CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
As we plunge into a new century and a new millennium, the environment is being
called on to supply the growing needs of an expanding human population in the
developing countries and increasing affluence in the developed countries. In many areas
we are already taking more from the earths systems than they can provide in a
sustainable fashion. Environmental pollution means the presence in the environment of
any environmental pollutant. Environmental pollutant means any solid, liquid or gaseous
substance present in such concentration as may be, or tend to be, injurious to
environment.
Water is a major constituent of all living organisms. Over 70% of the Earths
surface is covered by water. Without water, life on Earth would be impossible. It is
essential for everything on our planet to grow and prosper. Although we as humans
recognize this fact, we disregard it by polluting our rivers, lakes, and oceans.
Subsequently, we are slowly but surely harming our planet to the point where organisms
are dying at a very alarming rate. As per the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act, 1974, pollution means such concentration of water or such alteration of the physical,
chemical and biological properties of water or such discharge of any sewage or trade
effluent or any other liquid, gaseous or solid substance into water (whether directly or
indirectly) as may, or likely to, create or nuisance or render such water harmful or
injurious to public health safety or to domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural or
other legitimate uses, or to the life and health of animals or plants or of aquatic
organisms.
1.2 WATER POLLUTION
Water typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic
contaminants and either support a human use or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to
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support its constituent biotic communities. It is being polluted due to over population in
terms of sewage and garbage, agricultural development in terms of pesticide and fertilizer
application and rapid industrialization in terms of effluent and hazardous waste. In India,
the main culprits for the degradation of water bodies are sewage and garbage generated
especially in the urban areas. Absence of sewage treatment plant and garbage treatment
leads to discharge of untreated sewage and garbage into water bodies. In Kerala, water
bodies are polluted due to sewage and garbage. Wastes generated within households are
often disposed of in nearby drains. Rubbish like plastic, glass is dumped into canals and
rivers. Industries discharge wastes directly into water bodies leading to death of aquatic
organisms due to the decrease in oxygen in water and due to reduction in pH. Some
stretch of rivers and lakes namely Periyar are affected due to industrial effluent.
Sewage, manure and chemical fertilizers contain nutrients such as nitrate and
phosphate and when it enters water body in excess levels, nutrients over stimulate the
growth of aquatic plants and algae. Excessive growth of these organisms clogs our water
ways and blocks light to deeper waters. When the organisms die, they use up dissolved
oxygen as they decompose causing depletion of oxygen in water. Sewage contains
pathogens which cause diseases such as cholera, diarrhoea, typhoid and skin diseases.
Pathogens include such organisms as bacteria, virus and protozoan. Stagnated water
bodies are breeding grounds for mosquitoes causing dreadful diseases like chikunguinea,
malaria. Polluted water kills fish, vegetation and other aquatic organisms. Weeds make
waterways impassable. When a lot of soil is washed into rivers and drains, this causes
aquatic life to perish and floods especially with heavy rainfall.
1.3 LAKE POLLUTION
The lakes are vital ecosystems deserving utmost care. Increasing population
pressure and the resultant socio-economic development around this water bodies result in
the deterioration of water quality. The problems faced by the lake systems can be
generalized as 1) eutrophication 2) siltation 3) shrinkage in water spread 4) reclamation
5) encroachments 6) pollution resulting from natural as well as anthropogenic activities
7) excessive tourism load 8) over fishing [8]. Eutrophication means excessive plant growth

in lakes, estuaries and slow moving streams due to excess nutrients mainly from sewage
and agricultural runoff. Excessive weed growth leads to high rate of siltation and results
in shoaling of the lake. The shrinkage in lake water spread is mainly due to reclamation
and rooted weed growth. When sediments enter water bodies, fish respiration becomes
impaired, plant productivity and water depth become reduced and aquatic organisms and
their environment become suffocated [8].
1.4 WATER QUALITY INDEX
Water quality monitoring data consists of routine measurements of physical, chemical
and biological variables that are intended to give insight into the aquatic environment.
The WQI serves as a tool, to examine the trends, to highlight specific water quality
conditions, and help governmental organizations to evaluate the effectiveness or
regulatory programs. In essence, WQI has following important purposes.
1. Trend Analysis: Index may be applied to water quality data at different points in
time to determine the changes in water quality (degradation or improvement)
which have occurred over the period.
2. Public Information: Index may be used to inform the public about environmental
conditions.
3. Ranking and Rationalization of locations: Index may be applied to assist in
comparing environmental conditions at different locations of geographic areas.
4. Scientific Research: Index may be applied as a means of reducing a large quantity
of data to form that give insights to the researcher conducting a study of some
water quality processes.
1.5 EUTROPHICATION
Eutrophication is a process whereby water bodies, such as lakes, estuaries, or
slow-moving streams receive excess nutrients that stimulate excessive plant growth
(algae, periphyton attached algae, and nuisance plants weeds). This enhanced plant
growth, often called an algal bloom, reduces dissolved oxygen in the water when dead
plant material decomposes and can cause other organisms to die. Nutrients can come

from many sources, such as discharge of untreated sewage, fertilizers applied to

agricultural fields, golf courses and suburban lawns; deposition of nitrogen from the
atmosphere and erosion of soil containing nutrients. Water with a low concentration of
dissolved oxygen is called hypoxic. Eutrophication is caused by the increase of an
ecosystem with chemical nutrients, typically compounds containing nitrogen or
phosphorus. It may occur on land or in the water [16]. Eutrophication is frequently a result
of nutrient pollution such as the release of sewage effluent into natural waters (rivers or
coasts) although it may occur naturally in situations where nutrients accumulate (e.g.
depositional environments) or where they flow into systems on an ephemeral basis (e.g.
intermittent upwelling in coastal systems). Estuaries tend to be naturally Eutrophic
because land-derived nutrients are concentrated where run-off enters the marine
environment in a confined channel and mixing of relatively high nutrient fresh water with
low nutrient marine water occurs.
The names of the four trophic states, from the lowest level of biological
productivity to the highest, are listed below (Source: http://lakewatch.ifas.ufl.edu)
1. Oligotrophic
2. Mesotrophic
3. Eutrophic
4. Hypereutrophic
The root word trophic means of or relating to nutrition.
1. Oligotrophic
Oligotrophic water bodies have the lowest level of biological productivity.
Oligo means scant or lacking.

Criteria: Total chlorophyll is less than 3 g/L

Total phosphorus is less than 15 g/L

Total nitrogen is less than 400 g/L

Water clarity is greater than 13 feet
2. Mesotrophic
Mesotrophic water bodies have a moderate level of biological productivity.
Meso means mid-range.

Criteria: Total chlorophyll is between 3 and 7 g/L

Total phosphorus is between 15 and 25 g/L
Total nitrogen is between 400 and 600 g/L
Water clarity is between 8 and 13 feet
3. Eutrophic
Eutrophic water bodies have a high level of biological productivity.
Eu means good or sufficient.

Criteria: Total chlorophyll is between 7 and 40 g/L

Total phosphorus is between 25 and 100 g/L
Total nitrogen is between 600 and 1500 g/L
Water clarity is between 3 and 8 feet
4. Hypereutrophic
Hypereutrophic water bodies have the highest level of biological productivity.
Hyper means over abundant.

Criteria: Total chlorophyll is greater than 40 g/L

Total phosphorus is greater than 100 g/L
Total nitrogen is greater than 1500 g/L
Water clarity is less than 3 feet
Water hyacinth [Eichhornia crassipes], a native of Amazon river basin in South
America is a troublesome aquatic weed all over the world. It was introduced into India in
1896 as an ornamental pond plant. Now this weed is seen infesting more than 200,000 ha
of water surface, causing concern in 98 out of 246 districts in India. This fast multiplying
weed can produce 3000 offspring in 50 days and can double its biomass in 1012 days.
The disadvantages of this weed outweigh its merits. It interferes with production of
hydroelectricity, blocks water flow in irrigation and drainage canals, channels and
streams leading to flooding and seepage into adjoining areas, hinders anti-mosquito
operations and forms a breeding ground for obnoxious insects like mosquitoes which
transmit infectious diseases such as malaria and encephalomyelitis. It also affects the
aquatic fauna through elimination of habitat and depletion of oxygen level caused by
respiration and decomposition of vegetative parts. The excessive weed population is
strong enough to stop boats or slow down navigation. It also makes recreational water
activity difficult and unsafe in lakes.
Algae play an important role in the limnology and ecology. Algae are the
predominant photo synthesizers of fresh water and all aquatic environments. The density
and distribution of phytoplanktons are determined by the variability and distribution of
nutrients in an aquatic system. Certain selected types of algae also are used as indicators
of pollution[15].

