2v
dv

2
a
w02v 0
2
dt
dt

where a

1
1
and w0
2RC
LC

The corresponding characteristic equation is:

s 2 2a s w02 0
There are three possible solutions for the 2nd
order differential equation:
1. If a > wo, over-damped case

v(t ) A1 e s1t A2 e s2t where

s1, 2 a a 2 w0

2. If a = wo, critical damped case

v(t ) ( A2 A1t ) e at where s1, 2 a
3. If a < wo, under-damped case

v(t ) e at ( B1 coswd t B2 sin wd t ) where

wd w02 a 2

16

Example 4

Refer to the circuit.

Find v(t) for t > 0.

17

v(t) = 100(e10t e2.5t) V

18

Step--Response Series
Step
RLC Circuits
The step response
is obtained by the
sudden application
of a dc source.
The 2nd
order of
expression

vs
d 2 v R dv v

2
L dt LC LC
dt

The above equation has the same form as the equation

for source-free series RLC circuit.

The same coefficients (important in determining the

frequency parameters).

19

The solution of the equation should have two components:

the transient (source-free) response vt(t) & the steady-state
response vss(t):

v (t ) vt (t ) v ss (t )
The transient response vt is the same as that for sourcefree case
vt (t ) A1e s1t A2e s2t

(over-damped)

vt (t ) ( A1 A2t )e at

(critically damped)

vt (t ) e at ( A1 coswd t A2 sin wd t ) (under-damped)

The steady-state response is the final value of v(t).
vss(t) = v()
The values of A1 and A2 are obtained from the initial conditions:
v(0) and dv(0)/dt.

20

Example 5

Having been in position for

a long time, the switch in
the circuit below is moved
to position b at t = 0. Find
v(t) and vR(t) for t > 0.
The initial capacitor voltage: v(0) = [2/(2 + 1)]12 = 8V
The initial inductor current:

i(0) = 0.

When the switch is in position b, we have

21

We now impose the initial conditions to get A1 and A2.

The initial capacitor current is the same as the initial inductor current.

v(t) = {10 + [(2cos3.464t 1.1547sin3.464t)e2t]} V

vR(t)= [2.31sin3.464t]e2t V

22

Step--Response Parallel
Step
RLC Circuits
The step response
is obtained by the
sudden application
of a dc source.
The 2nd
order of
expression

d 2i 1 di i
Is

2
dt RC dt LC LC

It has the same form as the equation for source-free

parallel RLC circuit.

The same coefficients (important in determining the

frequency parameters).

23

The solution of the equation should have two components:

the transient (source-free) response vt(t) & the steady-state
response vss(t):

i(t ) it (t ) iss (t )
The transient response it is the same as that for source-free case
it (t ) A1e s1t A2e s2t

(over-damped)

it (t ) ( A1 A2t )e at

(critical damped)

it (t ) e at ( A1 coswd t A2 sin wd t )

(under-damped)

The steady-state response is the final value of i(t).

iss(t) = i() = Is
The values of A1 and A2 are obtained from the initial conditions:
i(0) and di(0)/dt.
24

Example 6

Find i(t) and v(t) for

t > 0 in the circuit
When t < 0, v(0) = 0, i(0) = 0;
for t > 0,

25

Summary: Source Free Responses of RLC Circuits

1. Set up the characteristic equation for the circuit
s 2 2a s w02 0
1. Find

1
2RC

; w0

1
LC

or

For parallel RLC circuit

R
1
a
; w0
2L
LC
For series RLC circuit

3. Decide the form of the response (based on the characteristic roots)

w02 < 2

s1,2 a a 2 w0 2

w02 = 2

s1,2 a

w02 > 2

s1,2 a jwd

x(t ) A1es1t A2es2t

a t
x ( A2 At
)
e
1

, wd w02 a 2

x B1ea t cos wd t B2ea t sin wd t

4. Calculate initial values vC(0+ ) and dvC(0+ ) /dt or iL(0+ ) and diL(0+ ) /dt
5. Find the parameters A1 and A2, or B1 and B2.

