Proof of the Binomial Theorem 12.3.

1
The Binomial Theorem says that: For all real numbers a and b and non-negative integers n,
n  
X
n r nr
n
(a + b) =
ab .
r
r=0
For example,
(a + b)0 = 1,
(a + b)1 = a + b,
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 ,
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3 .


P
Proof. Let P (n) be the statement that for all real numbers a and b, (a + b)n = nr=0 nr ar bnr .
The Base Case is easy to establish.
Now we prove the Inductive Step.
Suppose that k Z is such that inductive hypothesis (the formula for n = k, i.e., the statement
P (k))
k  
X
k r kr
k
(a + b) =
ab .
(1)
r
r=0
We want to prove that inductive conclusion (the formula for n = k + 1, i.e., the statement P (k + 1))
(a + b)

k+1


k+1 
X
k+1
r

r=0

ar bk+1r .

(2)

We compute that
(a + b)k+1 = (a + b)k (a + b)
k  
X
k r kr
=
ab
(a + b) by the inductive hypothesis
r
r=0
k  
k  
X
k r+1 kr X k r k+1r
=
a b
+
ab
by the distributive property;
r
r
r=0
r=0

(3)

indeed, when we multiply ar bkr in line 2 by a, the power of a increases by 1 to get ar+1 bkr in the
first term in line 3. Similarly, when we multiply ar bkr by a, we get ar bk+1r in the second term in
line 3.
Now ar bk+1r in line 3 of (3) matches the form of the right-hand side of (2). To make the term
ar+1 bkr in line 3 of (3) also match, we shift the variable r down by 1 as follows.
Define s = r + 1. Then r = s 1. Moreover, when r is summed from 0 to k, we then have that s
is summed from 1 to k + 1. So the first term in line 3 of (3) may be rewritten as

k  
k+1 
X
k r+1 kr X
k
a b
=
as bk+1s
r
s

1
r=0
s=1
1

(since k (s 1) = k + 1 s). But s is just a name. So we can replace s by r to get

k  
X
k

r=0


k+1 
X
k
=
ar bk+1r .
r1
r=1

r+1 kr

Thus (3) implies that

k+1

(a + b)


k+1 
k  
X
X
k
k r k+1r
r k+1r
=
ab
+
ab
.
r

1
r
r=1
r=0

We would like to combine the two sums on the right-hand side into one sum. But we have a slight
mismatch in that the first sum is from 1 to k + 1 whereas the second sum is from 0 to k.
So take out the r = k + 1 case from the first sum and we take out the r = 0 case from the first
sum from the second sum and combine things in the following way:
k+1

(a + b)
Since



 
k 
k  
X
X
k
k
k r k+1r
k 0 k+10
(k+1) k+1(k+1)
r k+1r
a
b
+
ab
+
ab
+
ab
.
(k + 1) 1
r

1
r
0
r=1
r=1


=

k
(k+1)1

k
k

= 1 and
k+1

(a + b)

k
0

= 1, we have

=a

k+1

  
k 
X
k
k
+
+
ar bk+1r + bk+1 .
r

1
r
r=1

Since 1 r k, by Proposition 12.2.8 we have


   

k
k
k+1
+
=
.
r1
r
r
Hence
k+1

(a + b)

=a

k+1


k 
X
k+1
r

r=1

ar bk+1r + bk+1 .

k+1
k+1

k+1 0
=
a b (is the r = k + 1 case in the sum) and bk+1 =
But noting that a
r = 0 case in the sum), we see that
k+1

(a + b)

k+1


k+1 
X
k+1
r

r=0

ar bk+1r .

This is the desired inductive conclusion (2).

By mathematical induction, the proof of the Binomial Theorem is complete.

k+1
0

a0 bk+1 (is the