Pacific Sociological Association

Belief in a Just World and Depression

Author(s): Christian Ritter, D. E. Benson and Clint Synder
Source: Sociological Perspectives, Vol. 33, No. 2 (Summer, 1990), pp. 235-252
Published by: University of California Press
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Sociological
Perspectives

? 1990PacificSociological
Association
Copyright

Vol.33, No. 2, pp. 235-252

ISSN 0731-1214

BELIEF IN A JUSTWORLD AND DEPRESSION

CHRISTIAN RITTER
D. E. BENSON
CLINT SYNDER
Kent State University

therelationship
a belief
between
in a
ABSTRACT:Thispaperexplores
on theworkofPearlin,
justworldanddepression.
Building
Lieberman,
andMullan(1981),weinvestigate
therolethata belief
ina
Menaghan,
between
chronic
and
stressors
justworldmight
playin therelationship
adultresidents
depression.
Usinga random
sample
ofnoninstitutionalized
wefindthata belief
ina justworld
anda
(N = 283)ofNorthern
Ireland,
areindependent
andthata belief
ina
senseofmastery
cognitive
structures,
ondepression
hasa significant
overandabovetheeffect
justworld
effect
of
andresearch
Theoretical
mastery.
implications
generated
bythis
questions
arediscussed.
effort

INTRODUCTION
This paper examinestherelationshipbetweenthedegreeto whichindividuals believe thateventsand experiencesthatoccurto otherpeople are somehow deserved (referredto by Lerner[1980]as a beliefin a just world) and
In thispaper, we also examinethe natureof
depressivesymptomatology.
therelationshipofthebeliefthattheworldis a just place, chronicstressors,
and depression.The argumentis made thatifone believesthattheworldis a
fairand equitableplace, he/sheis less likelyto be depressedthanifone does
not hold this belief. It is furtherargued that this beliefmightaffectthe
relationshipbetween sources of stressand depression.We therefore
make
the argumentthat the concept of beliefin a just world is an important
additionto our understandingofthesocialpsychologyofmentalhealthand
thatthisconceptshouldbe incorporated
in further
studiesofstressfulevents
and depression.

Directall correspondence
to:Christian
ofSociologyand Anthropology,
Ritter,
Department
KentStateUniversity,
Kent,Ohio 44242

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236

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Volume33, Number2, 1990

The Belief in a JustWorld

have attemptedto explainthetendencyofpeople
A numberofresearchers
or behavioralqualitiesto those
to attribute
unusual moral,characterological,
who have experiencedgreat misfortuneor extremelygood fortune(e.g.,
Goffman1963;Lerner1965;Ryan 1971).Thus, the physicallydisabled must
"deserve" thisconditionbecause ofmistakesor defectstheyor theirparents
experienced.By the same token,"miraculously"recoveringfroma severe
illnessor winninga lotteryis a rewardforbeing a "good person." Whatis
of
commonto thesesituationsis thattheperceiverbelievesthat,irrespective
what has happened, the outcomeis deserved by thatperson and not the
resultof chance,accident,or cosmiccapriciousness.
In an attemptto explainthisbeliefand the researchon it, Lernerformulated what has come to be called the "just world hypothesis"or, simply,
"beliefin a just world" (Lerner1970,1977,1980). To the extentthatpeople
believethatthe worldis a just place, theybelieve "good" people have nice
thingshappen to themand "bad" people have nastythingshappen to them.
This belief,whichLerner(1980)describesas a fundamentaldelusion,maintainsthatwhat happens to people is directlyrelatedto whetheror not they
whichentitlethemto a particularoutcome.
possess characteristics
A numberof studies have investigatedsome of the correlatesof such a
belief:forexample,authoritarianism,
beliefin an activeGod, negativeattitudes towardunderprivileged
groups,admirationofpoliticalleaders (Rubin
and Peplau 1973;Zuckermanand Gerbaski1977;Lerner1978),a fundamentalistreligiousorientation
(Rubinand Peplau 1973;Bensonand Mullins1983),
and a beliefthat the poor deserve theirfate (Furnhamand Gunter1984;
Smith1985). The evidence fromthese studies suggeststhatperceptionsof
the world being just and fairhave socializationantecedentsand cognitive
and behavioralconsequences.
Whathas not,to date,been studiedis whetheror notthedegreeto which
a person who holds the beliefthatthe world is just is relatedto affective
stateswhich,in turn,mayhave behavioraland cognitiveconsequences.As
Heider (1958)and Lerner(1980)have argued,thisbeliefmaywellbe partofa
desireto constructand maintaincognitivebalance and in so doingbecomes
one ofthekeymechanismsinvolvedin maintaining
theperson'ssense ofself
and its relationshipto externalevents and processes. Perceivingthatperand behavioralconsequences are fundamentally
sonal characteristics
conthatlifeis
nected,a personwitha highbeliefin a just worldshould perceive
more understandable,therebyproducingless tension and cognitivedissonance,whichwould resultin theperson'shavinggenerallylowerlevelsof
depressionthanone who does nothold thebeliefthattheworldis just. The
perceptionofthepersonwitha low beliefin a just worldis thattherelationship betweenpersonalqualitiesand "lifeoutcomes"is essentiallyrandom,
that"good deeds" are as likelytoresultin punishmentas in rewards,thereby
potentiallytriggering
manyof the antecedentsof depression.

