Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
System Analysis
Page 1 of 178
CONTENTS
Modules
Pages
3-16
17-47
Case1-ANSI/IEEE Method
Case2-IEC Method
3. Motor Starting Analysis.
48-66
67-96
97-107
6. Harmonic Analysis.
108-125
126-141
142-151
152-164
166-183
Page 2 of 178
Page 3 of 178
INTRODUCTION:
Load flow solution analysis is essential for designing a new power system and planning of
the existing one for increased load demand, which determine the steady state operating
condition to calculate,
Voltage Profile - its magnitude in kV or % of nominal kV
Current flow throughout the System
MVA and /or MW plus Mvar power flows throughout each branch of the (i.e.
transformer, cables, line or series reactor etc) electrical system
Voltage drop and Power factor
Branch Losses i.e. MW & Mvar losses on each branch
Page 4 of 178
Component
1
2
3
Bus
Power Grid
Syn Generator
Transformer
Motor
Syn Motor
Static Load
Lump Load
Cable
Transmission Line
9
10
MOV
Protective Devices
11
Capacitor
12
Impedance
Required input
Nominal kv
Voltage rating, MVA sc, X/R ratio
1. Swing (slack) %v and del
2. Voltage Control (PV) MW, Mvar limits
3. Mvar Control (PQ) -MW, Mvar and Var limits
4. PF Control-MW and PF
Py kV, Sec kV, MVA, %Z Positive sequence Impedance,
%Tap, Tolerance and LTC settings
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Rating-HP and kV
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Rating-HP and kV
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Rating-kV, MW, Mvar and PF
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Ratings- kV, MW, Mvar and PF
3. Load Type-Motor Load or Static load
1. Length in ft/m/mile/km
2. Cable Type- Size, Insulation, kV and #/Cable
3. Impedance/conductor-Positive sequence
1. Length in ft/m/mile/km
2. Parameter-Phase conductor
3. Impedance per phase-positive sequence
1.
Rating-HP, kV and rated Torque
2. Circuit Breakers-Rated kV
3. Fuses-Rated kV
4. Switches-Rated kV and amps
5. Contactors- Rated kV and amps
1) Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2) Rating-kV, Max kV, Mvar Bank and No of Banks.
1) Rating-Amps and kV
2) Impedance- Positive sequence Z and X/R
Page 5 of 178
Page 6 of 178
= 11kV
= 40 kA
= 14
Cable:Cable sizes and types are selected from the software library
Insulation
= XLPE
kV
= 15
Conductor type= CU
#/Cable
= 3/c
Size
= 300mm2
Length
= 0.836 km
Transformer:Primary kV = 11
Secondary kV = 0.433
MVA
= 10
%Z and X/R = Typical Value
Z Tolerance = If %Z <10 tolerance is 10
%Z >10 tolerance is 7.5 ( thumb rule)
Tap
= If needed. (To improve the bus voltage)
Lump Load:MW
=4
Mvar
=3
%PF
= 80
Load Type
= 100% Motor Load & 0% Static Load
= 14
= 762.102
Cable:R
X
Transformer:Z%
X/R
= 0.0801 /km
= 0.1273 /km
= 6.75
= 15.5
Page 7 of 178
= 100 MVA
Base kV
= 11 kV
Nominal kV
= 11 kV
Load PF
= 0.8
R /km
= 0.0801
X /km
= 0.12736
Length
= 0.836 km
Assume Vr
