Analysis of the displacement field of sandwich beams in 3 and 4 Point Bending

Alexandre Miguel de Almeida Garcia

Mechanical Engineering Department, Instituto Superior Tcnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal

Abstract
The aim of this Thesis is to analyze the displacement field of sandwich structures subjected to bending
in 3 and 4 points.
The sandwich structures are being increasingly employed because, by combining a single structure of
two or more materials of different characteristics, we can combine a good flexural strength with a low
weight, getting several advantages, including greater versatility in its use, cost and consumption
reductions, and others.
The bending tests - of 3 and 4 points, with different area numbers where loads are applied - allow to
assess the characteristics of flexural strength, particularly in the present case of sandwich structures, as
result of loads which are applied. Thus, we obtained important data for analysis, for example, the
expected behaviour of a material, in a given field application.
It was also analysed the data obtained experimentally, resulting of different face materials and core
thickness of the sandwich, as well as differing distances between the points of support of the tested
structures. Additionally, it was proceeded to the comparison of results of the new digital image correlation
system VIC 2D with the ones obtained by the experiment procedures and by the numeric analysis, this
last one determined by finite element program ANSYS.
Keywords: sandwich beams, bending tests, VIC, digital image correlation
1. - Introduction
1.1. ASTM C393-00 Standard
For the entire tests performed, ASTM C393-00 was the main guiding criterion. This standard describes
the methods of sandwich structures test, in 3 and 4 point bending (3PB and 4PB), which allows to scale
the testing specimens, obtain data for calculating the deflection at mid span, to calculating flexural rigidity
and scale the span length. [1]
1.2. - Specimens of Sandwich Structures
A sandwich is a composite material consisting of two outer faces and a core, with different characteristics.
Its great advantage, over other type of structures, is the possibility of combining a good resistance and
flexural stiffness with a low total weight, which makes it particularly suitable for different practical uses.
Typically, these structures are formed by two relatively thin plates of a high-strength material, arranged
in parallel - the faces and separated by a layer of low density material, lighter and with greater thickness
- the core. [2]

There is a wide range of materials that can be used in sandwich structure when it comes to the faces and
to the core. The materials of the faces must possess a high resistance, flexural and tensile stiffness. In
turn, the core materials must be of low density, to ensure the low weight of the structure, but with good
shear and compression resistance.
Two basic types of sandwich structures were considered to be tested: sandwich with polyurethane core
and aluminium faces and sandwich with polyurethane core and basalt fiber faces.
The general characteristics of these materials (supplied by the manufacturer or considered) are in the
table 1:

Material

Density

Young
Modulus

Shear
Modulus

Polyurethane

40 Kg/m3

10,6 MPa

4 MPa

Aluminum

2700 Kg/m3

73 GPa

27,4 GPa

Composite Basalt fiber

1454 Kg/m3

16 GPa

1,8 GPa

Table 1 - Material characteristics of sandwich structures

The scaling of specimens - length and section is conditioned by the dimensions of materials for sale on
the market, by the dimensions imposed by bending testing machine (in particular by vain allowed), and
by the abovementioned standard.
For the core thickness two values were set - 20 and 30 mm - allowing compare different obtained data.
When it comes to the length of the sandwich, it was taken into consideration the concepts of short and
long beam, and it was adopted the equal value of 390 mm for all specimens. Long and short beams were
obtained only by span length adjustments (up to a maximum of 340 mm) in the test situation. Finally, it
was established the value of 70 mm for the sandwich width.
For the 4 types of specimens tested with aluminium face or basalt fiber face and thickness core of 20
or 30 mm - was created an encoding (to use in tests and in the identification of results) based on the
assignment of characters SA (Sandwich with Aluminium face) or SB (Sandwich with Basalt fiber face),
followed by the numbers 20 or 30 (for the cores with thick of 20 or 30 mm) as appropriate.
1.3. Tests
The carried out tests included the situations of bending in 3 and 4 points, with the application of a midspan
loading in 3 point bending tests and the application of a quarter and a third span loading in 4 point bending
tests, for short and long beams conditions respectively [3]. For specimens with 20 mm core thickness
were defined a span length of 90 and 250 mm. In case of specimens with 30 mm core thickness were
adopted a span length of 136 and 340 mm.
Similarly to what was done with the specimens, the 16 tests were coded based on: the specimen code,
added with the characters indicative of the number of test points ("3PB" or "4PB"), span length ("90mm",
"136mm", "250mm" and "340mm") and, when applicable, the indication of a concrete testing performed
in the same situation ("1" or "2").