Summary: Step Responses of RLC Circuits

The solution should have two components:
the transient (source-free) response xt(t) & the steady-state
response xss(t):

x(t ) xt (t ) xss (t )

The transient response xt is the same as that for source-free case

The steady-state response is the final value of x(t).
xss(t) = x()
Calculate initial values vC(0+ ) and dvC(0+ ) /dt or iL(0+ ) and diL(0+ ) /dt
Find the parameters A1 and A2, or B1 and B2.

27

Exercises ( Problems in Chapter 8 of the textbook)

8.4

Ans: 1.25A, 6.25V ; 10 V/s, 40 A/s; 625 mA, 1.875 V

8.21

Ans: (18e-t 2e-9t) V

8.24

Ans: (12cos(19.365t) + 3.098sin(19.365t)) e5t A

8.31:

Ans: 80 V, 40 V

8.42:

Ans: {-12 + [(4cos4t + 3sin4t)e-3t]} A

8.48

Ans: (4 4t)e2t] A, (4 + 8t)e-2t V

8.50:

Ans: (9 + 2e-10t -8e-2.5t )A

28

EE2001
Circuit Theory
Introduction to the
Laplace Transform

Reasons of Using Laplace Transform

Definition of Laplace Transform
Properties of Laplace Transform
The Inverse Laplace Transform
The Convolution Integral
Application to Integro-differential
Equation

Reasons of Using Laplace

Transform (LT)
Main Reasons:
Integro-differential time-domain complex analysis
is avoided; freq-domain analysis involves simple
calculations.
LT can be applied to a wide variety of inputs.
Initial charges (initial conditions) on capacitors
and inductors can be easily incorporated.
In one single operation, the LT enables us to
obtain the total response of the circuit consisting
of both natural and forced responses!
3

Main Idea of Using LT in Circuit Analysis:

Transform the circuit from the timedomain to the frequency-domain.

Obtain the solution of algebraic

equations in the frequency-domain.
Finally apply the inverse LT to the freqdomain results, in order to obtain the
solution in the time-domain.
4

Solution Process of LP and Comparison

with That of Classical Approach

Definition of Laplace Transform

Given a time-domain function f(t), its

Laplace transform is denoted as F(s)
or L[f(t)] , and given by

L[ f (t )] F ( s)

f (t ) e

st

dt

where s is a complex variable given

by

s j

 s has dimensions of frequency and

units of seconds inverse.
Lower limit 0 in LT equation is used as to
indicate a time just before t=0. The idea is
to capture singularity functions (which may
be discontinuous) at t=0 (thus including
initial conditions).
Since f(t) is ignored for t<0, the LT is also
known as the unilateral (1-sided) transform!
Functions

f (t ) F ( s ) are called LT pair.

7

Definition of Laplace Transform

Example 1
Determine the Laplace transform of each of the
following functions shown below:

Definition of Laplace Transform

Solution:
a) The Laplace Transform of unit step, u(t) is
given by

Lu(t )

st
1e dt
0

1 st 1
e

0
s
s

Definition of Laplace Transform

Solution:
b) The Laplace Transform of exponential
function, e-atu(t),a>0 is given by

L e

a t

u(t )

a t st
e e dt
0

1 (a s )t
1

0
as
s a

10

Definition of Laplace Transform

Solution:
c) The Laplace Transform of impulse function,
(t) is given by

L (t )

st
(t )e dt
0

11

Properties of Laplace Transform

Linearity:
If F1(s) and F2(s) are, respectively, the Laplace
Transforms of f1(t) and f2(t)

La1 f1 (t ) a2 f 2 (t ) a1 F1 ( s) a2 F2 ( s)
Example:

L cos(t )u(t ) L 1 e jt e jt u (t )

1
1
1
s
[

] 2
2
2 s j s j
s
12

Example:

L sin(t )u(t )

1 jt

jt
L
e e
u (t )
2 j

1
1
1
[

]
2 j s j s j

2
s 2
13

Properties of Laplace Transform

Scaling:
If F (s) is the Laplace Transforms of f (t), then

Example:

1 s
L f (at) F ( )
a a

L sin(2t )u (t )
2 s 2
2

2
2
2
s 4
14

Properties of Laplace Transform

Time Shift:
If F (s) is the Laplace Transforms of f (t), then

L f (t a)u (t a) e

as

F ( s)

Example:

L cos( (t a ))u (t a ) e

as

s
2
2
s
15

Properties of Laplace Transform

Frequency Shift:
If F (s) is the Laplace Transforms of f (t), then

Le

at

f (t )u (t ) F ( s a)

Example:

Le

at

sa
cos(t )u(t )
( s a) 2 2
16

Properties of Laplace Transform

Time Differentiation:
If F (s) is the Laplace Transforms of f (t), then
the Laplace Transform of its derivative is

Example:

df

L u(t ) sF (s) f (0 )
dt

1 d

L cos(t )u(t) L
sin(t )u(t)
dt

[s 2
sin(0)]
2
s

s
2
s 2
17

Properties of Laplace Transform

Time Integration:
If F (s) is the Laplace Transforms of f (t), then
the Laplace Transform of its integral is
t
1

L f (t )dt F ( s)
0
s

Example:

In General

L t L 0 u (t )dt

11 1

2
s
ss

n!
L t n1
s
n

18

Properties of Laplace Transform

Frequency Differentiation:
If F(s) is the Laplace Transforms of f (t), then the
derivative with respect to s, is
dF( s)
Ltf (t )
ds

Example:

d
1
at

L te u (t )
ds ( s a )

2
( s a)
19

Properties of Laplace Transform

Initial and Final Values:
The initial-value and final-value properties allow
us to find the initial value f(0) and f() of f(t)
directly from its Laplace transform F(s).
Initial-value theorem

f (0) lim sF (s)

Final-value theorem

f () lim sF (s)

s0

20

Useful LT pairs

21

The Inverse Laplace Transform

Example
Find the inverse Laplace transform of
Solution:

3
5
6
F ( s)
2
s s 1 s 4
1 3

5 1 6
f (t ) L L
L 2

s
s 1
s 4

[3 5et 3sin(2t )]u(t )

22

The Inverse Laplace Transform

Suppose F(s) has the general form of

numerator polynomial
N (s)
F (s)

denominator polynomial D ( s )
Then finding the inverse Laplace transform of
F(s) involves two steps:
1. Decompose F(s) into simple terms using
partial fraction expansion.
2. Find the inverse of each term by matching
entries in Laplace Transform Table.
23

N(s)
If F ( s )
, then solutions of N(s)=0
D(s)

are called zeros of F ( s ), and solutions of

D(s)=0 are called poles of F ( s )

Order of Numerator Order of Denominator

Use long division to obtain

N(s)
R(s)
F (s)
Q( s )
D(s)
D(s)
where the degree of R( s ) is less than the degree of D ( s )

Order of Numerator < Order of Denominator

24

Case 1: Simple Real Poles

F (s)

N(s)
(s+p1 )(s+p2 )...(s+p N )

If pi , i 1,2,...n, are all different real

numbers,

then -pi , i 1,2,...n, are simple

real poles of

F (s)
kn
k1
k2
F ( s)

...
s+p1 s+p2
s+pn

where

ki (s+pi )F (s) s p

f (t ) (k1e p1t k2e p2t ... kne pnt )u(t )

25

Example

96( s 5)( s 12)

F (s)
s(s+8)(s+6)
Find inverse LT of F(s), i.e. find f(t).

k3
k1 k2
F ( s)

s s+8 s+6

96( s 5)(s 12)

k1 sF ( s) s 0 s
s(s+8)(s+6) s 0
96 (0 5) (0 12)

120
(0+8) (0 6)
26

k2 (s+8)F ( s) s 8

96( s 5)( s 12)

(s+8)
s(s+8)(s+6)

96 ( 8 5) ( 8 12)

72
-8 (8 6)

k3 (s+6)F ( s) s 6

96( s 5)( s 12)

(s+6 )
s(s+8)(s+6)

96 ( 6 5) ( 6 12)

48
-6 (6 8)

s 8

s 6

120 72 48
F ( s)

s s+8 s+6

f (t ) (120 72e8t 48e6t )u(t )

27

Case 2: Repeated Real Poles

If F(s) contains n repeated poles at s=-p, then in
its partial fraction expansion, there will be
the following n terms:

kn
kn 1
k1
F ( s) ...