= 1 p.u
To find Z base:
Zbase
= BasekV^2/Base MVA
= 11^2 / 100
Page 8 of 178
Z base = 1.21
= R*length / Zbase
= 0.0801*0.836 / 1.21
R = 0.0554
= X*length / Zbase
= 0.12726*0.836 / 1.21
X = 0.0879
To Find P, Q and S:
We know MW and Mvar of Lump load,
a. To find
MVA = (MW^2+Mvar^2)
= (4^2+3^2)
MVA=5.033
P
= MW/Base MVA
= 4 / 100
P=0.040
= Mvar/Base MVA
= 3 / 100
Q=0.030
= MVA/Base MVA
=5.033 / 100
S=0.0503
X
0.088
P
0.040
Q
0.030
S
0.0503
Page 9 of 178
Page 10 of 178
To Find Mvar:
Eq 5=>
Mvar
Page 11 of 178
Formula:
MW =R*S^2*Base MVA*(Base kV/Nominal kV) ^2-------------------- eq 6
Mvar = X*S^2*Base MVA*(Base kV/Nominal kV) ^2-------------------- eq 7
We know that
Nominal kV
=11 kV
Source kA
=40 kA
X/R
=14
Base MVA
=100
Z%
= 6.75
X/R
= 15.5
%X
= {%Z^2 - %R^2}
= {6.75^2- 0.43^2}
%X=6.74
%Z
= {%R^2 + %X^2}
= {0.43^2 + 6.74^2}
%Z=6.75
= %R / TFR MVA
Page 12 of 178
= 0.43/10
R=0.0434
X
= %X / TFR MVA
= 6.74/10
X=0.674
= (P^2+Q^2)
= (0.04^2+0.03^2)
S=0.05
X
0.674
P
0.04
Q
0.03
S
0.05
Page 13 of 178
To find MW:
eq 6=>
MW
To Find Mvar:
eq 7=>
Mvar
Page 14 of 178
Page 15 of 178
ETAP Result
MW
Mvar
Cable Losses
0.014
0.022
0.015
0.02
Transformer Losses
0.011
0.199
0.012
0.188
0.5
0.5
Page 16 of 178
Page 17 of 178
Generator
Power Grid
Synchronous Motors
Induction Machines
Lumped Loads
(with some % motor load)
Inverters
Static Loads
Short-Circuit Phenomenon:
Page 19 of 178
v(t)
i(t)
di
Vm Sin( t )
dt
equation 1 yields the following
v(t) Ri L
RL
-
i(t)
expression
Solving
(1)
t
Vm
Vm
sin( t - )
sin( - )
Z
Z
Steady
State
Transient
(DC Offset)
Slide 9
Symmetrical Faults:
The ETAP Short-Circuit Analysis program analyzes the effect of 3-phase
Symmetrical faults on electrical distribution systems. The program calculates the total short
circuit currents as well as the contributions of individual motors, generators, and utility ties in
the system. Fault duties are in compliance with the latest editions of the C37 series which
calculates
Unsymmetrical Faults:
The ETAP Short-Circuit Analysis program also analyzes the effect of 3-phase
unsymmetrical Faults like
Page 20 of 178
Cycle Network
This is the network used to calculate momentary short-circuit current and protective device
duties at the cycle after the fault.
1 to 4 Cycle Network
This network is used to calculate the interrupting short-circuits current and protective device
duties 1.5-4 cycles after the fault.
30-Cycle Network
This is the network used to calculate the steady-state short-circuit current and settings for
over current relays after 30 cycles of the fault.
HV Circuit Breaker
LV Circuit Breaker
Fuse
SWGR / MCC
Relay
Cycle Currents
(Sub transient Network)
Closing and Latching
Capability
Interrupting Capability
Interrupting Capability
Bus Bracing
Instantaneous Settings
1 to 4 Cycle Currents
(Transient Network)
Interrupting
Capability
-
Page 21 of 178
Pub. Year
Title
1979(1988)