1.6 CARLSON'S TROPHIC STATE INDEX

The cloudiness of lake water is often related to the amount of nutrients in the
water. Nutrients promote growth of microscopic plant cells (phytoplankton) that are fed
upon by microscopic animals (zooplankton). The more the nutrients, the more the plants
and animals and the cloudier the water is. This is a common, but indirect, way to roughly
estimate the condition of the lake. This condition, called eutrophication, is a natural aging
process of lakes, but which is unnaturally accelerated by too many nutrients. Trophic
state is defined as the total weight of living biological material (biomass) in a waterbody
at a specific location and time. Algal biomass is used as the basis for trophic state
classification. Chlorphyll pigments, secchi depth and total phosphorous independently
examines algal biomass.
A Secchi disk is commonly used to measure the depth to which you can easily see
through the water, also called its transparency. Secchi disk transparency, chlorophyll a
(an indirect measure of phytoplankton), and total phosphorus (an important nutrient and
potential pollutant) are often used to define the degree of eutrophication, or trophic status
of a lake. The concept of trophic status is based on the fact that changes in nutrient levels
(measured by total phosphorus) causes changes in algal biomass (measured by
chlorophyll a) which in turn causes changes in lake clarity (measured by Secchi disk
transparency). A trophic state index is a convenient way to quantify this relationship.
Carlsons index is a popular index and was developed by Dr. Robert Carlson of Kent
State University.
1.7 WATER QUALITY MONITORING
Water quality monitoring gives an idea about the status of water quality and extent
of deterioration caused. Water quality results comprise of concentration of various water
quality parameters at different stations and hence it is very complex. Analysis of water
quality data is essential for arriving at a useful conclusion. Analysis of water quality data
is indeed a necessary extension to monitoring of water quality.

Statistical analysis

converts the water quality data into something deductive by providing useful implications

not so obvious from the raw data. Correlation, regression and factor analysis help in
developing and interpreting relationship between water quality parameters and
rationalizing monitoring network. Detection of trend and violations provide a useful
insight into the spatial temporal behaviors or water quality data so as to plan appropriate
pollution control measures. The water quality parameters analyzed in the laboratory are
given below[10].
pH
pH is negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration.

Fresh sewage is

generally alkaline in nature. As time passes, pH tends to fall due to production of acids by
bacterial action in anaerobic or nitrification processes.
Turbidity
Suspension of particles in water interfering with passage of light is called turbidity.
Turbidity is caused by a wide variety of suspended materials, which range in size from
colloidal to coarse dispersions.
Electrical Conductivity
Electrical conductivity is the capacity of water to carry an electrical current.

It

depends on the presence of ions and its concentration. Solutions of most inorganic acids,
bases and salts are relatively good conductors of electricity.

Molecules of organic

compounds that do not dissociate in aqueous solution is a poor conductor of electricity.

Most dissolved inorganic substance contributes to conductance.
Total Dissolved Solids
Solids present in water as suspended solids, colloidal solids, settleable solids and
dissolved solids. Total dissolved solids are those solids which remain dissolved in water.
Generally carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides, nitrates and sulphate of sodium, potassium,
calcium and magnesium contribute total solids in water.
Suspended Solids
Suspended solids are those which remain floating in water.

Dissolved Oxygen
The oxygen dissolved in surface water is largely derived from the atmosphere and
from the photosynthetic activity of algae and higher aquatic plants. Concentration of
dissolved oxygen will vary daily and seasonally and depend on the species of
phytoplankton present, light penetration, nutrient availability, temperature, salinity, water
movement, partial pressure of atmospheric oxygen in contact with the water, thickness of
the surface film and biodepletion rates. When oxygen depleting substances from sewage
enter water, the self purification capacity of water is affected and the dissolved oxygen
concentration decreases to the point of complete disappearance of oxygen from water.
This condition results in sign of eutrophication with the growth of algal blooms.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
There are two types of organic matter.
a. biologically oxidized (oxidized by bacteria)
b. can not be biologically oxidized (biologically inactive)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand gives the biologically active organic matter present in
water. Micro-organisms utilize the atmospheric oxygen dissolved in the water for
biochemical oxidation of polluting matter, which is their source of carbon.

It is a

measure of organic matter present in a water sample and can be defined as the amount of
oxygen required by the micro-organism in stabilizing the biologically degradable organic
matter under aerobic condition.
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
Ammoniacal nitrogen indicates the very first stage of decomposition of organic
matter.

Ammonia is formed by the deamination of organic nitrogen containing

compounds and by the hydrolysis of urea. Ammonia is readily available as a nutrient for
plant uptake and this may contribute greatly to increased biological productivity. It is
easily oxidized to nitrite and nitrate in the presence of sufficient oxygen (nitrification).
Under anaerobic condition, organic nitrogen is converted into ionized (NH 4+) and
unionized (HN3) ammonia.

Nitrite Nitrogen
Nitrite is formed in water by oxidation of ammonium compounds or by reduction
of nitrate. As an intermediate stage in the nitrogen cycle, it is unstable. Nitrite indicates
the presence of partly decomposed organic matter in water. It is the intermediate stage of
conversion of organic matter into stable forms.
Nitrate Nitrogen
Nitrate is the most highly oxidized form of nitrogen compounds. It is the end
product of the aerobic decomposition of organic nitrogenous matter. The sources of
nitrate are chemical fertilizers from cultivated land; drainage from livestock feed lots as
well as domestic and some industrial water. Nitrates indicate the presence of fully
oxidized organic matter.
Sulphate
Sulphates are formed due to the decomposition of sulphur containing compounds.
When oxygen level falls to zero (anaerobic zone), some bacteria derive oxygen through
reduction of nitrates. On complete exhaustion of nitrate, oxygen may be obtained by
reduction of sulphate yielding hydrogen sulphide causing foul smell and putrefied taste
for water.
Phosphate
Phosphorous compounds are carried into natural waters with waste waters and
storm runoff. They may produce a secondary pollution, being essential nutrients. Algal
blooms occur where both nitrogen and phosphorous are plentiful. Sewage is relatively
rich in phosphorous compounds. Most of the inorganic phosphorous was contributed by
human wastes as a result of the metabolic breakdown of proteins and elimination of the
liberated phosphates in the urine. The use of polyphosphate in detergents increases the
phosphorous content of domestic sewage. The amount of phosphorous released is a
function of protein intake.

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Chloride
Chloride ion is generally present in natural waters. A high concentration occurs in
waters from chloride containing geological formations. Otherwise, high chloride content
may indicate pollution by sewage or some industrial wastes or an intrusion of sea water
or other saline water. Human excreta, particularly the urine, contain chloride in an
amount equal to chloride consumed with food and water.
Total Hardness
Hardness is caused by divalent metallic cations. The principal hardness causing
cations are calcium, magnesium, strontium, ferrous iron and manganous ions. The anions
responsible for hardness are mainly bicarbonates, carbonates, sulphate, chloride, nitrate,
silicates etc.
Total Coliform
Total Coliform is an indicator of pollution due to sewage.
Faecal Coliform
Faecal coliform indicates the presence of faecal pollution. It is an indicator of
faecal contamination.
1.8 GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM
The technology of Geographic Information system (GIS) facilitates the
organization and management of data with a geographic component. Geographic
Information System is an organized collection of hardware, software, geographic data and
personnel designed to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate and display all forms
of geographically referenced information. A geographic information system (GIS) is a
computer system for capturing, storing, querying, analyzing and displaying
geographically referenced data. The ability of a GIS to handle and process geographically
referenced data distinguishes GIS from other information system.