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BELIEF IN A JUST WORLD AND DEPRESSION

237

In the same vein, researchhas consistentlyfound higherscores on the

witha sense of"internal
Rubinand Peplau"JustWorldScale," tobe correlated
control" as measured by Rotter's"Locus of Control Scale" (cf. Lerner
are directlylinked
1980:151).Ifone believesthatpersonalqualitiesand effort
withoutcomes(a beliefin a just world),the beliefthatone can "determine
one's fate" (a perceptionof internalcontrol)is also likelyto be partof this
From this followsthe sensethat one can control
cognitiveinfrastructure.
his/herown rewardsand punishments,can maintaina strongperception
of
and the beliefthattheyare NOT at the mercyof outside
personal efficacy,
forcesand unforeseenevents.
The conceptof mastery(the extentto whichpeople see themselvesas in
controloftheforcesthateffecttheirlives) mayalso be relatedto a sense that
and outcomesare related.(See Shepelak1987fora related
personalattributes
discussion.) For example,those who believe thatthereis littlerelationship
between such qualities and behavioral consequences and, thus, have a
thatexternalforcesare in controloftheoutcomesofimportanceto
perception
humanbeings-may exhibita low sense ofmastery.Alternatively,
a perception that one can affectone's own life outcomes (mastery),may not be
relatedto the perceptionof whetheror not people "in general" can do so
(Stolte 1983; Markovsky1985). Empiricallyaddressingthe relationshipbetweensense ofmasteryand a beliefthattheworldis justand fairwould help
to further
illuminatethe processesattendantto psychologicalanguish.
It has been posited elsewhere(Pearlinand Schooler 1978; Pearlinet al.
1981),thatthereductionofmasteryis thefinalstep in theprocessby which
stressorsresultin distress.Here, it is argued thatlifeeventsand resulting
role strainsare morelikelyto eventuatein stresswhen the outcomelowers
self-esteemand a sense of mastery.The enduringpresenceof role strains
erodes a sense ofselfby confronting
theindividualwithevidencethatone is
notable toaltereventsexperiencedas undesirable.In stressresearch,componentsoftheself-concept,
suchas mastery,
areoftenconceptualizedas "coping
resources"thatpeople drawupon in thefaceofstressful
circumstances,
thus
some of the undesirableconsequencesof stress(Kohn 1972,1977;
buffering
Wheaton1983).
Chronic Stress and Psychological Well-Being
Researchefforts
concerningtheeffects
ofstressorson mentalhealthhave,
forsome time, consideredthe effectsof chronic,ongoing stressors(e.g.,
Pearlin1975;Pearlinand Lieberman1979;Wheaton1980;Pearlinet al. 1981).
The inclusionofchronicstressorsor relatively
continuousproblemsin stress
research,has been motivatedby the recognitionthatstressfuleventsmay
operatethroughthewidercontextofchronicstressors.Forexample,arguing
that stressfulevents and chronicstressorsconvergein the productionof
psychological
distress,Pearlinand Lieberman(1979)empirically
demonstrated

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238

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Volume33, Number2, 1990

preexistingstressors,
thatlifeeventsmay createnew stressorsor intensify
response.
therebyproducinga stress-related
Role strainsare the primarytypeof chronicstressthathave been considered as mechanismslinkingstressfulevents to adverse reactionssuch as
depression.Exposureto stressfuleventscan increaserole strains,thereby
increasingthe likelihoodof distress.Ongoingrole strainscan also increase
to the effectof the lifeeventor distress.Economic
individualvulnerability
hardship,forexample,has been shown to be an importantmediatingvariable in the relationshipbetweenjob disruptionsand increasesin depression
(Pearlinet al. 1981),and therelationshipbetweensocioeconomicstatusand
depression(Pearlinet al. 1981;Ross and Huber 1985).
In assessing the natureof the relationshipbetween job disruptionand
depression,Pearlinand his associateshave demonstratedthatmuch of the
effectofjob disruptionis indirect,operatingthroughchangesin incomeand
economichardship(Pearlin1975;Pearlinet al. 1981).Ross and Huber (1985)
findthat economichardshipis increasedby low income, low education,
being young, and having young children. In turn, economic hardship
of economichardship
increasesthe level ofdepressiveaffect.The centrality
in the relationshipbetweenjob disruption,indicatorsof low social status,
and depression,supportsthepositionthattheabilityto meetfamilyobligationsby havingenough moneyto pay the bills and meet otherhousehold
needs, is a primaryfactorinterveningbetween the largersocial and economic orderand psychologicalwell-being(Ross and Huber 1985). Lack of
resourcesto meet these obligationsacts to increase role strainand, subsequently,increasespsychologicaldistress.The relationshipbetween life
and psychologicaldistress,can be
events,economichardship,self-concept,
used to explicitlysortout the natureof the relationshipbetween socioeconomic statusand psychologicaldistressthathas been clearlydocumented
(Dohrenwendand Dohrenwend1969;Wheaton1978;Kessler 1982).
The above discussionsuggeststhatin orderto assess theprocessthrough
to
whichstressorsresultin increasesin psychologicaldistress,itis important
be
considerrolestrainsand componentsoftheself.These elementscan used
to clarifythe natureof therelationshipbetweenacute stressors,such as job
loss and relateddistress,as well as socioeconomicstatusand distress.
While the models of the stressprocess thatinclude economichardship,
have providedan elaborationthatservesto explain
mastery,and self-esteem
observedassociationsbetweenlifeeventsand distress,and between social
statusand distress,the above discussionsuggeststhatthe degree to which
one believesthattheworldis a fairand equitableplace mayplay an imporeconomichardshipand
tantrole in the etiologyof depression.Specifically,
lowersocialstatusshouldserveto decreasethedegreeto whichpeople view
theworldtobe a justplace,whichin turnshouldservetoincreasepsychologibeliefin a just world may serve to bufferthe
cal distress.Alternatively,
chronic
stress
on depression.In the nextsectionof this
effects
of
negative