IEEE C37.04f
1990
IEEE C37.04g
1986
Supplements
IEEE C37.04h
1990
IEEE C37.04i
1991
IEEE C37.04
1999
IEEE C37.010
1979, 1988,1999
IEEEC37.010b
1985
IEEE C37.010e
1985
and Supplements
IEEE C37.010
1999
IEEE C37.13
1990
IEEE C37.013
1997
IEEE C37.20.1
1993 2002
UL 489_9
Page 22 of 178
Component
Bus
Power Grid
Syn Generator
Transformer
Motor
Syn Motor
Static Load
Lump Load
Cable
Transmission Line
9
10
MOV
Protective Devices
11
Capacitor
12
Impedance
Required input
Nominal kv
Voltage rating, MVA sc, X/R ratio
1. Swing %v and del
2. Voltage Control MW, Mvar limits
3. Mvar Control-MW, Mvar and Var limits
4. PF Control-MW and PF
5. Imp/Model-Impedance(Xd,Xd, Xd, Xo, X2 and X/R)
1. Rating-Py kV, Sec kV, MVA
2. Impedance-%Z (+Ve & -Ve sequence Impedance)
3. Tolerance
4. Tap-Fixed Tap and LTC settings
5. Grounding-Py and Sec.
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Rating-HP and kV and select MFR details.
3. Model-%LRC, %PF.
4. Model-Parameters-X0, X/R
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Rating-HP and kV and select MFR details.
3. Model-Impedance(Xd,Xo,Xd,X2, X/R)
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Rating-kV, MW, Mvar and PF
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Ratings- kV, MW, Mvar and PF
3. Load Type-Motor Load or Static load
1. Length in ft/m/mile/km
2. Cable Type- Size, Insulation, kV and #/Cable
3. Impedance/conductor-Positive sequence
1. Length in ft/m/mile/km
2. Parameter-Phase conductor
3. Impedance per phase-positive sequence
1. Rating-HP, kV and rated Torque
1. Circuit Breakers-Rated kV, Amps, Interrupting kA
2. Fuses-Rated kV, Size, Amps, Interrupting kA
3. Switches-Rated kV , BIL ratings and amps
4. Contactors- Rated kV, Interrupting kA and amps
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Rating-kV, Max kV, Mvar Bank and No of Banks.
1. Rating-Amps and kV
2. Impedance- Positive sequence Z and X/R
Page 23 of 178
Step 1: Build the single line diagram using ANSI / IEEE method
Page 24 of 178
= 33 kV
MVAsc
= 750 kA
X/R
= 14
kAsc
= 13.12
Length
= 4.85km
= 0.1ohms/km
= 0.1ohms/km
Cable:-
Transformer:Primary kV
= 33 kV
Secondary kV = 6.3 kV
MVA
= 15 MVA
Base MVA
= 1 MVA
Z%
= 14.38
X/R
= 24.94
LRC
= 400%
Input MVA
= 5.676
LRC
= 550%
Input MVA
= 1.282
Motor 1:-
Motor 2:-
Page 25 of 178
Page 26 of 178
Total reactance
XTOTAL = Xgrid+ Xcable+ XTFR
=0.0013+0.00485+0.009587
XTOTAL =0.011485----------------------------eq 5
To find Symmetrical fault level substitute 5 in eq 3.
=1/ XTOTAL
=1/ XTOTAL
=1/0.011485
=87.68MVA--------------------------------eq 6
Isymm=MVAsc/3*kV
=140.28/ (3*6)
Symmetrical fault current (Isymm) =13.49 kA (without motor contribution)
Page 27 of 178
Page 28 of 178
Step 6: Build the single line diagram using ANSI / IEEE method
Page 29 of 178
----------------------------eq 9
= 5.676 MVA
Bus kV
=6 kV
Base MVA
=1
To find Xd''
Xd''=1/LRC p.u
Xd''
=1/4
Xd1''=0.25
Then find the reactance of the motor 1
XM1
XM1=0.0440
Substitute the above values in eq 9
Page 30 of 178
MVAsc
MVAsc=22.70
Substitute the above values in eq 8
Then to find the short circuit current by motor 1 contribution
= 1.282 MVA
Bus kV
= 6 kV
Base MVA
=1
To find Xd''
Xd''=1/LRC p.u
Xd''
=1/5.5
Xd2''=0.1818
Then find the reactance of the motor 2
XM2
XM2=0.1418
Substitute the above values in eq 9
Then find the MVA at the faulted bus
MVAsc
MVAsc=7.051
Substitute the above values in eq 8
Then to find the short circuit current by motor 2 contributions
=13.49+2.858
=16.45 kA
Page 32 of 178
Page 33 of 178
Hand Calculation
ETAP Result
%
Difference
Methods
With
Contribution
ANSI/IEEE
Method
13.49
Without
contribution
2.858
With
contribution
Without
contribution
13.7
2.858
0.21
Page 34 of 178
Generator
Power Grid
Synchronous Motors
Induction Machines
Lumped Loads
(with some % motor load)
Inverters
Page 35 of 178
Static Loads
ETAP checks the protective device rated making and breaking capacities against the fault
currents and flags inadequate devices.