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GIS packages differ according to the data structure they use to store the data. The
way in which the spatial data are structured for storing the data will determine how the
user can retrieve, analyze and do modeling. The often used data models for spatial data
are raster and vector. A raster model divides the entire study area into regular grid of
cells, organized into rows and columns. The vector model is that all geographic features
in a real world (or on a map) can be represented as points, lines (arcs) or areas(polygon).
In this model, the spatial locations of features are defined on the basis of coordinate pairs.
A vector model represents more accurately, then features without any blocky appearance
and allows complex data to be stored in a minimum space. A point has no dimension.
Besides the (x, y) coordinates, other data must be stored to indicate what kind of point it
is and other information if any associated with it. Lines requires a minimum of two (x, y)
coordinates (straight line) to define a line. Polygons are represented by listing coordinates
of points around the boundary of the polygon. The beginning and end are the same point
thus making a closed area [9].
A GIS typically made up of a variety of information systems like Artographic
Display System, Map Digitizing System, database Management System, Geographic
Analysis System, Image Processing System, Statistical Analysis System and Decision
Support system.

Fig 1.1 GIS and Related Discipline

The most common method of structuring the geography of the real world in the
computer is to use a layered approach. Each layer is thematic and reflects either a
particular use or the characteristic of the landscape. In GIS, there are two types of data to
be managed: spatial data and attribute data. An entity (point, line or area) has both spatial
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(where things are) and attribute (what things are) data to describe it. Database offer more
than just a method of handling the attributes of spatial entities; they can help to convert
into information with value [9].
GIS carries out the integrated analysis, so as to spatially combine multiple
features to generate a composite theme. Data collection and digitizing/editing (to be
compatible for computer storage) are the most time-consuming activity. Visually
interpreted thematic maps and topographical maps need to be digitized [5].
GIS links spatial data with the geographical information about a particular feature
on a map. The information is stored as attributes of the geographically represented
feature. GIS technology integrates common database operations such as query and
statistical analysis with the unique visualization and benefits of geographic analysis that
is offered by the maps

[3]

. The visual presentation of results of water quality monitoring

helps us to give a clear picture of quality of surface water at a glance using GIS. The
complex relationship between various parameters can be easily studied if the water
quality results are presented in a visually appealing manner as a map rather than a set of
rows and columns of figures. The spatial distribution of water contaminants and other
water quality parameters can be displayed in an effective manner. This helps authorities
in taking effective measures to check water pollution and thereby to restore water quality.
1.9 STUDY AREA
The Akkulam- Veli Lake and their surrounding areas have become a region of
tourist attraction in recent years. It is situated approximately 5 km north-west of
Thiruvananthapuram between latitudes 825 and 835 N and longitudes 7650 and
7658 E and the lake is having an area of less than 1km 2 surrounded by lateritic hillocks.
Serious environmental degradation is being experienced by this system due to sewage
and the municipal solid waste generated in the City, eutrophication problem,
developmental activities, etc. Lack of flushing results in the piling up of the pollutants.
The lake is partially separated into two by the existence of a bund across the lake. The
western part of the lake having a length of 1.25 km with an average width of 100 m is the
Veli Kayal. The North Eastern part starting from the bund forms the Akkulam part of the

13

lake. For most part of the year these lakes remain separated from the sea by a sand bar
which is approximately 150 m and having a width of 20-40 m. The Pozhi remains open
usually for a period of 10-14 days depending upon the influx of land drainage to the lake.
Usually this episode repeats 6-8 times a year. The weeds which had a prolific growth
while the lake had a near fresh water condition are seen dying as they are intolerant to
saline water[8].
Two canals, viz. the Kulathur Canal and Parvathy Puthen Ar (Channankara Canal)
join the Veli Lake in the northern side. The Chakka Canal, also called as the Parvathy
Puthen Ar connects Veli kayal with the Poonthura kayal in the south. Seepage of sewage
from Muttathara Sewage Farm makes the canal water extremely polluted. Kannammoola
Thodu joins the eastern part of the Akkulam Lake. Sewage from the Thiruvananthapuram
City and drainage from the suburbs are brought into the lake through the Kannammoola
Thodu. The Kulathur canal brings in substantial quantities of fresh water to lake during
the southwest and northeast monsoon. The Veli lake is connected to the Akkulam lake by
a narrow channel. English India Clay Ltd is situated in southern bank of the Veli lake.
There is chance of entry of effluent from Travancore Titanium Products through sea
during the period of connection of lake with the sea. The lake is an excellent inland water
navigational tract and Kerala Tourism Development Corporation has developed Akkulam
and Veli boat club on its banks as major tourist attraction. This is also responsible for
man-made changes in the quality of water in the lake[12].
1.10 OBJECTIVES
Akkulam lake is one of the important tourist centers in the capital City and it attracts
tourists very much. Amayizhanchan Thodu the major discharge canal drains into the
Akkulam lake carrying sewage generated in the City and a heavy mass of silt and debris
is deposited in this lake. Other main problems faced by the lake are the weed problem
and erosion. A thorough study of the characteristic of the water quality was done in order
to study the eutrophication level in the lake. GIS interactive maps were prepared for
better understanding. Statistical analysis of water quality data was done. Trend analysis
was done through the WASP software.

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The objectives of the study are:

1.

Analysis of water samples monthly from different stations in the lake of

various physical, chemical and biological parameters.

2.

Analysis of sediment and its interpretation

3.

Water Quality assessment using the National Sanitation Foundation Water

Quality Index (NSF WQI)

4.

Display the variation of water quality parameters in the lake using GIS

5.

Display of pollution sources, adjacent local bodies and factories

6.

Statistical analysis of various water quality data of different parameters at

different stations.

7.

Assessment of eutrophic condition of lake using the Water Quality Index

8.

Suggest precautionary measures to be taken up for the total quality

improvement of the lake.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
15

The scarcity of drinking water is one of the most important crises of the 21 st
century. Most freshwater bodies the world over are becoming polluted, thus decreasing
the potability of the water. Eutrophication of natural waters is one of the significant
causes of decline in water quality. It is accompanied by a large quantity of plants in
water. Nitrates and phosphates are probably the key nutrients in controlling aquatic plant
growth.
A lake is a large body of water surrounded by land and inhabited by various
aquatic life forms. Lakes are subjected to various natural processes taking place in the
environment such as the hydrological cycle.

As a consequence of unprecedented

development, human beings are responsible for choking several lakes to death.
Sudhira et. al. (2000) observed that storm water runoff and discharge of sewage into the
lakes are two common ways that various nutrients enter the aquatic ecosystems resulting
in the death of those systems. Eutrophication is of great concern as it signifies the aging
of a lake. Marsden (1989) describes the variations in aquatic systems due to nutrient
enrichment; the eventual consequence of that enrichment is the growth of primary
production to nuisance proportions.

As per Jana et. al. (1995), the main cause of

eutrophication is excessive loading into the system of phosphorous and nitrogen,

resulting in high algal biomass, dominance by cyanobacteria and loss of macrophyte.
According to Vollenweider (1976), the concept of nutrient overloading has a great impact
on all subsequent eutrophication research and lake management.

Eutrophication is

accelerated as a result of human activities near or in a body of water that generate

residential wastes, untreated or partially treated sewage, agricultural runoff, urban
pollutants and so forth. Sewage or residential waste, consisting largely of phosphate
containing detergents, is a major source of nutrients in water bodies.

The U. S.

Environmental Protection Agency (1976) suggested that for phosphate, 0.08 ppm was the
critical level for the occurrence of eutrophication in lakes and reservoirs. The flow of
nutrients in the water may over stimulate the growth of algae. This creates conditions
that interfere with the recreational use of lakes and adversely affect the diversity of
indigenous fish, plant and animal populations.

16

Lathrop (1988) studied present trends in the summer levels of phosphorous,

chlorophyll and water clarity in the Yahare lake from 1976-1988. These three interrelated
parameters are indices of lake trophic state (degree to fertility). Phosphorous is generally
the nutrient causing lake eutrophication.