2. - Experimental Method
2.1. - Equipment
The bending tests were performed on an Instron 3369 testing machine, with a load cell of 10 KN. The
displacement of the header was responsible for the loads application in tested specimens and it was set
at 2 mm/min for all performed tests.
2.2. - Results
The main results obtained are csv files (Comma-separated values) of force and displacement values,
which were processed in order to produce graphs of Force-Displacement Curves. These graphs relate
the load applied on the test specimen with the displacement of the machine header (which is considered
to represent the deflection in the middle span length of the upper face of specimen where the force is
applied). It was verified that the curves shape allows to consider a typical curve valid for the various
situations tested.

Fig. 1 - Typical force-displacement curve with elastic and plastic regions

Two distinct regions can be seen in the curve: an initial increasing and linear region and another one nonlinear, which includes the highest curve point, decreasing more smoothly after this point with a tendency
towards stabilization.
The first region corresponds to an elastic deformation area, in which the specimen subject to the force
application deflects linearly with the increase of this. When the load is removed, it returns to its initial
state, recovering from the deformation occurred during the test and with no residual stresses. The
behaviour observed in this region may be associated with the Flexural Rigidity that is a parameter
characteristic of the specimen. This parameter is resulting from the material with which it is built (due to
the Youngs Modulus of the material, which for simplicity, only the modulus of the faces is considered
significant) and of its construction (due to the height of the sandwich and thus to core thickness). To a
greater stiffness of the specimens corresponds a greater slope of the force- displacement in its elastic
deformation area. A similar effect occurs when we proceed to the same test with a lower span length, as
it is going to be seen below.
The second region corresponds to a plastic deformation area, where the deflection is not linear and the
relationship between the applied force and the resultant displacement is substantially lower than the one
found in previous elastic deformation area.

The specimen reaches the state in which the verified deformation is not fully recoverable after the load
application, getting a permanent deformation and residual stresses, which may lead to the structure's
fracture.

Fig. 2 and 3 - Comparison of Force-Displacement Curves at 3 and 4 PB (right) and in relation to the materials of the faces
(left)

The main difference between the results obtained in 3 point bending and 4 point bending is the largest
maximum load supported in 4 points tests. Another difference observed is an increase of the lines slope
in the elastic area, which is indicative of a higher resistance to displacement and a smoother transition
between elastic and plastic areas.
Regarding the materials used on the faces (figure on the right above), we can conclude that the specimen
of aluminium face, in comparison with the basalt fiber face, has a higher flexural stiffness (as
consequence of a higher Youngs Modulus of aluminium in comparison to the basalt fibers composite),
as well as a higher maximum load and a more abrupt transition between areas. However, these
differences arent very significant for that, in many practical applications, the smallest mechanical
performance of basalt fiber can be overcome by the advantage of its substantially lower weight.
Regarding the span lengths differentiation, it was verified that for a lower span length, there is a higher
slope line in elastic part, reflecting a greater strength to the same displacement. Additionally, the use of
a smaller span length also causes an increase in the maximum load and an abrupt transition between
elastic and plastic areas.

Fig. 4 and 5 - Comparison of Force-Displacement Curves as: span length dimension (left) and core thickness (right)

In relation to the core thickness, it was observed that increasing the core thickness significantly increases
the force required to be applied for producing the same deflection. So, the flexural stiffness of the
specimen and the maximum permissible load increases. This is clearly visible in figure 5, which doesnt

eliminate another variable (the span length) with the deflection results of 30 mm specimens approaching
their counterparts of 20 mm specimens to a more favourable smaller span length.
It is also visible in figure 5 the relative behaviour of Short Beams (the two curves reach higher maximum
load) and Long Beams (the other two curves).
3. Digital Image Correlations
3.1. - System
For Digital Image Correlation (DIC), which is defined as a method of measuring the deformation of a
surface by comparing images, thus allowing obtaining data without any interaction with the material tested
was used the VIC system of Correlated Solutions. [4]
This system basically consists by one or two cameras (for analysis in two or three dimensions
respectively) that capture the images of a test (a bending test) and by a software that makes the
correlation. Regarding the software component, it is divided into two parts: the VIC Snap that constitutes
the image capture software and the VIC 2D (or 3D if two cameras are used simultaneously) which allows
the processing and analysis of those same images. The VIC 2D software works based on the mapping
and monitoring of the image pixels. This system requires the previous application of a random speckly
pattern on the surface to analyze and it also requires the definition of some parameters. The longitudinal
section of the specimen between the supports was defined as an area of interest and the values of 15
and 4 were assigned for the subset and for the step, respectively (which defining the partitions to be
analyzed).
3.2. - Results
In the end of the analysis, the program provides information about the displacements in each direction,
through a color gradient representing ranges of displacement, or other selected variables, as well as a
statistical treatment of the data in the interest zone previously selected, namely the maximum value
observed.