Types of SC Faults
Page 36 of 178
Types of Short-Circuits
Near-To-Generator Short-Circuit
Far-From-Generator Short-Circuit
Page 37 of 178
Page 38 of 178
Pub. Year
Title
IEC 62271-100
2003
High-voltage switchgear and control gear Part 100: Highvoltage alternating-current circuit breakers
IEC 62271-200
2003
IEC 62271-203
2003
High-voltage switchgear and control gear Part 203: Gasinsulated metal-enclosed switchgear for rated voltages above
52 kV
IEC 60282-2
IEC 61363-1
1997
1998
IEC 60909-0
2001
IEC 60909-1
2002
IEC 60909-2
1992
IEC 60909-4
2000
IEC 60947-1
2004
IEC 60947-2
2003
Page 39 of 178
Component
Bus
Power Grid
Syn Generator
Transformer
Motor
Syn Motor
Static Load
Lump Load
Cable
Transmission Line
9
10
MOV
Protective Devices
11
Capacitor
12
Impedance
Required input
Nominal kv
Voltage rating, MVA sc, X/R ratio
1. Swing %v and del
2. Voltage Control MW, Mvar limits
3. Mvar Control-MW, Mvar and Var limits
4. PF Control-MW and PF
5. Imp/Model-Impedance(Xd,Xd,Xd,Xo,X2 and X/R)
1. Rating-Py kV, Sec kV, MVA
2. Impedance-%Z (+Ve & -Ve sequence Impedance)
3. Tolerance
4. Tap-Fixed Tap and LTC settings
5. Grounding-Py and Sec.
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Rating-HP and kV and select MFR details.
3. Model-%LRC, %PF.
4. Model-Parameters-X0, X/R
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Rating-HP and kV and select MFR details.
3. Model-Impedance(Xd,Xo,Xd,X2,X/R)
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Rating-kV, MW, Mvar and PF
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Ratings- kV, MW, Mvar and PF
3. Load Type-Motor Load or Static load
1. Length in ft/m/mile/km
2. Cable Type- Size, Insulation, kV and #/Cable
3. Impedance/conductor-Positive sequence
1. Length in ft/m/mile/km
2. Parameter-Phase conductor
3. Impedance per phase-positive sequence
1. Rating-HP, kV and rated Torque
1. Circuit Breakers-Rated kV, Amps, Interrupting kA
2. Fuses-Rated kV, Size, Amps, Interrupting kA
3. Switches-Rated kV , BIL ratings and amps
4. Contactors- Rated kV, Interrupting kA and amps
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Rating-kV, Max kV, Mvar Bank and No of Banks.