Chlorophyll-a, the primary photosynthetic

pigment, is a direct measure of algal biomass, Secchi disk transparency readings

represent an easily understood measure of the water quality of the lake of how green the
lakes are perceived.
Savita et. al. (2005) conducted study on nutrient overloading of Shahpura lake, a
fresh water lake of Bhopal. High phosphate content in the lake water revealed that
nutrient load in the lake was very high and hyper eutrophic conditions were prevailing.
The phosphate concentration in the water is very high as compared to the standard
guidelines. This condition was accompanied by a gradual filling up of the water body,
which became shallower from the accumulation of plants and sediments on the bottom
and also became smaller due to the invasion of shore vegetation. The extinction of the
lake can result because of enrichment, productivity, decay and sedimentation.
Yateesh Kandi.et.al reports that water quality in inland lakes is often described in
terms of tropic state (nutritional state). A lake with increased growth of phytoplankton is
called a Eutrophic Lake. The main reason for eutrophication in most lakes is
phosphorus loading. Because the different broad classes of algae have somewhat different
spectral response patterns, aerial and space imaging can distinguish them. By spectral
response, we mean the response of an object to the incident wavelength upon it. Each
object responds differently to the different wavelengths. This is described by its unique
response called Spectral Signature. The data collected from various sources (Aerial
Photographs, Satellite Images, Field Surveys and stored databases) will be integrated and
analyzed in a GIS to provide useful spatial information and temporal changes over large
geographic areas affecting the structure and function of lakes.
Sheela (2006) conducted study on the downstream stretch of the river Karamana.
14 samples from this stretch starting from Thiruvallom were collected and analyzed. The
variation in water quality with respect to each 18 water quality parameters was shown on
a map using the monitoring results with the help of Kirging method in the geostatistical
tool. Variation in water quality index in the stretch was also presented using GIS. This

17

will assist the concerned authority in analyzing the spatial distribution of Eutrophication
level in a lake. This will help them in taking decisions regarding usage of lake for
different purposes and also take countermeasures to control pollution level of the water
bodies.
Robert E. Carlson developed a numerical trophic state index for lakes that
incorporates most lakes in a scale of 0 to 100. Each major division (10, 20, 30, etc.)
represents a doubling in algal biomass. The index number can be calculated from any of
several parameters, including Secchi disk transparency, chlorophyll, and total
phosphorus.
K. Muniz1, A. studied a dataset comprising 12 oceanographic cruises (from 1979
to 1983), covering two regions in the Northwestern Mediterranean Sea (Gulf of Lyon and
Catalan Sea), was statistically analyzed for nitrate and phosphate relationships with
silicate, salinity and depth. This analysis provided a preliminary assessment of the datas
quality, as well as a predictor model of these nutrients below the surface layer. Results
from the statistical analysis showed no significant difference (P = 0.05), between the
regression equations (nitrate-depth and phosphate-salinity) of most cruises in the Gulf of
Lyon, indicating that these relationships do not change in this area, particularly in
summer and autumn. A significant relationship between nitrate and phosphate with
salinity and depth (multiple regressions) was observed, suggesting that nitrate and
phosphate distribution in the intermediate level are significantly related to the mixture of
the water masses and the degradation of organic matter. The phosphate data showed a
wide variance and a bias, probably due to procedural problems in the chemical analysis.
Below the Intermediate Levantine Water, results from the ANOVA showed no significant
variation of the phosphate and nitrate concentrations in the water column. However, a
spatial and temporal variation was observed in this level.
Sunil S. Shaha et.al characterized lakes as dynamic ecosystems that reflect their
specific characteristics, variations in climate, and biological components. The size of the
lake basin, its depth and volume, the size of the watershed and the quantity and quality of
water that enters the lake are important considerations. Lake management activities are
implemented on the basis of this information, including surface use regulations, aeration,
native and exotic aquatic plant management. Lake management issues related to the

18

physical characteristics of the lake will require data on the surface area, shape, depth and
volume of the lake. The inlet and outlet characteristics and bottom types are also
important. A detailed study and project reports are prepared for conservation and revival
of Rankala Lake at Kolhapur, Mahalaxmi Lake at Vadagaon and Mansi Ganga Lake at
Govardhan. The general methodology included Reconnaissance survey of lake and its
catchments, detailed survey of the lake area, gathering present and historical information.
The objective is to emulate a natural, self-regulating system that is integrated ecologically
with the landscape in which it occurs. Management towards this end should emphasize
the long-term sustenance of historical and natural functions as well as values. The
preliminary step that is proposed in restoring lake for their long-term sustenance.
Muraleedharan Nair et.al.(1998) conducted various physical and chemical studies
in the water and sediment quality parameters and concluded that for most part of the year,
the lake as a whole is in a highly degraded state. The study revealed that the chief
sources of pollutants to this lacustrine system are from the municipal and domestic
sewage and untreated or partially treated industrial effluent discharged in to the system.
Lack of natural flushing, elevated values of nutrient content and near-fresh water
conditions of the lake aids in the prolific growth of aquatic weeds, especially the water
hyacinth. It was recommended to take coordinated approach for salvaging and sustaining
this lake system by involving planners, scientists, environmentalists, technocrats and
administrators.

CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
19

3.1 GENERAL
The knowledge on the physico-chemical parameters of a lacustrine system is of
great importance while attempting to characterize its general features, distribution pattern
of various pollutants, salinity intrusion, abundance of nutrients, etc. Its essential to
analyze various sediment and water quality parameters to assess the health of a lacustrine
system. Hydrographic features such as temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO),
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), salinity, nutrients, etc., of the lake are greatly
influenced by topographic, climatic and anthropogenic factors. Sediments act as sinks to
various pollutants introduced into the water body.
3.2 WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
The study area, Akkulam lake is situated in Thiruvananthapuram District of
Kerala, India. For the present investigation to study the degradation of the lake, six sets of
samples from February to July 2008 were collected from ten selected locations. Water
samples were collected with utmost care. As far as possible samples were taken from the
same place at the same time of the day. Water samples were collected in sterilized plastic
bottles. The collections were made during the day time. The temperature of the water
samples were examined at the spot by means of a good grade Celsius thermometer.
Maximum care was taken for the collection of samples, their preservation and storage as
per the APHA standards. The physico-chemical characteristics of the water samples were
analyzed using the standard methods (APHA. et al., 1995). The parameters analyzed are
pH, Electrical conductivity, Turbidity, Secchi Distance, Chemical Oxygen Demand,
Suspended solids, Total dissolved solids, Dissolved Oxygen, Biological oxygen demand,
Ammoniacal Nitrogen, Nitrite, Nitrate, Sulphate, Phosphate, Total Phosphorous,
Chlorophyll

(may),

Chloride,

Total

Coliform

and

Fecal

Coliform.

3.3 SEDIMENT ANALYSIS

20

Sedimentation is a spontaneous natural process and the analysis of the sediments has
greater attention in the world due to the growing awareness of environmental pollution
and its impact on the ecosystem. Four sampling stations were selected for investigation.
Sediments were scooped up from the sampling locations by using a Van Veen Grab. A
part of the sediment samples was oven dried at 100 105 C overnight and finely
powdered. The organic carbon content of the sediment was estimated by the method of
El-Wakeel and Riley(1957). The pH and conductivity of the sediment samples were
determined using the pH meter and conductivity meter. Textural Analysis of the sediment
samples was done using the Wet sieving and Pipette method.
3.4 DISPLAY WATER QUALITY INDEX
Water quality index serves as a tool to examine trends, to highlight specific water
quality conditions. National Sanitation Foundation Water Quality Index (NSF WQI) is
used for the study.
Table 3.1 Equations for Water Quality Parameters (NSF WQI)
Water Quality
Parameter
Percentage Saturation
DO

Range
Applicable
0 40%

Equation

DO`= 0.18+0.66x(% saturation

DO)
40 100%
DO`= -13.5+1.17x(% saturation
DO)
100 140% DO`= 163.34-0.62x(% saturation
DO)
BOD(mg/L)
0 10
BOD`= 96.67-7.00x(BOD)
10 30
BOD`= 38.90-1.23x(BOD)
pH
25
pH`= 16.10+ 7.35x (pH)
5 7.3
pH`= -142.67- 33.5x (pH)
7.3 10
pH`= 316.96- 29.85x (pH)
10 12
pH`= 96.17- 8.00x (pH)
Fecal
1 103
Coli`= 97.20-26.80xlog(FC)
3
5
Coliforms(No/100mL) 10 -10
Coli`= 42.33-7.75xlog(FC)
5
10
Coli`= 2
(Source: Water Quality Analysis Statistical CPCB )

Correlation
Coefficient
0.99
0.99
-0.99
-0.99
-0.95
0.925
0.99
-0.98
-0.93
-0.99
-0.98
-

21

It has been calculated on the basis of water quality parameters namely dissolved oxygen,
fecal coliforms, pH and BOD. In order to facilitate easy computation of the sub indices,
mathematical equations could be fitted. Table 3.1 lists the regression equations for the
four water quality parameters of concern. The variation of NSF WQI can be shown in a
map as mentioned above. The variation can be described on the basis of the following
descriptor words suggested for reporting the NSFWQI.
Table 3.2 Descriptor words for reporting NSF WQI
NSF WQI
Descriptor words
0-25
Very bad
26-50
Bad
51-70
Medium
71-90
good
91-100
Excellent
(Source: Water Quality Analysis Statistical CPCB )
3.5 CREATING THEMATIC MAPS USING GIS
GIS is a tool, which will help the designers for storing and retrieving the required
information with ease and work in a systematic manner. Spatial data is obtained from
topological maps of the study area (scale 1:50, 000) were obtained from CED. 58D14
and 58D15 are the topo sheets of the study area. Location of water sampling stations was
obtained using Geographic Positioning System available with the CED.
The study area has every chance of developments in near future. Thus it needs a very
careful thought and well-documented studies of various aspects of the project area. The
details of topography, road network and effect of various water qualities are also
important parameters. The first step in a GIS project is to create a digital map database.
Now that the database is complete, the analysis phase of the project begins. Spatial
analysis will identify the intensity of various water quality parameters.
3.5.1 Map Projection

22

Georeferencing is the method by which a relationship can be established between

the map coordinates and the corresponding real world coordinates.

