POPULATION DYNAMICS

Population dynamics is the branch of life

sciences that studies short-term and long-term
changes in the size and age composition of
populations, and
the biological and environmental processes
influencing those changes.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Ecological succession is the observed process
of change in the species structure of
an ecological community over time. The time
scale can be decades (for example, after a
wildfire), or even millions of years after a mass
extinction.

Changes in an ecological community over time

TWO MAIN TYPES

Primary Succession

 Secondary Succession

CLIMAX COMMINITIES
An ecological community in which populations
of plants or animals remain stable and exist in
balance with each other and their environment.
A climax community is the final stage of
succession, remaining relatively unchanged until
destroyed by an event such as fire or human
interference.

The Daintree
Rainforest in
Queensland, Australia is
an example of a
climax forest ecosystem.

BIOMES

 Biomes are defined as "the world's major

communities, classified according to the
predominant vegetation and characterized by
adaptations of organisms to that particular
environment" (Campbell).

 A fundamental classification of biomes are:

Terrestrial (land) biomes which includes
grassland, tropical rainforest, temperate and
tundra
Aquatic biomes (including freshwater biomes
and marine biomes)

The Terrestrial
Biomes

Terrestrial biomes are distinguished primarily by

their predominant vegetation, and are mainly
determined by temperature and rainfall.

DESERTS
OR
DUNES
Although few animals and plants are adapted to
the extremely dry desert life, the desert is a vital
biome. The desert is important because it covers
about a fifth of the earth's surface! There are
both hot and cold deserts. Antarctica is the
largest desert in the world, while the Sahara in
Africa is the largest of the hot deserts. .

Types of Desert
Subtropical desert. These occur in the
subtropics, from 23.5 to about 30o latitude,
generally on the western side of the continents,
where high pressure prevails. This high pressure
pushes moisture away from these areas. Examples of
this type of desert are the Sonoran (SN),
Chihuahuan (CU), and Mojave (MH) deserts.
Rain shadow desert in which a mountain range
blocks moisture from reaching the downstream
desert. An example of this type is the Great Basin
Desert.

TAIGA
Taiga - Coniferous or boreal forest, located in a
band across northern North America, Europe,
and Asia. This terrestrial biome also occurs at
high elevations. Long, cold winters and short,
wet summers. Few species of trees are present;
these are primarily conifers that grow in dense
stands with little undergrowth. Some deciduous
trees also may be present

RAINFOREST
Rainforests, both temperate and tropical, are
dominated by trees often forming a closed
canopy with little light reaching the ground.
Epiphytes and climbing plants are also
abundant. Precipitation is typically not limiting,
but may be somewhat seasonal.

Types of Rainforest
Temperate forest and rainforest - Forests occuring
at temperate latitudes (>23.5 degrees N or S
latitude). This terrestrial biome is characterized by
moderate to large seasonal changes in temperature;
rainfall, however, is usually more evenly distributed.
Leaves of deciduous trees drop during autumn and
winter. Temperate rainforests may experience less
seasonal change in temperature.
Tropical rainforest - A terrestrial biome found
within 23.5? of the equator in areas where rainfall is
abundant (more than 250 cm/year) and the dry
season, if any, is brief. Forests are very diverse
floristically and structurally; trees sometimes reach
great heights. Most trees are evergreen; deciduous

GRASSLAND
An area dominated by grasses, such as a prairie or
meadow.
Temperate grassland - A terrestrial biome found
in temperate latitudes (>23.5? N or S latitude).
Vegetation is made up mostly of grasses, the height
and species diversity of which depend largely on the
amount of moisture available. Fire and grazing are
important in the long-term maintenance of
grasslands.
Tropical savanna and grassland - Savannas are
grasslands with scattered individual trees that do
not form a closed canopy. Extensive savannas are
found in parts of subtropical and tropical Africa and

TUNDRA
The tundra biome is the coldest of all biomes.
The tundra covers about one fifth of the land on
earth.
The word tundra comes from a Finnish word
that means treeless plain, which is a good
description of the biome.

Tundra communities are found within the

Arctic Circle and on high mountaintops at all
latitudes due to the similar conditions there.
Mosses, lichens, and grasses thrive, but large
plants are rare since their roots cannot
penetrate the permafrost or absorb water and
nutrients from it.

Types of Tundra
Arctic tundra (T) is found in the
northernmost latitudes where harsh cold and
permafrost prevent tree growth. Despite the
common appearance of snow much of this biome
is actually very dry, often qualifying as desert.
Alpine tundra (A) is at the highest altitudes on
mountains. Alpine tundra gets a great deal of
snow, usually from September to July, and has a
very short growing season.

FOREST
Forest biomes are dominated by trees, otherwise
forest biomes can vary widely in amount of
precipitation and seasonality.

Types of Forest
Temperate forest - Forests occuring at temperate
latitudes (>23.5 degrees N or S latitude). This
terrestrial biome is characterized by moderate to
large seasonal changes in temperature; rainfall,
however, is usually more evenly distributed.
Leaves of deciduous trees drop during autumn
and winter.
Tropical deciduous forest - A terrestrial biome
similar to tropical rainforest and found at the
same latitudes, but rainy and dry seasons are
more distinct and the total amount of rainfall is

CHAPARRAL
Found in coastal areas between 30 and 40
degrees latitude, in areas with a Mediterranean
climate. Vegetation is dominated by stands of
dense, spiny shrubs with tough (hard or waxy)
evergreen leaves. May be maintained by periodic
fire. In South America it includes the scrub
ecotone between forest and paramo.

