R.Thiruvenkatesan[S.

E]
If clause
A clause stating that coverage will be discontinued if the insured is found to be
doing certain things, for example, withholding pertinent information.
There are three types of the if-clauses.
type

condition

condition possible to fulfill

II

condition in theory possible to fulfill

III

condition not possible to fulfill (too late)

Form
type

if clause

main clause

Simple Present

will-future (or Modal + infinitive)

II

Simple Past

would + infinitive *

III

Past Perfect

would + have + past participle *

Examples (if-clause at the beginning)

type

if clause

main clause

If I study,

I will pass the exam.

II

If I studied,

I would pass the exam.

III

If I had studied,

I would have passed the exam.

Examples (if-clause at the end)

type

main clause

if-clause

I will pass the exam

if I study.

II

I would pass the exam

if I studied.

III

I would have passed the exam

if I had studied.

Examples (affirmative and negative sentences)

type

Examples
long forms
+ If I study, I will pass the exam.

II

If I study, I'll pass the exam.

If I study, I will not fail the exam.

If I study, I won't fail the exam.
If I do not study, I will fail the exam. If I don't study, I'll fail the exam.

+ If I studied, I would pass the exam.

If I studied, I'd pass the exam.

If I studied, I would not fail the

exam.
If I did not study, I would fail the
exam.

If I studied, I wouldn't fail the exam.

If I didn't study, I'd fail the exam.

+
III

short/contracted forms

If I had studied, I would have

passedthe exam.

If I had studied, I would not have

failedthe exam.
If I had not studied, I would have
failedthe exam.

If I'd studied, I'd have passed the

exam.
If I'd studied, I wouldn't have
failed the exam.
If I hadn't studied, I'd have failed the
exam.

* We can substitute could or might for would (should, may or must are sometimes
possible, too).

Tense
It's all about time. Things can happen now, in the future or in the past.
The tenses simply show the time of an action or state of being as shown by a verb.
The verb ending is changed (conjugated) to show what time it is referring to.
Time can be split into three periods The Present (what you are doing), The Past (what you did)
and The Future (what you are going to do, or hope / plan to do ).
The tenses we use to show what time we are talking about are split into
the Simple, Continuous and Perfect tenses.
In English we use two tenses to talk about the present and six tenses to talk about the past.
There are several ways to talk about the future some of which use the present tenses, these
are:

Present

Simple Present
Present Continuous

Past

Simple Past
Past Continuous
Present Perfect Simple
Present Perfect Continuous
Past Perfect Simple
Past Perfect Continuous

Future

Using the Simple Present

Using the Present Continuous
Using the Present Perfect Simple
Using the Present Perfect Continuous
Using going to
Using shall/will

Simple Tenses
The simple tenses are used to show permanent characteristics of people and events or what
happens regularly, habitually or in a single completed action.

Continuous Tenses
The continuous tenses are used when talking about a particular point in time.

Perfect Tenses
Sometimes you need to give just a little bit more information about an action or state...and that
is where the perfect tenses come in.
The perfect tenses are used when an action or situation in the present is linked to a moment in
the past. It is often used to show things that have happened up to now but aren't finished yet or

to emphasize that something happened but is not true anymore. When they end determines
which of them you use.
Perfect tenses are never used when we say when something happened i.e. yesterday, last year
etc. but can be used when discussing the duration of something i.e. often, for, always, since
etc..

The Future Tenses

Discussing the future in English can seem complicated.The present simple, present
continuous, present perfect simple and the present perfect continuous can all be used and often
it is possible to use more than one structure, but have the same meaning.

Active Voice and Passive Voice

Verbs are either active or passive in voice. In the active voice, the subject and verb
relationship is straightforward: the subject is a do-er. In the passive voice, the subject
of the sentence is not a do-er. It is shown with by + do-er or is not shown in the
sentence.
Passive voice is used when the action is the focus, not the subject. It is not important
(or not known) who does the action.
Passive voice should be avoided when you want more clarity in writing. However, in
some cases, you need to use passive voice to stress the action, not the actor. Also,
passive voice can be considered more polite, as it sounds less aggressive or dramatic.
You can easily rewrite an active sentence to a passive sentence. The object in the
active sentence becomes a subject in the passive sentence. The verb is changed to a
be verb + past participle. The subject of the active sentence follows by or is omitted.