...
...
n
n 1
s+p
(s+p) (s+p)
where
( n i )

1 d
n
ki
[( s+p) F ( s)]
( n i )
s p
(n i)! ds
Then corresponding these n terms, f(t) contains

t n 1 pt
t n 2 pt
f (t ) (... kn
e kn 1
e ... k1e pt ...)u (t )
(n 1)!
(n 2)!
28

Example

F ( s)

100( s 25)
s(s+5)3

k3
k
k2
k1

3
2
s (s+5) (s+5) s+5

100(s 25)
k sF (s) s 0 s
20
3
s(s+5) s 0
3

k3 [( s+5) F ( s)]
3 100( s 25)
=(s+5)
3

s(s+5)

s 5

100(5 25)

400
5
s 5
29

d
d 100( s 25)
3

k2 [(s+5) F (s)]
s
s 5 ds
s 5
ds

d
25
2500
[100 100 ]s 5
100
2
ds
s
s s 5

1 d (2)
1 d 2500 2500
3
20
k1
[(
s+5
)
F
(
s
)]

]
3
s 5 2 ds
2! ds (2)
s 2 s 5 s s 5
20 400
100
20
F ( s)

3
2
s (s+5) (s+5) s+5
t 2 5t
t 5t
f (t ) (20 400 e 100 e 20 e5t ) u( t)
2!
1!

(20 200t 2e5t 100te5t 20e5t )u(t)

30

Case 3: Distinct Complex Poles

Suppose F(s) contains one pair of simple complex
conjugate poles at s=-j. Then its denominator
contains a quadratic factor ( s a )2 2 .

A1s A2
F ( s)
...
2
2
(s a )

A1 ( s a )
A2 A1a

2
2
(s a )
( s a )2 2

Then corresponding these two terms, f(t) contains

f (t ) [ A1ea t cos t B1ea t sin t ]u(t ) ...

where

B1

A2 A1a

31

Example

20
F ( s)
2
(s+3)(s +8s+25)
Note that F(s) has a pair of complex poles at -4j3,
i.e =4 and =3

k1
A1s A2
F (s)

s 3 (s+4)2 32

k1 (s+3)F (s) s 3
20
(s 3)
2
2
(s+3)(s +8s+25) s 3

32

To get A1 and A2 , take two specific values of s,

say, 0 and 1, respectively:
When s=0, we have

20 2 A2

75 3 25

20 50 3A2

A2 10

When s=1, we have

20
2 A1 (10)

4 34 4
34

20
2 A1 (10)
A1 2

4 34 4
34

2
2s 10
2
2( s 4)
2
3
F (s)

2
2
2
2
s 3 (s+4) 3
s 3 (s+4) 3
3 (s+4)2 32

f (t ) [2e

3t

2e

4t

2 4t
cos3t e sin3t ]u(t )
3

33

Application to Integro
Integro--differential Equation
The Laplace transform is useful in solving linear
integro-differential equations.
Each term in the integro-differential equation is
transformed into s-domain.
Initial conditions are automatically taken into
account.