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BELIEF IN A JUST WORLD AND DEPRESSION

239

paper,we considertheways in whicha beliefin a justworldmaybe incorporated in models assessing the relationshipbetween stressfulevents and
and mentalhealth.
circumstances,
Purpose
The purposeofthisstudyis to determinewhetherthebeliefthattheworld
is a just place is relatedto depressionand to determinetheroleitplaysin the
relationshipbetweenpotentialsourcesofdepressionand subsequentdepression. Beforethiscan be done, however,some measurementissues mustbe
information
concernaddressed. Because oftherelativelackofpsychometric
ing scales used to measurebeliefin a just world, one of the questionswe
address is whetherbeliefin a just worldand masterycan be independently
measured.Once thisempiricalquestionis answered,we determinewhether
beliefin a just worldis associatedwithdepressionand whetheritaffectsthe
relationshipbetween incomeand economichardshipand depressionover
and above the effectof masteryon these relationships.

METHODS
Sample
The listingfromwhichthissample was drawnis the 1987ElectoralRegister of NorthernIreland. The ElectoralRegistercontains the names and
addresses of all persons in NorthernIreland who are entitledto vote at
UnitedKingdomParliamentary,
EuropeanAssembly,and NorthernIreland
elections.The ElectoralRegister,overall,is regardedas theleastbiased and
adults in NorthernIreland
most accurateof any listof noninstitutionalized
thatis readilyavailable to the public.
randomsamplewas drawnfrom
UsingtheElectoralRegister,a systematic
each oftheelectoralsubdivisionsin theprovince.Thisprocedureresultedin
a sample of805 citizens.Usingthesame method,a replacementsampleof63
was subsequentlydrawn to replace those people who had died, moved
withouta forwarding
address,or whose questionnaires,forwhateverother
reason,were returnedunopened (N = 291). Eightofthereplacementquestionnaireswere returnedblank,yieldinga usable sample of283. Whilethis
rate of returnis clearlyless than optimal,a comparisonof demographic
characteristics
fromthe GeneralHousehold Survey(similarin the U.K. to
theGeneralSocial Survey)withthosefromthepresentsamplesuggeststhat
it is fairlyrepresentative
of the adult populationof the province.
The sample was drawnfromthe noninstitutionalized
adult populationof
NorthernIrelandfora numberofreasons.First,at thetimetheresearchwas
Irelandhad an unemployment
conducted,Northern
rateof18.3%(Manchester
GuardianWeekly1988),and, historically,
theprovincehas had a chronically

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240

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Volume33, Number2, 1990

high unemploymentrate (PPRU Monitor1988). For the purposes of this

study such a conditionshould facilitatean examinationof the effectsof
economichardshipon depressivestatesas discussedabove. Second,as many
writershave observed(e.g., Darby1986),thebreadthand depthofreligious
inNorthernIrelandis veryhighamongbothCatholicsand Protestants.
fervor
As shown by previousresearch(e.g., Rubinand Peplau 1975),a beliefin a
and thus
just worldis correlatedwitha fundamentalist
religiousorientation
the effectsof this variableon psychologicaldistressshould be especially
clear.
Third,itmightbe expectedthatthepopulationofNorthernIrelandwould
displaylevelsofstressgreaterthanthatofmanyothersocieties.Forcenturies,
conflict.
the provincehas experiencedintractable,obdurate,religio-ethnic
This struggle(knownin theprovinceand elsewhereas "the troubles"),and
itsconsequences,has affectedthelivesofthecitizensofNorthernIrelandin
ways not experiencedby mostpeople in theworld.Such a milieuwould be
especiallylikelyto activatepersonalcopingmechanismsdesignedto reduce
NorthernIrelandshouldbe
unacceptablyhighlevelsofstrain.2Accordingly,
an especiallygood domain in which to examinethe possible effectsof the
variablesproposed here on such distress.This should make fora stronger
testof the proposed role of the beliefthatthe world is a just place in the
stressprocess.
Measures
Depression.
Depressed mood was measuredusinga reducedversionofthe
CenterForEpidemiologicalStudiesDepressionScale (CES-D) (Radloff1977).
Data were collectedforelevenoftwentyitemsin theoriginalscale following
the findingsofRoss and Mirowsky(1984),concerningwhat itemsare measures ofdepressedmood forbothmen and women. Of thetwelveitemsthey
identified,feeling"blue" was eliminatedbecause of its lack of meaning
outside the United States. These items were factoranalyzed in order to
determinewhethertheyrepresentedone dimensionin thissample. Results
of the factoranalysiswithvarimaxrotationindicatedthatfourfactors,with
eigenvaluesover unity,were representedby these eleven items.The first
factor-depressedmood-contained fiveitemswithloadingsover0.40.These
itemsresultedin a scale witha high reliability
(Cronbach'salpha = 0.83).
(See AppendixA fora listingofthe itemsand theirloadings.) The rangeof
thisscale is 0-13. It is thisscale thatwas used as the measureof depressed
mood in these analysis.
Mastery.Mastery was measured using an adaptation of Pearlin and
Schooler's(1978) masteryscale. These fiveitemswere factoranalyzed and
were found to compriseone factoras suggestedby earlierwork. The resultantscale has a reliabilityof 0.84 (See Appendix A fora listingof the
items).