Sam wrote a letter to Jamie.

A letter was written to Jamie by Sam.

The government built a new bridge.

A new bridge was built by the government.

I recommend that you apply for this position.

It is recommended that you apply for this position.

Direct and indirect speech

Quoting the exact words of the speeker is called The Direct Speech.
David said, I am writing a letter now.
Reporting of what a speaker said without quoting his exact words is called Indirect Speech.
David said that he was writing a letter then.
Direct Speech

Indirect Speech

now

then

here

there

here after

there after

this

that

these

those

ago

before

thus

so

to-day

that day

to-night

that night

last night

the previous night

yesterday

the day before (or)

the previous day

tomorrow

the next day (or)

the following day

last week

the week before (or)

the previous week

next week

the week after (or)

the following week

last month

the month before (or)

the previous month

next month

a month after

hither

thither

hence

thence

If the reporting verb is in the Present or Future tense (e.g., say, will say) there is no change
in the tense of the verb in the Indirect speech.
Antony says, I eat a mango. (D.S.)
Antony says, that he eats a mango. (I.S.)

If Reporting Verb is in the Past Tense. the tense of the verbs in the reported speech or
Indirect Speech must be generally changed.
1.
Present
Tense
in
the
Johnsi
said,
I
Johnsi
said
that
she

Direct
becomes
write
a
wrote
a

p.ast
tense.
letter. (D.S)
letter. (I.S)

2. Past Tense in the direct becomes past perfect or remains unchanged.

Angel
said,
I
brought
a
pen
yesterday. (D.S)
Angel
said
that
she
had
bought
a
pen
the
day
before. (I.S)
3.
Present
Continuous
John
said,
I
John
said
that
4. Past
Nelson
Nelson

Continuous in
said,
said
that

in
he
the
I
he

5.
Present
Perfect
Kamal
said,
I
Nelson
said
that

the
am

direct
becomes
past
continuous.
going
to
church. (D.S)
was
going
to
church. (I.S)

direct becomes past perfect continuous.

was
playing
cricket. (D.S)
had
been
playing
cricket. (I.S)

in
the
direct
becomes
past
perfect.
have
done
my
home
work. (D.S)
he
had
done
his
home
work. (I.S)

6. Present Perfect Continuous in the direct becomes past perfect continuous.

He
said,
I
have
been
reading
a
novel. (D.S)
He
said
that
he
had
been
reading
a
novel. (I.S)
7.
He
He

Will
and
said,
I
said
that
he

Shall
will
go
would
go

are
changed
to
London
to
London
the

to
would.
tomorrow. (D.S)
next
day. (I.S)

8.
may

might

can

could

must

had to (or) must

Johnsi said, I must go now. (D.S)

Johnsi said that she must (or) had to go then. (I.S)
Exception to the above rule:
If the direct speech contains the Universal Truth, the tense of the direct speech remains

unchanged even if the reporting verb is in the past.

The teacher said, The sun rises in the East. (D.S)
The teacher said that the sun rises in the East. (I.S)
Statement (or) Assertive Sentence
Rules :

Remove the quotation marks in the statement

Use the conjuction that

Change the reporting verb say to into tell

Change the reporting verb said to into told

Gerund
Gerunds are derived from verbs. That is. ing is added to verbs (Eg: walking,
smoking, sleeping). The forms of the Gerund are the same as that of the present
participle. No doubt, they are parts of a verb. A Gerund is a kind of Noun whereas a
participle is a kind of adjective. Hence, we can say Gerund is a verbal noun: a
Participle an Adjective.

Walking is a good exercise.

Bathing daily is a good habit.
Smoking is a bad habit.
I like reading novels.
Rosy has stopped talking to me.
Have you finished reading your lesson?.