The resulting algebraic equation in the s-domain

can then be solved easily.
The solution is then converted back to time
domain.
34

Application to Integro
Integro--differential Equation
Example:
Use the Laplace transform to solve the differential
equation

d 2v(t )
dv(t )
6
8v(t ) 2u (t )
2
dt
dt
Given: v(0) = 1; v(0) = -2

35

Solution:
Taking the Laplace transform of each term in the
given differential equation and obtain
s 2V (s) sv(0) v '(0) 6 sV (s) v(0) 8V (s) 2

Substituting v(0) 1; v '(0) -2,we have

s 2V (s) s 2 6 sV (s) 1 8V (s) 2

2 s 2 4s 2
(s 6s 8)V (s) s 4
s
s
1
1
1
s 2 4s 2
s 2 4s 2
4
2
4
V ( s)

s( s 2 6s 8)
s( s 2)( s 4) s s 2 s 4
2

By the inverse Laplace Transform,

1
v(t ) (1 2e2t e4t )u(t )
4

36

Summary:

L[ f (t )] F ( s) t f (t ) e st d t
0

Properties

summarized in Table 15.1 of the textbook

Laplace Transform Pairs

summarized in Table 15.2 of the textbook

Inverse Laplace transform

Using partial fraction and Laplace transform pairs

Case 1: Simple Real Poles
Case 2: Repeated Real Poles
Case 3: Distinct Complex Poles

Application to Integro-differential Equation

37

Exercises ( Problems in Chapter 15 of the textbook)

15.7
15.9

ans:
ans:

15.30 ans:

(a )

a)

4
4
3
8s 18
s2
, (b)
, (c)
, (d)
s s2
s2 s
s2 9
s 2 4s 12
2

e -2s 2 e -2s
2
s2
s

2 e-s
b) 4
e ( s 4)

c)

7
3 27

f1 (t ) et cos 2t et sin 2t u(t)

10
5 5

2.702 s 8.415

s2 4 s2 4

d)

6 -2s 6 -4s
e e
s
s

2
2
7

f 2 (t ) et tet e4t u (t )
3
9
9

f3(t) = (2et 2etcos(2t) 2etsin(2t))u(t).

15.51 ans:
15.55 ans:

v( t ) (3e t 4e 2 t 5e 3t )u( t )
1 -2t
3 -4t 3 -t
2
1

e e cos(2t ) e -t sin(2t ) u(t )

e
104
65
65
40 20

38

EE2001
Circuit Theory
Applications of the
Laplace Transform

Application of the Laplace Transform

Circuit Element Models

Circuit Analysis
Mutual Inductance
Transfer Functions

Circuit Analysis in the SS-Domain

Steps in Applying the Laplace Transform:
1. Transform the circuit from the time domain
to the s-domain
2. Solve the circuit using nodal analysis, mesh
analysis, source transformation,
superposition, or any circuit analysis
technique with which we are familiar.
All the circuit theorems and relationships
developed for dc circuits are perfectly valid in
the s-domain
3. Take the inverse transform of the solution
and thus obtain the solution in the time
domain.

Circuit Element Models

Resistor (R) in the -domain

v(t ) Ri (t )

Time-domain

V ( s) RI ( s)

s-domain
4

Inductor (L) in the s-domain

Time-domain
di(t )
v(t ) L
dt

s-domain

V (s) sLI (s) Li(0 )

1
i (0 )
or I ( s) V ( s)
sL
s

Capacitor (C) in the s-domain

Time-domain
dv(t )
i(t ) C
dt

s-domain

I (s) sCV (s) Cv(0 )

or

1
v(0 )
V (s)
I ( s)
sC
s

Circuit Element Models (Zero Initial

Conditions)
Resistor :

V(s)=RI(s)

Assume zero initial

condition for the inductor
and capacitor,
Inductor:

V(s)=sLI(s)

Capacitor: V(s) = I(s)/sC

Circuit Analysis With Zero Initial Conditions

Example 1:
Find v0(t) in the circuit shown below, assuming
zero initial conditions.

Solution:
Transforming the circuit from the time domain
to the s-domain, we have

u (t )

1H

1
F
3

1
s
sL s
1 3

sC s

Mesh or nodal analysis can be used.