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BELIEF IN A JUSTWORLD AND DEPRESSION

241

workhas been done to assess

Beliefina JustWorld.Verylittlepsychometric
and scalabilityof Rubinand Peplau's (1975) just world scale.
the reliability
the original20-item
Only one publishedstudyexistswhichfactor-analyzed
scale using undergraduatestudentsin Britain(Hylandand Dann 1987). The
resultsof thisstudysuggestthatthe Rubinand Peplau instrument
consists
offourdimensionsand theauthorsconcludebycallingformoreworkon the
measurementof the concept.In an attemptto further
assess the measurementpropertiesof beliefin a just world,data were collectedon ten of the
originaltwentyitems(see AppendixA). The ten itemsforwhichdata were
not collected are concernedwith conditionswhich are clearlylimitedto
particularsituationsand were foundto formfactorsnotrelatedto thecentral
conceptofbeliefin a justworld.Hylandand Dann (1987)foundthatthecore
itemforbeliefin a just world, "Basicallythe world is a just place," loaded
mosthighlyon the second factor,along with,"By and largepeople deserve
what theyget."
Fourfactorsresultedfromthefactoranalysisofthetenitemsforwhichwe
collecteddata. The primaryfactorcontainedthe core beliefin a just world
itemalong withthe itemsthatstated,"By and large,people deserve what
theyget," and "People who meetwithmisfortune
have oftenbroughtit on
themselves." These threeitems forma scale with an acceptable level of
reliability
(alpha = 0.63).4
EconomicHardship.Economic hardship was measured using a measure
adapted by Ross and Huber (1985) fromPearlinet al. (1981). This measure
consists of fouritems that forma scale with an alpha of 0.89. The scale
measures the degree to which the respondentwas not able to affordfood,
or pay bills in the last twelvemonths,withhigh scores
clothes,furniture,
indicatinghardship.(See AppendixA forthecontentoftheitemsthatcomprise these scales.)
The othervariablesincluded in the analysis were income, employment
status,maritalstatus,gender,and age. Incomewas measuredwitha 10-point
itemrangingfrom,"less than?40 per week," (about $75 at the timeof the
study)to "more than?400 per week" (about $720). Employmentstatuswas
coded as a dummyvariablewith those employedat the timeof the study
(full-timeor part-time)being assigned to the "1" category.Maritalstatus
was also coded as a dummyvariablewiththosemarriedat thetimegettinga
score of 1. Females were assigned to the "1" categoryof gender.Age was
measuredin years.
RESULTS
The analysiswas conductedin threestages.In thefirststage,therelationship
betweenmasteryand beliefin a just worldwas determined.In the second,
theadditiveeffectofbeliefin a justworldon depressionwas estimated.This
estimationalso determinedwhetherthis beliefmediates the relationship

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242

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Volume33, Number2, 1990

betweenincomeand economichardshipand depression.In the thirdstage

thepurposeoftheanalysiswas to determinewhetherindividualswho have
a relativelyhighbeliefin a just worldare morelikelyto be depressedwhen
theyexperienceeconomichardship.
Belief in a JustWorld and Mastery
towhatwas predicted,thereis essentiallyno correlation
Contrary
between
beliefin a just worldand mastery.The Pearsonproduct-moment
correlation
betweenthese scales is 0.012 (see AppendixB). This resultindicatesthata
sense ofpersonalefficacy
is independentofthedegreeto whichindividuals
feel thatrewardsare allottedon the basis of personal worth.Since these
variablesare independent,theroleofthisbeliefin therelationshipbetween
incomeand economichardshipdistressprocessis likelyto be different
from
thatof mastery.
Additive Effects
The data presentedin Table 1 are the resultof a series of hierarchical
regressionequationspredictingdepressed mood. This analysisis designed
to determinethe role of beliefin a just world in the stressprocess. Each
TABLE 1

Hierarchical
RegressionofDemographic
Variables,Hardship,Mastery,
and Beliefin a JustWorld(BJW)on Depression
coefficients
are reportedwithinparentheses)
(standardized
Equations

Income
Working
Married
Female
Age
Hardship
Mastery
BJW

-0.201
-0.980
-0.622
0.316
-0.022

(-0.210)" -0.097
(-0.171)' -1.094
(-0.103) -0.906
( 0.055) 0.280
(-0.120) -0.015
0.189

(-0.101)'
(-0.191)"
(-0.150)
( 0.049)
(-0.083)
( 0.221)

R
AdjustedR2

0.410
0.150

IncrementalR2

-0.070
-0.670
-0.991
0.202
-0.011
0.136
-0.302

(-0.073)
(-0.117)
(-0.164)'
( 0.035)
(-0.060)
( 0.159)'
(-0.328)