This process

requires high level of accuracy. Map was georefernced.

The spherically undulating nature of the earth surface, when represented on twodimensional maps, result in some distortions unless a curved surface is used to
represent it. Map projection is defined as a mathematical formula for representing the
curved surface of the earth on a flat surface of a map. It defines the relationship
between the map co-ordinates and the corresponding real world co-ordinates. The map
projection used in this work is GCS_WGS-1984.
3.5.2 Integrating data map Overlay
The ability to integrate data from two sources using map overlay is perhaps the
key GIS analysis function. Using GIS it is possible to take different thematic map layers
of the same area and overlay them one on top of the other to form a new layer. The
technique of GIS map overlay may be linked to sieve mapping, to overlaying of tracing
of paper maps on a light table.
Map overlay has many applications. As one layer it can be used for the visual
comparison of data layers. Overlays where new spatial data sets are created involve the
merging of data from two or more input data layers to create a new output data layer.
3.5.3 Spatial Interpolation
Spatial interpolation is the procedure of estimating the values of properties at un
sampled sites with an area covered by existing observations. A common application of
interpolation is for the construction of height contours.
Kriging is an interpolation technique in which the surrounding measured values
are weighted to derive a prediction for an unmeasured location. Weights are based on the
distance between the measured points, the prediction locations, and the overall spatial
arrangement among the measured points. Kriging is based on regionalized variable
theory, which assumes that the spatial variation in the data being modeled is statistically
homogeneous throughout the surface. That is, the same pattern of variation can be
observed at all locations on the surface.

23

A GIS offers many options for creating customized maps and reports. ARC MAP
is used for the mapping needs, and INFO to generate the final report. The map contains a
series of themes or coverages and descriptive information to interpret the information on
the map.
3.6 CARLSON WATER QUALITY INDEX
Carlson trophic state index was developed for use with lakes that have few rooted
aquatic plants and little non-algal turbidity. Use of the index with lakes that do not have
these characteristics is not appropriate.
The formulas for calculating the Carlson Trophic State Index values for Secchi
disk, chlorophyll a, and total phosphorus are given below:
TSI = 60 - 14.41 ln Secchi disk (meters)
TSI = 9.81 ln Chlorophyll a (ug/L) + 30.6
TSI = 14.42 ln Total phosphorus (ug/L) + 4.15
where TSI = Carlson trophic state index
ln = natural logarithm
Ranges of trophic state index values are often grouped into trophic state classifications.
The range between 40 and 50 is usually associated with mesotrophy (moderate
productivity). Index values greater than 50 are associated with eutrophy (high
productivity). Values less than 40 are associated with oligotrophy (low productivity).
Carlson's index uses a log transformation of Secchi disk values as a measure of
algal biomass on a scale from 0 - 110. Each increase of ten units on the scale represents a
doubling of algal biomass. Because chlorophyll a and total phosphorus are usually
closely correlated to Secchi disk measurements, these parameters can also be assigned
trophic state index values. The Carlson trophic state index is useful for comparing lakes
within a region and for assessing changes in trophic status over time.

24

Secchi depth is often the only variable that can be inexpensively measured.
Priority is given to chlorophyll, because this variable is the most accurate of the three at
predicting algal biomass. According to Carlson, total phosphorous may be better than
chlorophyll at predicting summer trophic state from winter samples and transparency
should be used if there are no better methods available.
The possible interpretations of deviations of the index values are given below:
Table 3.3 Relationship between TSI Variables
Relationship Between TSI Variables Conditions
TSI(Chl) = TSI(TP) = TSI(SD)
TSI(Chl) > TSI(SD)
TSI(TP) = TSI(SD) > TSI(CHL)
TSI(SD) = TSI(CHL) > TSI(TP)

Algae dominate light attenuation; TN/TP ~ 33:1

Large particulates, such as Aphanizomenon flakes,
dominate
Non-algal particulates or color dominate light
attenuation
Phosphorus limits algal biomass (TN/TP >33:1)
Algae dominate light attenuation but some factor

TSI(TP) >TSI(CHL) = TSI(SD)

such as nitrogen limitation, zooplankton grazing or

toxics limit algal biomass.

3.7 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS

Data from 10 Stations from February to July 2008 were statistically analyzed and
relationship of each station with Ammoniacal Nitrogen, nitrite, nitrate and phosphate
were examined. The statistical analysis conducted in this study had an objective to
establish a predictive model by observing which of all the regression relations from all
various stations did not vary throughout the period. Samples were collected at each
station and nutrient analyses were performed on untreated samples. Correlation and
regression help in developing and interpreting relationship between water quality
parameters and rationalizing monitoring network.

Comparisons among the set of

25

regression equations for all stations were made. From these linear regression equations, a
predictor was defined for each nutrient based on two criteria: adjusted R2 (the highest);
root mean square error (sqrtMS) (the lowest). Those criteria were used to choose the
predictive model. From them, and because this resulting regression best illustrated the
distribution of the nutrients in the lake (> R2), we were able to select a regression relation
that was constant in time and space.

CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 GENERAL
As industrialization and urbanization progressed the aquatic ecosystem became
loaded with enormous quantities of nutrients, sediments and toxic materials. For the
26

assessment of the environmental quality and protection, monitoring of pollutants present

in the environment is highly essential. The unique feature of the Lake permits sea-lake
relation and interaction leading to large scale exchange of water and sediments.
4.2 WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
The present study was carried out for six months from February to July 2008. Values of
various physico-chemical parameters for the ten stations; Near Amayizhanchan thodu,
Before Boat Club, After Boat club, Centre of Akkulam Lake, Manakkunnu,
Oruvathilkotta, Near T. S. Canal, Near English Indian Clays, Near SIFFS and Near Sea
from February to July 2008 was plotted. Data for the month of February 2008 are shown
in Appendix I

4.2.1 pH
When pH is outside the range of 5.5 to 8.5, most aquatic organisms become
stressed and populations of some species can become depressed or disappear entirely.

27

28

Fig 4.1. Seasonal Variation of pH

Raw sewage reaches the Akkulam lake through Amayizhanchan thodu. At this point, pH
is having a minimum of 6.2 in February. The minimum value of pH 6.16 was recorded at
station after this point (beyond boat club) in February. Then it was increased to 6.68 at
the centre of Akkulam lake. At the point where T. S. canal meets the Veli lake, pH is 6.74
and near sea, its value is 6.79. This may be due to nearness to the sea. Increase in pH was
observed in April, May and June due to rain. Occasional breaching of the sand bar during
rainy season results in intrusion of sea water having pH so that Veli side of the lake water
has higher pH values during monsoon.
4.2.2

Turbidity
Turbidity in water is caused by the presence of suspended matter, such as clay, silt

colloidal organic particles, Plankton and other microscopic organisms. Turbidity is an

expression of certain light scattering and light-absorbing properties of water. Turbidity is
an important parameter for characterizing the water quality.