Using Mesh Analysis,
3
3
1
(1 ) I1(s) I 2 (s)]
s
s
s
3
3
1
(5 s ) I 2 (s) I1(s)
s
s
s
Solving the two equations gives
3
I 2 ( s)
s( s 2 8s 18)
3
2
V0 ( s)
2 ( s 4)2 ( 2)2

3
V0 ( s ) sI 2 ( s ) 2
s 8s 18

3 4t
v0 (t )
e sin( 2t ) V, t 0
2
10

Example 2:
Determine v0(t) in the
circuit, assuming zero
initial conditions.
Transforming the circuit from the
time domain to the s-domain

11

Example 3:
Determine v0(t) in the
circuit.
Since the input is multiplied
by u(t), the voltage source is
a short for all t<0 and thus i(0)=0
The s-domain circuit is:
At the top node:

12

Example 4:
The initial energy in the circuit
is zero at t=0. Assume that
vs=15u(t) V.
(a) Find V0(s) using the
Thevenin theorem.
(b) Apply the initial- and finalvalue theorem to find v0(0)
and v0().
(c) Obtain v0(t).

The s-domain circuit is:

13

(a) Take out the 2 and find Vth of the

Thevenin equivalent circuit

Using mesh analysis

we get,

14

To find Zth of the Thevenin equivalent circuit, we

need to obtain Isc in the following circuit:

15

The Thevenin equivalent circuit:

16

(b) Initial value:

Final value:

(c) Partial fraction expansion leads to

Taking the inverse Laplace transform we get,

vo (t ) (3.3333 0.6667e0.3t )u(t ) V

17

Circuit Analysis With NonNon-zero Initial

Conditions
Steps:
1) If initial conditions are not given, find the values of all
capacitor voltages and inductor currents at t = 0- .
Under steady-state and using DC input, the capacitor
will be open circuit and the inductor will be short
circuit.
2) For t>0, transform the circuit from the time domain
to the s-domain. Draw the s-domain circuit with all
initial conditions properly represented.
3) Solve the circuit using circuit theorems and
relationships developed.

4) Take the inverse transform of the solution and thus

obtain the solution in the time domain.
18

Example 5:
Find v0(t) in the circuit.
Assume v0(0)=5V .
By including the initial
condition as a current source
Cv0(0)=0.1(5)=0.5A, the
s-domain circuit is:
At the top node:

10 / (s 1) - V0
V
V
2 0.5 0 0
10
10 10 / s

2V0 sV0
1
1
2.5

V0 ( s 2)
s 1
10 10 / s 10
25s 35
10
15
V0

( s 1)( s 2) s 1 s 2

10
25 V0 (s 2)
s 1

v0 (t ) (10et 15e2t )u(t ) V

19

Example 6:
The switch in the circuit has
been in position b for a
long time. It is moved to
position a at t=0.
Determine v(t) for t > 0.

Clearly, v0(0)=V0. The sdomain circuit is:

At the top node:

v(t ) (V0 I0 R)et / I0 R, t 0, where RC

20

Example 7:
Find the capacitor voltage, if
vs(t)=10u(t) V and at t=0, -1A
flows through the inductor and
+5 is across the capacitor.
The s-domain circuit is:
At the top node:
V1 10 / s V1 0 i(0) V1 [v(0)] / s

0
10 / 3
5s
s
10 / s

2
3 2
0.1(s 3 )V1 0.5
s
s s
40 5s
35
30
V1

( s 1)( s 2) s 1 s 2

(s 2 3s 2)V1 10 5s

v1 (t ) (35e t 30e 2t )u (t )21 V

Inclusion of Mutual Inductance

Recall the T-equivalent of magnetically-coupled coils
+
v1

R1

i1

R2

M
L1

L2

i2

+
v2

+
v1
-

R1
i1

(L1-M)
M

(L2-M)

R2
i2

+
v2
-

A t-domain inductor is transformed to the s-domain:

We can transform inductors L1-M, L1-M, and M

in a similar way as:

23

T-equivalent s-model
R1

+
v1
-

i1

R2

L1

+
L2

v2
i2

24

T-model depends on dot convention and

current directions

25

26

27

Example 8
Find vo(t) for t>0 , given that
coupled coils had no initial
charge.