-0.068 (-0.071)
-0.691 (-0.120)+
-0.943 (-0.156)
0.196 (-0.034)
-0.008 (-0.041)
0.121 ( 0.142)
-0.305 (-0.332)f
-0.097 (-0.122)

0.454
0.185

0.548
0.278

0.539
0.290

0.035

0.093

0.012

+ Significant
at the0.10level

at the0.05level
Significant
at the0.01level
Significant
at the0.001level
Significant

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BELIEF IN A JUST WORLD AND DEPRESSION

243

equationcontainsmeasuresofincome,employment,
maritalstatus,gender,
and age. In the second step of the analysiseconomichardshipis added to
the model; masteryis added in the thirdstep; and beliefin a just world is
added in the finalstep (equation4). Variablesare includedin orderof their
positionin the theoretically
implicitcausal sequence. While masteryis not
assumed to be causallypriorto beliefin a just world,it is includedfirstin
orderto requireany effecton depressionto be the net of mastery.
The findingsshown in Table 1 address the degree to which economic
stress,mastery,and self-esteem
affectdepressionand theeffectsofmastery
and beliefin a just world in mediatingthe impactof potentialsources of
depression.The resultsofthefirstequationindicatethatincomeand employmentstatusare significantly
relatedto depression;those withhigherlevels
of incomeand those employedare the least depressed.
In the second equation,witheconomichardshipadded, the overallvariance in depression explained is increasedby 3.5 percentrepresentingan
additional23 percentin total explained variance. As expected,economic
hardshiphas a positiveeffect
on depression(p = 0.221,p < 0.001).Moreover,
economichardshipmediatesthe effectof low incomeon depression.Comparisonof the unstandardizedcoefficients
in equation1 withthosein equation2 indicatesthattheinclusionofeconomichardshipreducesthe effectof
incomeon depression(from- 0.201 to - 0.097). This reductionrepresentsa
reductionof52 percentin thesteepnessoftheslope ofdepressionon income.
Masterywas added to the model in equation3 and was foundto have a
significant
impacton depression(p = - 0.328,p < 0.001). The inclusionof
masteryadds an additional9.3 percentto the amountofvarianceexplained
in depression (representingan increase of 50 percentin total explained
variance).The additionof masteryservesto further
reducethe relationship
betweenincomeand depressionas well as to reduce the effectof economic
hardshipon depressionby 28 percent(from0.189 to 0.136),therebyproviding some suggestiveevidencethatmasterymediatespartoftherelationship
between these variables and depression given the proposed model. The
natureof thisand otherrelationships,of course,awaits further
assessment
withthe use of longitudinaldata not available to us at the time.
In the finalequation,beliefin a just worldis added to the equation. The
resultsindicatethat this variableis significantly
(albeitweakly) relatedto
depression (p = -0.122, p < 0.05). Adding this variableto the equation
increasesthe overallvarianceby 1.2 percent(contributing
about 10 percent
ofthetotalvarianceexplained).This findingis consistentwithour hypothesis thatindividualswho believethattheworldis a fairplace are less likelyto
be depressed. Comparisonsoftheunstandardizedcoefficients
in step3 with
thosein step4 indicatethatinclusionofbeliefin a just worldreducespartof
the relationshipbetweeneconomichardshipand depression.The impactof
economichardshipdrops by an additional8 percentwith the inclusionof
beliefin a just world.

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SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Volume33, Number2, 1990

244

The resultsof the finalequation presentedin Table 1 indicatethatwhile

relatedto depression,it
thebeliefthattheworldis a fairplace is significantly
is the strongest
Mastery
considered.
is among the weakest of predictors
In order to
hardship.
and
economic
marital
status
by
predictor,followed
process,
a
in
the
stress
in
world
just
assess theadditiveroleofbelief
further
determineitsrolein theassumed causal
pathanalysiswas used to explicitly
framework.
The findingspresentedin Table 2 are the resultsof reduced regression
equations. The models were reduced in orderto preservedegrees of freedom in the equationsand to providemorestableestimates.Variableswere
at less than the 0.10
eliminatedfromthe equationsiftheywere significant
level.Comparisonofthesaturatedmodelswiththereducedmodelsrevealed
in conclusionsreached (data not shown). These
no substantivedifferences
data indicatethatbeliefin a just worldpredictsdepressionand is relatedto
age and degreeofeconomichardship.Older respondentsare morelikelyto
believethatthe worldis a just place, while thosewho experienceeconomic
hardshipare less likelyto believe it. These relationships,as well as the
otherspresentedin Table 2, are graphicallydepictedin Figure1.
These resultsdemonstratethatbeliefin a just worldmediatesa portionof
therelationshipbetweenage and economichardshipand depression.Belief
in a justworldis indeeda componentin thestressprocess,mediatingpartof
the effectof economichardshipon depression.Of particularinterestis the
findingthat this beliefis lower for those who experiencehigh levels of
economichardshipand is, in turn,relatedto lowerlevelsofdepression.This
TABLE 2

PathModelin Figure2 (standardized

EquationsforRestricted
ReducedRegression
in parentheses)
coefficients
coefficients
followunstandardized
Equations
Depression
Dependent

Income

Working -0.777 (-0.135)'

Married

-1.212 (-0.201)***

BJW

-0.103 (-0.129)-

Mastery
Dependent

BJW
Dependent

Hardship
Dependent

-0.510 (-0.456).

1.510 ( 0.241)...