Seeing is believing.
It is not worth reading.

There is something here worth reading.

Infinitive
When a verb is in its infinitive state, it has no subject or object. It is used to define
the action of the verb without tying it to a specific person. It is a verb acting
without
a
subject.
She went to the shop to buy some bread. (to + verb)
When to is added to a Noun or Pronoun, it is a preposition. But when to is
added
to
a
verb,
it
is
infinitive.
I
will
give
it
I am very glad to see you. (Infinitive)

to

you.

(Preposition)

Examples

To sleep is good for health.

To trust in God gives peace of mind.

He wants to go abroad.

Do you wish to go there?.

amutha began to write a letter.

The girl does not know how to cook.

I have forgotten where to turn off this road.

David likes to fish, to boat, and to swim.

Nancy also likes to boat, fish, and swim.

John liked to fish, swimming, and to boat.

Degrees of comparison
Comparison can be made using the three forms of the adjective.
Adjective is a word and it qualifies a noun. It gives more information about the noun.
eg. The

lion

is

a strong animal.

Rita

is

a beautiful girl.

Adjectives are of three degrees. (1) Positive (2) Comparative (3) Superlative

eg. David is a rich man.

eg. Cancel is more dreadful than cholera.

eg. Mount Everest is the highest peak in the world.

Study the following models.
Positive

Very few boys in the class

are astall as John.

Comparative

Superlative

John is taller than any other

John is the tallest boy in the

boys in the class.

class.

John is taller than most other

boys in the class.

John is one of the

tallest boy in the class.

Adjective and Adverbs have three degrees, Positive, Comparative and Superlative.
The Pasitive Degree is used to denote the mere existence of quality.

The Positive Degree of an adjective in comparison is the adjective in its simple form. It is used to
denote the mere existence of some quality of what we speak about. It is used when no comparison
is made.

It is a tall building.

Apple is sweet to taste.

The Comparative Degree is used to compare the qualities of two persons or things.
The Comparative Degree denotes the existence of a higher degree of the quality than the positive.
It is used when two things (or two sets of things) are compared.

This building is taller than any other building.

Apple is sweeter than pear.

The Superlative Degree denotes the existence of the highest degree of the quality. It is used when
more than two things are compared.

This is the tallest building.

Apple is the sweetest fruit.

The Superlative Degree is used when more than two nouns or things are compared.

Johnsy is kind (Positive Degree)

Johnsy is kinder than Rosy (Comparative Degree)

Johnsy is the kindest of all (Superlative Degree)

By adding er and est
POSITIVE

COMPARATIVE

SUPERLATIVE

bright

brighter

brightest

black

blacker

blackest

bold

bolder

boldest

clever

cleverer

cleverest

cold

colder

coldest

fast

faster

fastest

great

greater

greatest

high

higher

highest

kind

kinder

kindest

long

longer

longest

small

smaller

smallest

strong

stronger

strongest

sweet

sweeter

sweetest

tall

taller

tallest

young

younger

youngest

By adding r and st
POSITIVE

COMPARATIVE

SUPERLATIVE

brave

braver

bravest

fine

finer

finest

large

larger

largest

nice

nicer

nicest

noble

nobler

noblest

pale

paler

palest

simple

simpler

simplest

wise

wiser

wisest

white

whiter

whitest

By deleting the final y and adding ier and iest

POSITIVE

COMPARATIVE

SUPERLATIVE

costly

costlier

costliest

dry

drier

driest

easy

easier

easiest

happy

happier

happiest

heavy

heavier

heaviest

lazy

lasier

lasiest

mercy

mercier

merciest

wealthy

wealthier

wealthiest

By doubling the final consonats

POSITIVE

COMPARATIVE

SUPERLATIVE

big

bigger

biggest

dim

dimmer

dimmest

fat

fatter

fattest

hot

hotter

hottest

thin

thinner

thinnest

By using more and most

POSITIVE

COMPARATIVE

SUPERLATIVE

active

more active

most active

attractive

more attractive

most attractive

beautiful

more beautiful

most beautiful

brilliant

more brilliant

most brilliant

careful

more careful

most careful

courageous

more courageous

most courageous

cunning

more cunning

most cunning

difficult

more difficult

most difficult

famous

more famous

most famous

faithful

more faithful

most faithful

proper

more proper

most proper

popular

more popular

most popular

splendid

more splendid

most splendid

Sentense Pattern
There are five important components in a sentence.
e.g.
Subject (S)