29

Fig 4.2 Seasonal Variation of Turbidity

30

Raw sewage enters the Akkulam lake through Amayizhanchan thodu. Maximum turbidity
(33.8 NTU) was observed in February at this point and this may be due to the turbid
particles in sewage. A maximum value of 49.8 NTU (March) was observed near the sea.
It is seen that turbidity increases during the monsoon periods at all stations.
4.2.3 Electrical conductivity
Conductivity is a measure of the ability of water to conduct an electric current,
which is dependent upon the concentration of charged particles (ions) dissolved in the
water. Minimum value of 100microSiemens was observed and a maximum value of
5100micro Siemens was observed during July.

31

Fig 4.3. Seasonal Variation of Electrical conductivity

In Akkulam lake where sewage enters the water body, electrical conductivity is less as
less inorganic ions are present in sewage. It ranges from 380 to300 micro siemens. It is
seen that the conductivity increases towards sea and the conductivity is maximum at 2100
micro siemens near sea at Veli lake in June.

32

4.2.4 Dissolved oxygen and biological oxygen demand

Oxygen in the dissolved form is essential to maintain biological life in water. .
Dissolved Oxygen concentration is an important gauge of existing water quality and the
ability of a water body to support well balanced aerobic conditions.

33

Fig 4.4 Seasonal variations of DO and BOD

The main sources of dissolved oxygen in water are the atmosphere and aquatic
plants. In Akkulam lake where sewage enters through Amayizhanchan thodu, lower value
of dissolved oxygen was observed. It is nil in May. In the centre of the Akkulam lake, its
value is zero in March and April. Very low values in DO content is observed in stations
located in the Akkulam side of the lake system. The organic pollution is the main reason
for the depletion of dissolved oxygen in the lake. The Kannammoola Thodu and Chakka
Thodu bring in organic rich land drainage and sewage. There is improvement in the
quality of water Veli lake towards the sea.

34

Biological Oxygen Demand indicates the amount of oxygen required for the
biological oxidation of organic matter. BOD has an inverse relationship with the DO and
direct relation with the phytoplankton. The minimum value of Biological Oxygen
Demand was recorded at the centre of the Aakkulam lake, 0.6mg/l (March) and
maximum value was recorded at the point were Amayizhanchan thodu meets the
Aakkulam lake, 25.8mg/l (February). Lower BOD values can be observed near the sea.
4.2.5 Chloride
Chloride occurs naturally in all types of fresh water. Chloride is a mobile ion,
meaning it is not removed by chemical or biological processes in soil or water. Many
products associated with human activities contain chloride (e.g., de-icing salts, water
softener salts, and bleach). Although most fish are not affected until chloride
concentrations exceed 750 PPM, increasing chloride concentrations are indicative of
other pollutants associated with human activity (such as automotive fluids from roads or
nutrients / bacteria from septic systems) reaching our waterways.

35

Fig 4.5. Seasonal variation of Chloride

The chloride concentration in the present study ranged having a maximum of 1450mg/L
in July and having a minimum of 27mg/L in April. Its usually seen that higher values are
observed near the Veli side of the lake due to also of the intrusion of sea water along with
the drainage from land and sewage. In the present study chloride concentration is heavy
due to sewage disposal (BIS. 1996, 250mg/l) and industrial pollution.

36

4.2.6

Ammoniacal Nitrogen, Nitrite and Nitrate

Nutrients play an important role in an aquatic environment, which mainly governs

the phytoplankton growth and diversity. Nitrates are the end products of decomposition
of organic matter and indicate that organic matter is fully oxidized.

37

Fig 4.6 Seasonal variations of Ammonia cal Nitrogen, nitrite and nitrate
In present study maximum concentration of ammoniacal nitrogen is found at
station where Amayizhanchan thodu meets Akkulam Lake and it is also maximum at the
station where T. S. canal meets Veli lake. It is seen that the input of sewage into the lake
has a profound effect in summer. Nitrites are the products obtained by the oxidation of
ammonia. Nitrates are the fully oxidized form of ammoniacal compounds.
4.2.7 Phosphate
Phosphate is a vital nutrient for the growth of phytoplankton. Maximum
concentration of 1.01mg/L was observed in February which may be due to eutrophication
and a minimum of 0.032mg/L in July near the Pozhi. Phosphate concentration above
2mg/l is considered as an indication of high pollution.

38

39

Fig 4.7. Seasonal Variation of Phosphate

The excessive weed growth in the Akkulam Veli Lake has resulted in
impairment of many of the lake related activities. In addition, phosphorous is contributed
to the water body by domestic sewage, industrial effluent and drainage from agricultural
lands where excess phosphatic fertilizers are used.
4.2.8

Total Hardness
Hard water forms precipitates on boiling or when soap is added to it. Hardness is

due to the presence of calcium, magnesium or ferrous (iron salts) as chloride, sulphate or
bicarbonates. The degree of hardness is equivalent to CaCO3 concentration and
designated as soft (0-60 mg/1), medium hard (60-120 mg/1), hard (120-180 mg/1), very
hard (>180 mg/1).

40

Fig 4.8 Seasonal Variation of Total Hardness

41

Higher values of total hardness are found near the Pozhi. Its value varies from 138 to
296 mg/l in this area. This may be due to nearness to the sea. The values of total
hardness are 56 mg/l at Oruvathilkotta and 296 mg/l near sea.
4.3 SEDIMENT ANALYSIS
Lakes display a wide variety of geological and physiographic characteristics. Samples
were collected from four stations for analysis during December 2007, April 2008 and July
2008. Hydrogen ion concentration of soil depends largely on relative amounts of the
absorbed hydrogen and metallic ions. Hydrogen ion concentration of sediments samples
get drastically changed due to disposal of industrial waste sewage etc. The four stations
selected are the following given below
Where Station1 Amayizhanchan thodu
Station 2 Akkulam_Centre
Station 3 Veli_TS canal
Station 4 Veli_near sea shore
4.3.1 pH and Electrical Conductivity
pH of sediments ranged from 3.58-7.29 and conductivity from 500 4940mS/cm.
At Station 3 there may be a contamination from the English India clay Ltd causing a
lowering of pH of 3.58 at April 2008. A high conductivity of 4940mS/cm is observed at
station 2 due to eutrophication during December 2007.
Table 4.1 pH of sediment samples
Location
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4

December 2007
5.35
5.37
5.68
7.29

April 2008
5.40
5.42
3.58
5.78

Table 4.2 Conductivity (mS/cm) of sediment samples

42

Location
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4

December 2007
1038
4940
2680
500

April 2008
1015
2550
3340
460

4.3.2 Texture
Texture of the sediment samples showed that the silt content was greater near the
Amayizhanchan thodu ie. the upper reaches of the lake and sand and clay was greater
near the sea station.
Table 4.3 Texture of sediment samples
Location December 2007
April 2008
Sand% Silt% Clay% Sand% Silt% Clay%
Station
7.7
92.14 0.16
1
Station

9.8

88.8

1.4

0.165

50.48

49.59

2
Station

45.4

53.57

1.03

11.38

25.95

62.67

3
Station

71.1

27.4

1.5

50

45.43

4.57

4
4.3.3 Organic Carbon
Suspended organic matter received by the lake through land run off, sewage etc
settle and forms part of bottom sediments. Dead aquatic plants and organisms also
contribute much to the organic content of the sediments. Enriched with organic matter,
the sediments acts as good reservoir of nutrients.

Table 4.4 Percentage organic carbon of sediment samples

Location
Station 1

December 2007
2.032%

April 2008
1.978

43

Station 2
Station 3
Station 4

7.5%
7.15%
0

7.112%
6.5%
0.226%

Maximum value of 7.5% was recorded at station 2 during December 2007 and
minimum value of 0 was observed at station 4 during December 2007. The sediments at
Akkulam part comprise of silty clay while that in the Veli part is sandy. Contribution by
Kannammoola Thodu and debris of aquatic weeds are also more at Akkulam part of the
lake.
4.4 WATER QUALITY INDEX
Water quality index serves as a tool to examine trends, to highlight specific water
quality conditions. National Sanitation Foundation Water Quality Index is used for the
study. It has been calculated on the basis of water quality parameters namely dissolved
oxygen, fecal coliform, pH and BOD. The variation can be described on the basis of the
following descriptor words suggested for reporting the NSF WQI. These codes could be
effectively used to classify the water quality while preparing the water quality maps. This
information could be then readily used to take suitable control actions for water quality
restoration or improvement.
Table 4.5 NSF WQI for the Summer and Monsoon Period
Stations
Amayizhanchan Thodu
After Boat Club
Manakkunnu
TS Canal
SIFFS

Summer
34.21
37.08
29.57
33.87
41.74

Monsoon
36.64
36.90
39.72
39.92
40.23

Variation of water quality index along the Lake is seen above in Table 4.5. Water
Quality of the lake is described to be bad according to NSF WQI. Water quality index
is 29.57 at Manakkunnu indicating water quality is bad at this point mainly due to low
mixing. Water quality indices at TS Canal and SIFFS are ranging from 33.87 to 41.74
respectively indicating quality of water is bad at these points due to the land drainages.