1.578 ( 0.224):::

0.043 ( 0.186)* -0.043 (-0.201)

Age
Hardship 0.150 ( 0.175)* -0.220 (-0.236)* -0.145 (-0.134)Mastery -0.313 (-0.341)
-

R
AdjustedR2

0.556
0.293

0.346
0.112

0.167
0.020

not in reduced equation

Significantat the 0.05 level
Significantat the 0.01 level
Significantat the 0.001 level

-Variable

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0.463
0.205

245

BELIEF IN A JUSTWORLD AND DEPRESSION

Worrkin
Income

.241

-.135

j1
*

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~y
Figure1
Restricted
AdditivePathModelofDepression(standardized
regression
coefficients)

set of relationshipsis similarto the set thatinvolves economichardship,

mastery,and depression,whereeconomichardshipis negativelyrelatedto
masteryand masteryis negativelyrelatedto depression.Mastery,however,
mediatesmoreoftheeffect
ofeconomichardship( - 0.24* - 0.38 = 0.09) than
does beliefin a just world (-0.13* -0.12 = 0.02).
To this point, the analysis has clearlydemonstratedthat masteryand
beliefin a justworldare independentperceptions.The resultsoftheanalysis
also show thatbeliefin a just world is relatedto depressionand that its
inclusionin the model affectsthe relationshipbetweeneconomichardship
and depression.In thenextstageoftheanalysis,theinterestis in determining whetherindividualswho believe thatthe worldis a just place are more
likelyto be depressed when theyencounterthe chronicstressof economic
hardship.To determinewhetherthisbeliefmoderatestheeffectofeconomic
hardship,models containinginteraction
termsare considered.
InteractiveEffects
Table3 containstheresultsoftheinteractive
modelspredicting
depression.
The first
columnofTable3 containstheresultsoftheadditivemodelpredicting
depressed mood. The second equation includesan interactivetermforthe
conditionaleffectof economichardship and mastery.The resultsof this
equation indicatethatindividualswho experienceeconomichardshipare
less likelyto have high levels of depression if they have high levels of
mastery.Whiletheseresultsindicatethata highsense ofmasterybuffersthe
impactof economichardship,the resultsof the thirdequation suggestthat
beliefin a just world does not moderatethisrelationship.

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246

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Volume33, Number2, 1990

TABLE3
Variables,Hardship,Mastery,Beliefin
ofDemographic
Regression
Hierarchical
coefficients
Variableson Depression(standardized
a JustWorld(BJW)and Interaction
are reportedwithinparentheses)
Equations

Income
Working
Married
Female
Age
Hardship
Mastery
BJW
HAR*MAST
HAR*BJW
R
AdjustedR

-0.068
-0.691
-0.943
0.196
-0.008
0.121
-0.305
-0.097

(-0.071)
(-0.120)+
(-0.156)
(-0.034)
(-0.041)
( 0.142)
(-0.332)
(-0.122)

-0.080
-0.757
-0.825
0.265
-0.011
0.641
-0.014
-0.060
-0.064

0.560
0.290

R
Incremental

(-0.083)
(-O.132)
(-0.137)
( 0.046)
(-0.062)
( 0.747)
(-0.015)
(-0.076)
(-0.659)**'

-0.066
-0.749
-0.874
0.189
-0.010
0.214
-0.294
-0.043

(-0.069)
(-0.130)+
(-0.145)
( 0.033)
(-0.052)
( 0.250)(-0.320)
(-0.054)

-0.014

(-0.132)

0.613
0.350

0.564
0.290

0.062

0.004

models.
'EquationNumber1 is an additivemodel,whileequations2 and 3 areinteractive
+ Significant
at the0.10level
at the0.05level
Signi'ficant
at the0.01level
Significant
at the0.001level
Significant

DISCUSSION
This studyis an initialattemptto empiricallyassess whetherbelievingin a
justworldis relatedtodepressionand todeterminethenatureoftherelationship betweenpotentialsourcesof distressand subsequentdepression.The
predictedrole of the beliefin a just worldin theserelationshipsis theoreticallyderivedand empiricallyassessed withpopulation-baseddata.
Analysis of these data provides for a preliminaryassessment of these
usingquestionnairedata fromNorthernIreland.These data are
relationships
well suited, given the degree of economichardship,religious
particularly
and stressin the province.Anotherstrengthof thisstudy
fundamentalism,
it
is
an
attemptto situatethe beliefthatthe world is a just place
is that
withinsocialprocessesusinga reasonablylargeadultsample.Bothantecedents
and potentialconsequencesof thisbeliefare examined.
Althoughthis studyhas a numberof strengths,it is limitedin several
ways and any conclusionsdrawnfromthisresearchmustbe made in lightof
First,thisis a studyofadultresidentsofNorthernIreland;
theselimitations.
we do notknow ifthereportedrelationshipsinvolvingbeliefin a just world

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BELIEF IN A JUST WORLD AND DEPRESSION