Verb (V)

Complement (C)

Adverbial (A)

Object (O)

1. SUBJECT (S)
Definition :
To get S ask the quesiton Who? before the verb.
e.g.
Nancy danced well

(Here Nancy - Subject)

The child broke the glass

(Here The child - Subject)

consists of nouns or pronouns

Subject (S)

occurs before a verb

2. VERB (V)
Definition :
In every sentence the most important word is the verb. A verb shows action or activity or work
done.
e.g.
He is a doctor

(Be form verb)

Jems wrote a letter

(Main verb)

The baby is crying

(auxiliary verb + Main verb)

consists of (a) auxiliaries

Verb (V)

(b) finite verbs

(a) Auxiliaries
e.g.
am, is, are ,was, were

has, have, had

does, do, did

Modals : can, could; will, would; shall, should; may, might; must

Semi-modals / Quasi Modals : dare to; need to; used to; ought to

(b) Finte verbs - denote action

e.g.
talk, sing, write, make, dance, play, cook, leave, teach, sleep

- verbs occur after the subject

- vebs occur before the object

3. OBJECT (O)
Definition :
To get the object O ask the question What or Whome. What is for things and Whome is for
persons. Persons may be nouns or pronouns.
e.g.
He bought a pen

(a pen = Object)

He handles the computer

(computer = Object)

I saw him

(him = Object)

Object (O) - consists of nouns or noun phrases or noun clauses

- direct object

(a) Do

- answers the question what

e.g.
S

O (what)

likes

animals

- indirect object

(b) IO

- answers the question whom

e.g.
S

IO (whom)

DO

gave

Rosy

a pen

4. COMPLEMENT (C)
Definition :
The words required to complete the meaning of a sentence are called Complement of the
sentence.
e.g.
S

He

is

a dentist

She

became

a journalist

It

grew

dark

Complement (C) - from the word complete

- completes the meaning in the sentence

- wihtout it the, meaning is incomplete

- wihtout it the, meaning changes

occurs in two pattern. (i) S V C pattern. (ii) S V O C pattern

(i) In S V C pattern, the complement C

- complements the subjects

- tells about the subject

- wihtout it the, meaning changes

- without C, the sentence is incomplete or the sentence changes its meaning

- use to be forms, grew, became, seems for verb

e.g.
S

They

are

players

She

was

angry

It

seems

absurd

(ii) In S V O C pattern
- the complement tells about the object

- the complement and object are of the same person or thing

e.g.
S

They

called

David

a genius

found

her

crying

They

elected

Michle

leader

Types of Complement

1. Subject Complement
Definition :
The complement which expresses the quality or identity or condition of the subject is
calledSubject Complement.
e.g.
She is a doctor

She looks sad

2. Object Complement
Definition :
The complement which expresses the quality or identity or condition of an object is called Object
Complement.
e.g.
They made her angry

She called him a liar

Adjunct or Adverbial
Definition :
To get A ask the question why, when, where or how.
The use of adverbial is optional whereas complement is essential. It has adverb phrase, adverbial
clause, noun-phrase and prepositional phrase.
e.g.
Why? (reason)

When? (Time)

Where? (Place)

How? (Manner)

due to cold

now, later

here, there

by bus / cycle

through floods

after 2 years

every where

through efforts

under compulsion

when young

in the sky

by mixing

carefully

in the morning

at home

by hard work

Adjunct - A - answers the questions where? when? how? why?

- without A, any change in the meaning of the sentence

Examples of Adjuncts in sentences

e.g.
S

She

Comes

every day

Sit

here