44

4.5 CREATION OF THEMATIC MAPS USING GIS

The result of geographic analysis can be communicated by maps (a graphical
representation of data), reports ( a written description of the results) or both. The final
product should relate directly to the objectives of the project. The Thiruvananthapuram
corporation is digitized. The details of the major existing roads have been delineated from
1:50,000 scale Survey of India Topographical sheets. A base map is a general topological
map that covers the lake and includes important features of the area such as:
1. Road layout maps
2. Streams and tributaries contributing towards the lake
3. Variation of different water quality parameters in the lake for prediction of values
at any point in the lake.
4. To evaluate potential sources of contamination to the Lake. Determination
susceptibility to contaminant source inventoried within source. The GPS Unit
Trimble Geoexplorer 3 was used to collect information about the actual point
source. The most common sources of contaminants found were the sewage
pumping stations, medical institutions, industries etc.
The stations from where different water samples are taken for the analysis are the
following
I. Akkulam Lake
1. Near Amayizhanchan thodu
2. Before Boat Club
3 After Boat club
4. Centre of Akkulam Lake
5. Manakkunnu
6. Oruvathilkotta
II. Veli Lake
7. Near T. S. Canal

45

8. Near English Indian Clays

9. Near SIFFS
10. Near Sea

46

Fig 4.9 Thematic map showing sample points

47

Fig 4.10 Thematic map showing road and railway network

48

Fig 4.11 Thematic map showing Lake, stream and tributaries

49

Fig 4.12 Thematic map showing BOD variation

Fig 4.12 shows BOD is higher towards the Veli lake causing a profound effect on
the SIFFS station.

50

Fig 4.13. Thematic map showing DO variation

Fig 4.13 shows DO is very low in Akkulam lake due to the drains from the
Amayizhanchan Thodu and Parvathy Puthenar. Whereas DO increases as it moves
towards the sea due to the intrusion from the sea

51

Fig 4.14 Thematic map showing COD variation

Fig 4.14 shows COD is very much higher towards the Veli lake and at some
stations of the Akkulam lake because COD is mainly contributed due to the drains from
the land drainage and industrial effluents

52

Fig 4.15 Thematic map showing pH variation

Fig 4.15 show pH is higher at English India Clay Ltd station due to the
contamination from the industry. Whereas the station where Amayizhanchan Thodu
meets the Akkulam lake has lower pH due to acidic sewage draining from the Thodu.

53

Fig 4.16 Thematic map showing Sources of contamination

Fig 4.16 shows the contamination sources in the Thiruvananthapuram corporation
contributing towards the Akkulam Veli lake causing the deterioration of the lake.
Contamination mainly occurs due to the overflows from the pumping stations, sewage
farm, boat club, English India clay ltd and land drainages.

54

Fig 4.17 Overflow from Pattoor Pumping Station

Fig 4.18 Overflow from Plamood Pumping Station

55

Fig 4.19 Overflow from Murinjapalam Pumping Station

Fig 4.20 Overflow from Kannamoola Pumping Station

56

Fig 4.21 Thematic map showing Contour layout

Fig 4.21 shows the digital elevation model of the Thiruvananthapuram Corporation.
Most of the land drains flows directly into the lake due to gravity flow.

57

4.6 ASSESSMENT OF EUTROPHIC CONDITION OF THE LAKE

The Trophic Status Index can serve as a standard of trophic measurement against
which comparisons can be made between the many chemical and biological components
of the lake system that are related to trophic status. The result could be a more complete
and dynamic picture of how these components relate to one another and to the lake
ecosystem as a whole.
TSI values for the month of May are plotted in fig 4.22. The Total Phosphorous
and Secchi Disk TSI values remained higher than the Chlorophyll TSI values.
Chlorophyll or total phosphorus is not considered as the basis of a definition of trophic
state but only as indicators of a more broadly defined concept. The best indicator of
trophic status may vary from lake to lake and also seasonally. The lake was receiving
most of its phosphorous from sewage effluent and their was noticeable deterioration of
water quality near the boat club and centre of Akkulam Lake. Heavy algal blooms are
possible throughout the summer with dense macrophyte beds, but extent limited by light
penetration. Often its classified as hypereutrophic.

Fig 4.22 Tropic status index of the lake

Fig 4.22 shows that the TSI values of chlorophyll lies in the range of 30-50 i.e in
the mesotrophic state. TSI values of total phosphorous and Secchi distance lies in the
range of 70-90i.e in the hypereutrohic state. According to the relation non algal
particulates or colour dominate light attenuation.

58

Fig 4.23 TSI of Phosphorous

Fig 4.23 shows that the high TSI value of phosphorous is seen in the Akkulam lake due to
high eutrophication.

59

When chlorophyll values are converted to TSI, however, they can be seen to be
responding rapidly to enrichment, and the changes parallel those in the TSI values based

Fig 4.24 TSI of Secchi Disk

60

on transparency. Lakes will become anoxic in the hypolimnion during the summer.

61

Fig 4.24 shows that high TSI value of Secchi distance is observed at station after boat
club due to eutrophication.

62

Fig 4.25 TSI of Chlorophyll

The index can be used for regional classification of all surface waters, including
streams and rivers. Any body of water could be classified using the total phosphorus
index, which is essentially a predictor of potential algal biomass

63

4.7 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

The simple linear regression was determined for the ten stations from February to
July 2008, using the variables ammoniacal nitrogen, nitrite, nitrate and phosphate. From
the correlation matrix given in Table 4.6, it is seen that a strong linear relationship exists
at certain stations.

Ammoniacal

Station

nitrogen

Nitrite-N

Nitrate-N

Phosphate

Akkulam Lake
1. Amayizhanchan (5.232-0.248x)

0.078

0.221

(4.928-4.398x)

Thodu
2. Beyond

0.346

0.307

0.826
(5.448-10.95x)

0.158

0.617
(5.419-10x)

0.714
(4.64-8.29x)

0.243

0.626
0.167

0.782
boat (5.422-0.307x)

club
3. After Boat club
4.

Centre

0.782
0.197

of (4.94-0.337x)

(4.823-26.91x)

Akkulam Lake
5. Manakkunnu

0.623
0.367

0.677
(5.06-10.74x)

(3.95-0.42x)

0.173

6. Oruvathilkotta

(4.99-0.317x)

0.694
0.071

0.616
0

0.164

0.692

64

Veli Lake
7. TS Canal
0.434
8. English India (5.101-0.512x)

0.383
(4.69-11.62x)

0.465
0.297

0
(5.618-12.54x)

Clay Ltd
9. SIFFS

0.675
0.414

0.782
(5.73-17.38x)

0.265

0.666
(5.695-14.55x)

10. Veli near sea

0.332

0.863
(5.27-24.82x)

0.187

0.691
(4.823-6.43x)

0.759
0.809
Table 4.6 Correlation significance of ammoniacal nitrogen, nitrite, nitrate and
phosphate with stations
Sampling stations indicate that the ammoniacal nitrogen samples drawn near the
Amayizhanchan Thodu (Station 1) have higher scores compared to other Stations. This is
clearly due to the fact that Station 1 is influenced by the inflow of sewage from the
Amayizhanchan Thodu which also brings in the nutrients, especially phosphate. Whereas
nitrate rises toward the Manakkunnu as complete oxidation of ammonium takes place and
is the final oxidation stage. At station 1,2 and 6 the sewage is input into the lake through
the Amayizhanchan Thodu and Parvathy Puthenar causes an increase in ammoniacal
nitrogen which gives a high relationship with those stations. Whereas the nitrite and
nitrate has lower values as decomposition of the organic matter is yet to be started at
those stations. Sewage is relatively rich in phosphorous compounds also which causes a
high relation at station 1 and 10 due to the sewage input from Amayizhanchan Thodu and
due to the intrusion from sea.
The stations included in this predictive model for ammoniacal nitrogen are:
Amayizhanchan Thodu, beyond boat club, centre of Akkulam lake, Oruvathilkotta and
English India Clay Ltd. The general predictive model is:
Y= 18.820 0.692x (Y = Station and x = Ammoniacal Nitrogen)
The general predictive equation for nitrite includes station After Boat club, Centre of
Akkulam lake, Manakkunnu, English India clay ltd, SIFFS and Veli near sea:
Y = 16.129 0.312x (Y = Station and x = nitrite).
The general predictive equation for nitrate includes station Manakkunnu:
Y = 3.95-0.42x (Y = Station and x = nitrate).
The general predictive equation for phosphate includes station Amayizhanchan Thodu,
after boat club, beyond boat club, English India clay ltd, SIFFS and Veli near sea:
65

Y = 21.762 16.198x (Y = Station and x = nitrate).

CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS
Water is more prone to pollution than air. The surface water bodies like lakes, rivers
and streams are more prone to pollution. Thus regular monitoring of hydrological
parameters is a prerequisite for the proper evaluation. The present paper analyzes the lake
water quality data collected from the Akkulam Lake. Important water quality issues
include the biological productivity of a lake (trophic state), water chemistry profiles,
nutrient concentrations, specific pollutants and historical trends.

Comparatively lower pH is observed during monsoon season. Saline water

intrusion due to occasional breaching of sand bar during monsoon months
contributes to spikes in pH value in Veli side of the Lake water

Increase in BOD values, nutrients and decrease in DO content are due to input
from the domestic sewage and industrial effluents. Lack of natural flushing,
elevated values of nutrients content and near fresh water condition help prolific
growth of aquatic weeds.

In the present study it was revealed that the most polluted stations are in the upper
reaches of the lake resulting in lower dissolved oxygen and a high amount of
biological oxygen demand.

Sediments are mud dominated in the Akkulam part and enriched in sand towards
the Veli side. The Akkulam part is slowly silted up due to drains from
Kannammoola Thodu, dispersed sources and debris from aquatic weeds
66

Water Quality Index shows that water quality is very bad at Manakkunnu. A large
quantity of sewage generated in the Thiruvananthapuram city reaches the lake
through the Amayizhanchan Thodu and Parvathy Puthenar and that is the main
reason for the deterioration of water quality. The problem can be solved only by
the installation of adequate treatment plant for the sewage generated especially in
the Corporation area.

Thematic maps were prepared, showing the variation of different water quality
parameters hence able to predict the values at various points and also the sources
of pollution into the Lake.

Assessment using Trophic Status Index indicates that the Lake lies in the
Hypereutrophic state as the index is used for regional classification of all surface
waters, including streams and rivers based on the biological productivity.

Statistical model has been constructed, which explains the relationships between
the various physicochemical variables that have been monitored and the
environmental conditions. Ammoniacal nitrogen and phosphate concentration has
higher relation with respect to those stations were the sewage input is received
from Amayizhanchan Thodu and Parvathy Puthenar. Nitrite and nitrate has lower
relation at those stations as oxidation of organic matter has not yet started.
This may harmfully affect the water quality and the flora and fauna, which
lead to the ecological imbalance of our environment. Hence it is highly essential
to control the anthropogenic activities in and around the lake so as to exploit these
resources sustainably for domestic as well as economic purposes.

67

CHAPTER 6
SUGGESTIONS
Lakes are hub for the socio economic activities of the country besides being a major
attraction

for

the

tourists

from

distant

places.

The

sewerage

system

in

Thiruvananthapuram city was commissioned in 1945. The system was designed in such a
way that the overflow i.e. excess sewage above the holding capacity in the pumping
stations due to pumping breakdown caused by power failure, break down of pump sets
etc., should reach the nearest canal/rivers. Now the population and the number of houses
in the City have increased many folds and the inflow into the sewage pumping stations
also has increased. The system has exceeded its designed capacity resulting in the
discharge of a large quantity of raw sewage as overflow into the Akkulam Lake through
the Amayizhanchan Thodu and Parvathy Puthenar. Only some part of the total quantity
of sewage reaches the sewage farm. The sewage farm which is in use since 1940 can
take care of a small quantity of sewage.
A large quantity of rain/seepage enters the system during rainy season although the
sewerage scheme is designed for disposal of sewage and sullage. A large quantity of
sewage goes as overflow at many places such as through manholes, sump wells in the
pumping stations reaches the Akkulam Lake through T. S. Canal, Amayizhancan thodu
and Parvathy puthenar due to the inadequacy of the existing system and negligence of
some of the pump operators.
The conservation and protection of lake involves not only buffering lake from
direct human pressures but also maintaining important natural processes that operate on
the lake from outside, which may be altered by human activities. The preliminary step
that is proposed in restoring lake for their long-term sustenance includes pollution
68

impediment, removal of algae, floating and submerged aquatic weeds, dilution and
flushing, desiltation (wet dredging), chemical remediation / bioremediation and
catchments treatment. The living conditions of the local inhabitants are highly deplorable.
It is estimated that Akkulam Lake is degraded due to the input of 21 mld of sewage from
the drains inflowing in to the lake. The oxygen demand level of the water body is too
high, indicating unfair situation for the growth of biological and aquatic species.
First and foremost is to treat the inflow in to the lake to have desired level of
quality, and to control the sewage inlet to the canal and inflow of domestic effluents.
Badly damaged reaches of the canal need to be protected. Sewage treatment plants are to
be energized. Sewage Treatment Plants have to be installed at various places. These
plants should be positioned so that polluted water can be treated before discharge into the
lake. Both secondary treatment and tertiary treatment are important. This is a very
expensive process. Decentralized sewage treatment system has been suggested. FAB
(fluidized aerobic bio-reactor) technology has been found suitable due to land scarcity
and low power requirement The sewage from the treatment plant will be used to produce
150 kilo watt of hydel power.
The simplest way to manage weed problem is to harvest it and utilize it for useful
products like utilization in animal feed, biogas generation, handicrafts, paper industries,
etc. In some parts of India it is also used as a medicinal plant. The main problem of
utilization and management of water hyacinth is its high cost of transportation to the
disposable site or factories. To overcome this problem a mechanical system was
developed at College of Technology and Engineering, Udaipur, India which chops and
crushes water hyacinth simultaneously in a single pass and reduces its volume. Hence
such a system can be adopted.
Processes of supplementing the flushing system are to be ensured. Providing
groynes at the mouth of the inlets to the sea will be helpful in ensuring free flow of water
from the stream to the sea. Proper investigation and studies are to be carried out before
designing the system.
The entire length of thodu bed should be desilted and the unwanted vegetative
growths will be removed so as to ensure free flow of surface water. Canal fencing has
been recommended in the thickly populated areas near the thodu to avoid solid waste

69

dumping. Provision is also made for the construction of foot bridges. Silt traps and drains
should be constructed wherever required along the periphery. Desilted sludge should be
removed from the banks of the lake as soon as possible. The desilted sludge can be taken
for land filling and if organic carbon is low, could be used for making bricks.
Sanitation of the local residents by the side of Parvathy Puthanar is to be
improved considerably. Most of the households have simply kept the outlets of their
toilets and latrines direct to the canal for economic reasons.
The drainage connections to the Parvathy Puthanar canal and to all public water
bodies are necessarily to be cut off and covered septic tanks to be provided for all the
houses.
Protection works are required at Vazhavila to Akkulam, fencing the canal to
prevent pollution and Renovation of Poonthura to Akkulam reach of Parvathy Puthanar.
Contamination of water is yet another problem faced by the lake. The fertilizers
and pesticides used for agricultural activities in the nearby area get intruded into the lake,
for which necessary barriers need to be constructed. Desiltation of the lake is also
necessary for increasing its capacity. Desiltation and removal of age old wastes & rubbish
thrown into it will reduce the BOD level of water, thus helping to enhance the aquatic life
in it. Fish cultivation may also be started along with this, which in turn will be an added
benefit to the society.
Construction of boundary in pucca form and proper fencing to safeguard against
dumping of solid wastes is required. A walkway on its outer periphery to enjoy its beauty
and for enabling maintenance in future is also required.
Awareness campaign throughout the city is to be held quite frequently and all
possible measures resorted to save as much water as possible and keep the surroundings
and the lake clean.

70

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