247

hold elsewhere. While we have no reason to believe thatbeliefin a just

in other countries,this awaits future
world should operate differently
assessment.Second, althoughour measure of beliefin a just world meets
conventionalstandards for adequate reliability,the measurementof this
conceptneeds to be improved.Third,we are limitedby thelackoflongitudinal data. Finally,our responserateis somewhatlow.
to our underDespite these drawbacks,this studymakes a contribution
standingof the beliefin a just world as well as to the social psychologyof
mentalhealth.This initialresearchhas resultedin fourmajorfindingsthat
awaitreplication,further
assessment,and elaboration.The majorfindingsof
this study are: (1) the conceptsof masteryand beliefin a just world are
statistically
independent;(2) beliefin a just world is negativelycorrelated
therelationship
withdepressiveaffect;
between
(3) beliefina justworldaffects
and
and
and
belief
in
a
world
does
economichardship
age
depression;
(4)
just
economic
not moderatethe relationshipbetween
hardshipand depression.
The findingsuggestingthata beliefin a just worldis lowerforindividuals
who experiencethe ongoingstrainsof economichardshipand is positively
associatedwithage, bears further
scrutiny.We believe thatthe relationship
betweenbeliefin a just worldand age mayreflecta cohorteffectand not an
aging effect.Thus, at least two explanationsforthisfindingseem apparent.
First,it maybe thatpeople in thissituationhave neverhad a beliefthatthe
worldis a just place because theyhave always experiencedeconomichardship and have neverknownitsabsence. Second, itmaybe because an earlier
sense of a just world has been eroded by experiencingeconomichardship.
This questionneeds to be addressedwithlongitudinaldata thatare sensitive
to when and how acute stressorsare experiencedduringthe lifecourse.
data on the scale measuringbeliefin
The relativepaucityofpsychometric
a just world,thefactthatthefactoranalysison the scale done forthisstudy
produceddifferent
configurations
fromthosereportedby Hylandand Dann
(1987),and the factthatmeasureofbeliefin a just worldused in thisstudy
has a conventionally
acceptablebut somewhatlow alpha (0.63), all suggest
thatmore work should be performedto clarifyand focusthe conceptand
refineits measurement.Such researchshould be done using a varietyof
sample populations.
Clearly,futureresearchon the stressprocessshould considerthe degree
to whicha beliefin a just worldis involvedin theproductionofa varietyof
consequences. For example,attentionshould be focusedon what types of
stressors,bothacute and chronic,are likelyto affecta beliefin a just world.
Perhapsacute stressorsmayhave moreofan impacton depressionforthose
individualswho have a highbeliefin a just world. This possibilityhas not
yetbeen systematically
examinedby assessing possible conditionaleffects
fordifferent
acuteand chronicstressors.Bensonand Ritter(1990)have found,
however,thatone acute stressor,job loss, has a greaterimpacton depression among individualswho stronglyhold thebeliefthatthe worldis a fair

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248

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Volume33, Number2, 1990

andequitableplace.Thisconsequence
flowsfrom
thespeculation
thatwhen
"bad" thingsdo happento "good"people,one'sperception
ofa consistent
andunderstandable
worldis threatened,
leadingtothefeeling
thatlifeconsequenceshave not turnedout as expectedthereby
leadingto depression.
Bothself-consistency
theory
(Swann1983)andidentity
theory
(Stryker
1980;
Callero1985)wouldpredict,
however,thatsuchan eventmightnoterode
one's "faith"thattheworldis a justplace.Ifa viewthattheworldis a just
placeis a central
partofoneormoreimportant
identities
andis, therefore,
a
corecomponent
ofone's senseofself,thepersonwillprocesstheinformationso thatthejustworldviewis reaffirmed,
thereby
erasingthedepressive
response,afterthedestabilizing
event(s)has passed.Suchresearchshould
helpto illuminate
thewaysin whichbeliefin a justworldis relatedto and
withdifferent
and on howa variety
ofstructural
interacts
typesofstressors
and socialpsychological
conditions
are relatedto a varietyof self-concept
processes.Unlikea senseofmastery,
beliefin a justworlddoes notappear
buta rather
tobe a "copingresource"
globalideologyoperating
muchlikean
whichdoes havean effect
on levelsofdepres"implicit
personality
theory"
thedynamics
oftheserelationships
sion.Investigating
shouldhelptodeterminetherolesucha beliefstructure
(and othersuchstructures)
playsin a
behavioral
wide rangeof socialpsychological
phenomenawithattendant
consequences
havingsocialstructural
implications.
forMajorVariables
AppendixA. Itemsand ResponseCategories
areincludedinfinalscale.Loadingsarepresented
forthe
Itemsmarkedwithan asterisk(*)
itemsthatloaded 0.40 or higheron Factor1.
Depressive
Symptoms
Duringthepastweek:
*a. I was botheredby thingsthatusuallydon'tbotherme (0.4172).
b. I did notfeellikeeating,myappetitewas poor.
c. I feltdepressed(0.6712).
d. I had troublekeepingmymindon whatI was doing.
I did tooka lotofeffort.
e. I feltthateverything
*f. I feltfearful
(0.7876).
g. I couldn'tsleep verywell.
h. I talkedless thanusual.
*i. I feltlonely(0.7101).
j
I feltsad (0.7860).
k. I couldn'tseemto do whathad to be done.
Uudgedon a fourpointscalefrom"Never"to "Mostofthetime."Range = 0-13;Mean = 2.443;
S.D. = 2.865.Alphaforscaleincluding
itemsa, c, f,i, j = 0.825.]