The s-domain T-equivalent is

28

Mesh Equations:

Substitution gives

29

Poles are

vo (t ) i2 (t ) 1 (1.155e0.423t 1.155e1.5773t )u(t ) 30V

Example 9
The switch has been in position a for a long time
before it is moved to b at . Find for i2(t) for t>0 .

For t<0, (switch in position a)

31

For t0, (switch in position b)

The s-domain T-equivalent is

32

Mesh Equations:

33

Transfer Functions
The transfer function of a circuit, denoted as
H(s), describes how an output behaves with
respect to an input source. It specifies the
transfer from the input to the output in the sdomain, assuming no initial energy.

It is defined as the ratio of the output response

Y(s) to the input response X(s), with zero initial
conditions

Y ( s)
H ( s)
X ( s)
The inverse Laplace transform is h(t) which is the
unit impulse response of the circuit.
34

 The transfer function depends on what we define

as input and output. There are four types of
transfer functions:
1. H(s) = voltage gain = V0(s)/Vi(s)
2. H(s) = Current gain = I0(s)/Ii(s)
3. H(s) = Impedance = V(s)/I(s)
4. H(s) = Admittance = I(s)/V(s)

35

Example 10
Consider the RLC circuit with
source voltage as the input
and the current as the output.
Find the transfer function.
Mesh Equation:

di (t ) 1
Ri (t ) L
i (t )dt vg (t )
dt
C
Taking Laplace transform on both sides gives
RI ( s) LsI ( s )

1
I ( s ) Vg ( s )
Cs

So the transfer function is

H ( s)

I ( s)
1
Cs

1
Vg ( s)
LCs 2 RCs 1
R Ls
Cs

36

Example 11:
The output of a circuit is y(t)=10e-tcos4t when the input is
x(t)=e-tu(t). Find the transfer function of the system and its
impulse response.

Transform y(t) and x(t) into s-domain

1
X ( s)
,
s 1

Y (s)

10( s 1)
( s 1)2 16

Apply H(s)=Y(s)/X(s), we get

4
10( s 1)2
Y (s)
10 40

H (s)
2
2
(
s

1)
16
X (s)
( s 1) 16
Apply inverse transform to H(s), we get

h(t ) 10 (t ) 40e sin(4t )u(t )

37

Example 12
The transfer function of a circuit is

2s
H ( s)
s6
Find the output y(t) due to the input 5e3t u (t ) and
its impulse response.

y(t ) (10e3t 20e6t )u(t )

h(t ) [2 (t)-12e-6t ]u(t )

38

Summary:
Laplace transform method allows us to consider circuits
described by sets of linear integro-differential equations, and
more importantly to solve these equations as algebraic
equations in s-domain.
Steps:
1) If initial conditions are not given, find the values of all capacitor
voltages and inductor currents at t = 0- .
2) For t>0, transform the circuit from the time domain
to the s-domain. Draw the s-domain circuit with all initial
conditions properly represented.
3) Solve the circuit using any circuit analysis technique with which we
are familiar.
4) Take the inverse transform of the solution and thus obtain the
solution in the time domain.

Mutual Inductance: equivalent circuit.

Transfer Functions: describes how an output behaves with
respect to an input source

39

Exercises ( Problems in Chapter 16 of the textbook)

Try the following exercises:

16.3,

ans: i(t) = [16 + 104e15t]u(t) mA

2t
7
2 0.5t
e

e
sin
t u (t ) A

2
7

16.5,

ans io(t)

16.16,

ans: io(t) = [2.1473e2t 5.144e.5tcos(1.25t)

+9.582e0.5tsin(1.25t)]u(t) A

16.21,

ans:

16.27,

ans:

16.37

ans:

vo (t )

20
1 et cos0.7071t 1.414et sin 0.7071t u (t )V

I1 ( s)

20( s 1)
( s 3)(3s 2 4s 1)

I1
s2 3
2
Vs 3s 2s 9

I 2 ( s)

10( s 1)
( s 3)(3s 2 4s 1)

I 2 -3

Vx 2s

40