Fig. 6 and 7 Digital Image Correlation in 3 and 4 PB

Contrary to the bending test machine that measuring the displacement data relative to the header and
associated with the displacement of the upper face where the force is applied - VIC system allows to
obtain data about the deflection along the entire longitudinal section of the sandwich, enabling an easy
analysis of the behavior of the core and of both sides, in terms of the deflection verified.

The colors range is always the same for all tests, with its match of displacement values to be displayed
in a horizontal bar screen control, from the red color of a smaller displacement shown on the right, to the
purple color for a larger displacement indicated to the left. These values may be positive or negative,
indicating a displacement of an ascending or descending zone (points analyzed) respectively, of
specimen referred.
4. - Analytic Method
4.1. - Calculations
The displacement of sandwich beams can be estimated analytically using the calculation formulas in
ASTM C393-00 norm mentioned above, obtaining the calculation equations for the deflection prediction
() as a function of the force () for all tested cases, namely:
For tests at 3 points (1) and 4 points (2):
=
=

4 ( 3 3 )

112

2 32( 3 3 )

+
+

(+)2

(+)2

(1)

(2)

where is the span length of the particular test, is the sandwich width, is the core thickness, is the
sandwich thickness (core thickness plus 1 mm per face) and is the Youngs Modulus of the face
material.
4.2. - Results
Comparing calculated data with the results experimentally verified, we taking as examples two situations
that involve specimens with faces of different materials. So, there are:

Fig. 11 e 12 Comparison of analytical and experimental data; faces in aluminium (left) and basalt fiber (right)

It can be seen that the analytical data obtained are adjusted only in the linear elastic area. This general
constraint must be taken into account in the use of the analytical method. In addition, data concerning
the specimens of basalt fiber have significant variances with analytical data. This fact allows us to infer a
higher slope line than the one obtained experimentally, which indicates probable deviations of the
stiffness parameters considered for the face material, in this case a composite material with much greater
complexity to predict the mechanical properties.

The formulas for the calculation of the analytical data resort to a simplification of the real process,
discarding the least significant effects (for example considering that only the faces resist to bending and
that only the core resists to cutting), adopting coefficients for hardly quantifiable situations (for example,
the factor for the orientation of a composite fibers) and considering typical characteristics of materials,
which necessarily introduces errors that should be weighed in a particular study situation. The analytical
calculation has the advantage of estimate data without recourse to materials or to test equipment, both
required in an experimental method.
5. - Numerical Method
5.1 - Simulation
For the numerical simulation results of the behavior, in terms of deflection of sandwich structures, was
also used the finite element method, which aims to model a system with a finite number of elements, in
order to obtain an approximation of the complex system from several simpler elements grouped. The
program used was the finite element program ANSYS 13, where were drawn the geometries of
specimens and it was introduced the characteristics of their materials and loads applied.
For the configuration of the model in ANSYS, the SHELL 181 element type was chosen which is
recommended for use in laminated composite materials and sandwich structures. The SHELL 181 is a
three-dimensional element, allowing the configuration by layers and assigns to each layer the properties
of the material, thickness and orientation. A Mesh of finite elements was used with a value of 2 mm,
creating the elements subject to system analysis. The boundary conditions were defined by simulating
the support points spaced by the span length - of the specimens, characterizing them as areas of zero
vertical displacement.
For the simulation of loads applied to the modeled sandwich structures were considered one or two areas
of load application in case of bending in 3 or 4 points.
5.2. - Results
The results obtained were function of the configuration of the model, including the various modeling
parameters of the test specimens (materials of the faces and the core thickness), different tests (the 3
and 4 PB, each with multiple spans) and for the three different values of force, in a total of 48 different
simulations. These results are essentially sets of images where the displacement is shown in multiple
colors through different analysis areas, resulting from the layers and mesh set in modeling, as well as a
series of numeric data.
The range of colors is always the same for all tests, with its match of displacement values to be displayed
in a horizontal bar, from a red color of smaller displacement shown on the right, to a blue one of larger
displacement shown on the left.