Mastery
*a. I have littlecontroloverthethingsthathappento me (0.7654).
*b. Thereis reallyno wayI can solvesomeoftheproblemsI have (0.7778).
(continued)

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249

BELIEFIN A JUSTWORLDAND DPREsSION

Appendix A. (continued)
c. I oftenfeelhelplessin dealingwiththeproblemsoflife(0.7890).
thingsin my life
*d. Thereis not muchI can do to changemanyof the important
(0.8023).
*e. SometimesI feelI'm beingpushedaroundin life(0.7180).
agree"to"Strongly
disagree."Range= 0-15;Mean Uudgedon a fourpointscale,from"Strongly
e = 0.836.J
9.070;S.D. = 3.121.Alphaforscaleincludingitemsa through

in theJustWorld
Belief
he has.
a. I've foundthata personrarelydeservesthereputation
fora guiltypersonto getofffreein NorthemIreland
b. It is a commonoccurrence
courts.
c. Peoplewho get"lucky"have usuallyeamed theirgood fortune.
d. Good deeds oftengo unnoticedand unrewarded.
e. It is rareforan innocentman to be wronglysentto jail.
f. Manypeople suffer
throughabsolutelyno faultoftheirown.
*g. Byand large,people deservewhattheyget(0.8680).
*h. Basically,theworldis a justplace (0.5308).
have oftenbroughtiton themselves(0.7743).
*i. Peoplewho meetwithmisfortune
It is oftenimpossiblefora personto receivea fairtrialin NorthemIreland.
j.
ona sixpointscale,from
"Strongly
agree"to"Strongly
disagree."
Range= 0-15;MeanJudged
itemsg,h,i = 0.630.1
6.579;S.D. = 3.603.Alphaforscaleincluding
Economic
Hardship
Duringthepast 12 months,how oftendid it happenthatyou DID NOT have enough
moneyto:
*a. Afford
thekindof foodthatyou thoughtyourhouseholdshouldhave (0.8926).
thekindofclothesyou thoughtyourhouseholdshouldhave (0.8924).
*b. Afford
*C. Afford
furniture
or householdequipmentthatneeds to be replaced(0.8704).
*d. Payyourbills(0.7918).
"Never"to"Very
ona four
often."
Range= 0-12;Mean= 3.490;S.D.
pointscale,from
Uudged
d = 0.891.]
3.341.Alphaforscaleincluding
items
a through

Correlation
Matrixof
AppendixB. PearsonProduct-Moment
Used
in
Analysis
Variables
IncomeWorking
Married Sex

Age Hardship
Mastery BIW Depress

Income
1.0000 .4141 .3346 -.1249 .1223 -.4057 .2548 .0930 -.3363
1.0000 .1477 -.1439 -.2262 -.0481 .2528 -.0477 -.2535
Working
Married
1.0000 -.2047 .4264 -.0142 .0611 .1303 -.2608
Sex
1.0000 -.2069 .0671 -.1033 -.0564 .1518
1.0000 -.1610 .0524 .2081 -.1622
Age
1.0000 -.2474 -.1641 .2898
Hardship
1.0000 .0124 -.4327
Mastery
1.0000 -.1816
BJM
1.0000
Depress

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250

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Volume33, Number2, 1990

Anearlier
verAcknowledgments:
at
sionofthispaperwas presented
the annual meetingof the North
PittsAssociation,
Central
Sociological
burgh,April1988.Wewishtothank
Stanford
StevanE. Hobfoll,
Gregory,
DavidPugh,andEugeneWenninger
forcomments
on earlierdrafts.
NOTES
1. Withrespecttoage, thepresentsample overrepresents
peopleunder55byan
averageof1.3%andunderrepresents
those
over55 byan averageof2.3%;overrepresentsmenby 3%; overrepresents
Catholicsby2.2% and underrepresents
Protestantsbyabout1%;and,finally,
overrepresentstheunemployed
by 4.2%.
2. Whilenotdenyingthatlevelsofstress
are verylikelyto be higherin Northern
Irelandthanmostotherplacesintheworld,
suchstress
formostpeopleintheprovince
is not likelyto be theresultof personal
exposureto violence.Asidefromimages
obtainedfromthe media over
primarily
thepast20 years,onlya smallpercentage
ofthepopulationin a fewareashavehad
most
suchdirectexposure.The condition
associatedwiththecreationoftensionis
the alterationof the habitsof dailylife
whenentering
a the(e.g.,being"frisked"
ateror changingone's routeto a destination to avoid "trouble")createdby the
presenceofsocialcontrol
forcesattendant
Itshouldalsobe notedthat
totheconflict.
NorthemIrelandhas verylowlevels of
othertypesofinterpersonal
violencesuch
as rapeand armedassault.
3. Itmaybe arguedthattheturmoil
and
in theprovstrife
historically
experienced
ince reducesthepossibility
of generalizingfromthesedatatoothersocieties.We
do notfindthatargument
for
compelling
itassumesthatthelevel
tworeasons.First,
ofturbulence
is suchthatmost,ifnotall,
of the populationis affected.As noted

above, this is a highlydubious conjecture.Second,it assumesthatsuchactivity affectsthe actions of the variables

in thisresearchin "unusual" ways. We
knowofno evidenceto substantiate
such
a claim.
4. The samplemeanforthismeasureof
beliefin a justworldwas 6.579(range=
0-15) witha standarddeviationof3.603.
Whileourmeasureis "cleaner"thanthat
used in previousresearch,ourmeanand
standarddeviationare not unlikethose
foundin earlierefforts.

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