Aquatic
biomes

Aquatic biomes
Water is the common link among the five
biomes and it makes up the largest part of
the biosphere, covering nearly 75% of the
Earth's surface.
Aquatic regions house numerous species of
plants and animals, both large and small.
Without water, most life forms would be
unable to sustain themselves and the Earth
would be a barren, desert-like place.
Although water temperatures can vary
widely, aquatic areas tend to be more
humid and the air temperature on the
cooler side.

 The aquatic biome can be broken down

into two basic regions:
1. Freshwater
2. Marine

 Freshwater:
Ponds and lakes
Streams and rivers
Wetlands
Marine:
Oceans
Coral reefs
Estuaries

Freshwater Regions
Freshwater is defined as having a low salt
concentration, usually less than 1%.
Plants and animals in freshwater regions are
adjusted to the low salt content and would
not be able to survive in areas of high salt
concentration (i.e, ocean).

Ponds and Lakes

Many ponds are seasonal, lasting just a
couple of months (such as sessile pools)
while lakes may exist for hundreds of
years or more.
Ponds and lakes may have limited
species diversity since they are often
isolated from one another and from
other water sources like rivers and
oceans.

 Lakes and ponds are divided into three

different zones which are usually
determined by depth and distance from
the shoreline.
The topmost zone near the shore of a
lake or pond is the LITTORAL ZONE.
This zone is the warmest since it is shallow
and can absorb more of the Suns heat.
It sustains a fairly diverse community,
which can include several species of
algae, rooted and floating aquatic
plants, grazing snails, clams, insects,
crustaceans, fishes, and amphibians.

 The near-surface open water

surrounded by the littoral zone is the
LIMNETIC ZONE.
The limnetic zone is well-lighted (like the
littoral zone) and is dominated by
plankton, both phytoplankton and
zooplankton.
A variety of freshwater fish also occupy
this zone.

 Plankton have short life spans, when

they die, they fall into the deep-water
part of the lake/pond, the PROFUNDAL
ZONE.
This zone is much colder and denser
than the other two. Little light penetrates
all the way through the limnetic zone
into the profundal zone.
The fauna are heterotrophs, meaning
that they eat dead organisms and use
oxygen for cellular respiration.

Streams and Rivers

These are bodies of flowing water
moving in one direction. Streams and
rivers can be found everywhere, they
get their starts at headwaters, which
may be springs, snowmelt or even lakes,
and then travel all the way to their
mouths, usually another water channel
or the ocean.

 The water is also clearer, has higher

oxygen levels, and freshwater fish such
as trout and heterotrophs can be found
there.
Towards the middle part of the
stream/river, the width increases, as
does species diversity, numerous
aquatic green plants and algae can be
found.

Wetlands
Wetlands are areas of standing water
that support aquatic plants. Marshes,
swamps, and bogs are all considered
wetlands. Plant species adapted to the
very moist and humid conditions are
called hydrophytes. These include pond
lilies, cattails, sedges, tamarack, and
black spruce.
Wetlands have the highest species
diversity of all ecosystems. Many species
of amphibians, reptiles, birds (such as
ducks and waders), and furbearers can

Marine Regions
Marine regions cover about threefourths of the Earths surface and
include oceans, coral reefs, and
estuaries.
Marine algae supply much of the worlds
oxygen supply and take in a huge
amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Oceans
The largest of all the ecosystems, oceans
are very large bodies of water that
dominate the Earths surface. Some say
that the ocean contains the richest
diversity of species even though it
contains fewer species than there are
on land.
Like ponds and lakes, the ocean regions
are separated into separate zones:
intertidal, pelagic, abyssal, and benthic.

 The INTERTIDAL ZONE is where the ocean

meets the landsometimes it is
submerged and at other times exposed,
as waves and tides come in and out.
The PELAGIC ZONE includes those waters
further from the land, basically the open
ocean. The pelagic zone is generally
cold though it is hard to give a general
temperature range since, just like ponds
and lakes, there is thermal stratification
with a constant mixing of warm and
cold ocean currents.

 The BENTHIC ZONE is the area below the

pelagic zone, but does not include the
very deepest parts of the ocean. The
bottom of the zone consists of sand, slit,
and/or dead organisms.
The deep ocean is the ABYSSAL ZONE.
The water in this region is very cold
(around 3 C), highly pressured, high in
oxygen content, but low in nutritional
content. The abyssal zone supports
many species of invertebrates and
fishes.

Coral Reefs
Coral reefs are widely distributed in
warm shallow waters. They can be found
as barriers along continents, fringing
islands, and atolls.
Naturally, the dominant organisms in
coral reefs are corals. Corals are
interesting since they consist of both
algae and tissues of animal polyp.
Besides corals, the fauna include several
species of microorganisms,
invertebrates, fishes, sea urchins,
octopuses, and sea stars.

Estuaries
Estuaries are areas where freshwater
streams or rivers merge with the ocean.
This mixing of waters with such different
salt concentrations creates a very
interesting and unique ecosystem.
Microflora like algae, and macroflora,
such as seaweeds, marsh grasses, and
mangrove trees (only in the tropics), can
be found here.
Estuaries support a diverse fauna,
including a variety of worms, oysters,
crabs, and waterfowl.

Biodiversity
"Biodiversity" is most commonly used to
replace the more clearly defined and
long established terms, species diversity
and species richness. Biologists most
often define biodiversity as the "totality
of genes, species, and ecosystems of a
region
It is the variability among living organisms

from all sources including, inter alia,

terrestrial, marine and other aquatic
ecosystems and the ecological complexes
of which they are a part; this includes
diversity within species, between species,

IMPORTANCE OF
BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity boosts ecosystem
productivity where each species, no
matter how small, all have an important
role to play.

 A larger number of plant species means

a greater variety of crops
Greater species diversity ensures natural
sustainability for all life forms
Healthy ecosystems can better
withstand and recover from a variety of
disasters.