Fig. 13 and 14 - Numerical simulation; ANSYS images to 3 and 4 PB simulations

The analysis results can also be made in quantitative terms, through deflection values shown in the
horizontal bar of the images, such as the maximum deflection verified in the simulation. Comparing this
data to the previously observed, experimentally and analytically, comparative data can be obtained.
These comparative data are illustrated in Fig.15 and 16:

Fig. 15 and 16 - Comparative data of numerical simulation, experimental and analytical force-displacement curves of
specimens with aluminum faces (left) and basalt fiber faces (right)

It can be pointed out that the data from the numerical simulation is quite close to the corresponding
obtained through analytical and experimental means in case of specimens of aluminum faces, but with
deviations in the faces of basalt fiber. The reason for these last deviations may be because there is a
discrepancy between the characteristics type of the basalt fiber composite adopted for numerical
simulation in relation to the actual specimens tested. This allows also to explain the closeness with the
results obtained through analytical method (that uses the same data).

Fig. 17 and 18 - Deflection images; ANSYS finite element systems (left) and DIC with VIC 2D (right)

The resulting images of the simulation by ANSYS finite elements system have a clear parallelism with
the resulting images image of correlation system VIC 2D, as it was previously mentioned and is shown
in figures 17 and 18.
From this comparative analysis for the same situation simulation / test that was considered Illustrative
of other verified cases it can be highlight the similarity of the color gradient / displacement of the outer
(note that, in the case of the image of ANSYS, most elements in red are outside the area of interest in
analysis) to the inner (force application point). However, there are significant differences especially in the
area of force application, along the thickness. ANSYS shows an evenly maximum displacement prediction
throughout the thickness at mid-span (with the same amounts of elements on the top face and bottom
face to present the blue color corresponding to a maximum displacement). However, in the reality
translated by VIC 2D, it demonstrates that this is not the case, effect of core compression, causing the
existence of a greater number of maximum displacement points on the surface where the force is applied.
Conclusions
From the analysis of the experimental results, we obtained the following main conclusions:

The 4 points tests compared to 3 points tests, allows to the same sandwich structure withstand
significant higher loads and have lower beams for, softening the transition between elastic and plastic
areas;

The span length reduction between supports causes a significant bending decrease for the
application of the same force (in similar to the flexural stiffness increase), as well as an increase of
the maximum load supported by the structure and a more abrupt transition between the elastic and
plastic areas;

The thickness increase of the sandwich core increases the maximum load carried by the structure
and improve flexural rigidity. The core thickness is the principal factor of the structure responsible for
these effects;

The Short Beams comparatively to the Long Beams have a better behaviour in terms of stiffness and
higher values of maximum load, with a more abrupt transition between zones of operation in elastic
and plastic areas;

The use of faces with basalt fiber composite, compared to the aluminium faces, have inferior
mechanical characteristics; however, this enables a significant reduction in total weight of the
structure and a large elastic recovery, showing almost no deformation after removing the forces
applied in the tests.

In terms of data collection methods, we can conclude that:

The experimental method through a bending test machine is the most effective method in obtaining
reliable data concerning the deflections characteristics and maximum load supported by the material,
because it allows testing this material samples across the entire range of force and displacement
values covering the elastic and plastic areas, with destructive or non-destructive tests. As main
drawbacks, should be highlighted the need for specific testing machines and samples of the material

to obtain information as well as the fact that the data on displacements are reported only to the point
of force application on the face;

The digital image correlation system provides additional data to bending test machine and operates
in conjunction with this, getting data from an entire area of interest which can be defined as the
longitudinal section of the structure, enabling thus without any contact and interference - on the
specimen in tests, recorded data on the deflection on both faces and core along the length of the
specimen;

The analytical method allows obtaining data which are estimates of the mechanical behavior of the
structure, allowing doing it quickly and without any recourse to machinery or testing systems or
specimens to be tested. However, given type models use simplified and based on characteristics
typified of materials and configurations to study the structure, provides less reliable data with a greater
margin of error compared to the experimentally obtained;

The numerical method based on finite element method has the advantages referred to the analytical
method - namely to not require specimens to obtain data structures - only with the exception of lacking
a specific simulation program. Its drawbacks are due to only simulate the structures to test, despite
its approximation to reality be much better than the analytical method and, as such, can enable more
reliable data.

References
[1] AAVV - C 393-00 Standard Test Method for Flexural Properties of Sandwich Constructions ASTM
International, West Conshohocken (USA), 2000
[2] AAVV - COMPOSITE MATERIALS HANDBOOK; Volume 1: Polymer Matrix Composites Guidelines
for Characterization of Structural Materials - Department of Defense Handbook, Philadelphia (USA),
2002
[3] TEIXEIRA DE FREITAS, Sofia e outros - Steel plate reinforcement of orthotropic bridge decks - in 9th
International Conference on Sandwich Structures, Pasadena (EUA), 2010
[4] AAVV - Vic-2D Reference Manual - Correlated Solutions, s/l, 2009

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