1. Rating-Amps and kV
2. Impedance- Positive sequence Z and X/R
Page 40 of 178
Page 41 of 178
= 33 kV
X/R
= 14
kAsc
= 40
Transformer:Primary kV
= 33 kV
Secondary kV = 0.433 kV
MVA
= 2.5 MVA
Base MVA
= 100 MVA
Z%
= 6.25 %
X/R
= 10.67
Page 42 of 178
Ib = I''k-----------------------------------------------eq 4
The below shows the calculated for source and transformer
SHORT CIRCUIT CALCULATION
Calculation Of Impedance Upto Fault In PU
PU source
(100/MVAsc)*(old kV/new
Zs
0.047615 kV)^2
Xs
0.047494 (Zs^2-Rs^2)
Rs
0.003392 (Zs^2/((X/R)^2+1)
x/R
14 Xs/Rs
PU Transformer
Zt
2.721571 %Z/MVA
Xt
2.709696 (Zt^2-Rt^2)
Rt
0.253955 (Zt^2/((X/R)^2+1)
x/R
10.67 Xt/Rt
PU TOTAL
Z
2.769174 (X^2+R^2)
X
2.75719 Xs+Xt
R
0.257347 Rs+Rt
x/R
10.7139 X/R
Calculation Of Impedance Upto Fault In ohms
Source Z Values in Ohm
Z ohm
X ohm
R ohm
x/R
Total Upto Fault Z in Ohm
Z ohm
X ohm
R ohm
x/R
0.476314
0.475104
0.033936
14
0.004769
0.004749
0.000443
10.7139
(X^2+R^2)
X*(sy new kV)^2/Base MVA
R*(sy new kV)^2/Base MVA
Xohm/Rohm
Page 43 of 178
We know that
New Zohm
=0.00477
New X/R
=10.714
= 1.1
Vn
= 0.415kV
Zt
= 0.00477
= 1000*X/R/ (2**f).
= 1000*10.713/ (2*3.14*50)
=34.10-------------------------------------------------eq 5
Substitute eq 5 in eq 2
eq 2=>
Page 44 of 178
Ib= Ip
w.k.t
Ip =136.44
I.e. The symmetrical short circuit breaking current (Ib) is equal to the initial
symmetrical short circuit current.
So substitute in eq 4, we get
Symmetrical Breaking current Ib =136.44 kA
Hand Calculation
ETAP Result
55.26
55.8 kA
136.44
131 kA
I''k
Peak Short Circuit Current Ip
Page 45 of 178
Step 6: Run Short Circuit Analysis for three phase fault to find Intial
symmetrical rms.
Page 46 of 178
Step 7: Run Short Circuit Analysis for three phase fault to peak short circuit current.
Page 47 of 178
Page 48 of 178
INTRODUCTION:
During the motor starting period, the starting motor appears to the system as small
impedance connected to a bus. It draws a large current from the system, about six times the
motor rated current, which therefore results in voltage drops (dips) in the system and
imposes disturbances to the normal operation of other system loads. Since the motor
acceleration torque is dependent on motor terminal voltage, in some cases the starting motor
may not be able to reach its rated speed due to extremely low terminal voltage. This makes it
necessary to perform a motor starting analysis. The purpose of performing a motor starting
study is two fold:
To investigate whether the starting motor can be successfully started under the
operating conditions.
To see if starting the motor will seriously slow down the normal operation of other
loads in the system.
ETAP provides two types of motor starting calculations:
Static Motor Starting:In Static Motor Starting, the starting motors are modeled by the locked-rotor
impedance during acceleration time, simulating the worst impact on normal operating loads.
This method is suitable for checking the effect of motor starting on the system when the
dynamic model is not available for starting motors.
Dynamic Motor Acceleration:In the Dynamic Motor Acceleration calculation, the starting motors are represented
by dynamic models and the Motor Acceleration module simulates the entire process of motor
acceleration. This method is used to determine if a motor can be started and how much time
is needed for the motor to reach its rated speed, as well as to determine the effect of voltage
dips on the system.
Page 49 of 178
Motor Modeling:
1. Operating Motor
2. Starting Motor
Locked-Rotor Impedance
Circuit Models
Characteristic Curves
After Acceleration Constant KVA Load
Page 50 of 178
Page 51 of 178
Page 52 of 178
2. Characteristic Model
Motor Torque, I, and PF as function of Slip-Static Model
Calculation Methods
Static Motor Starting
Time domain using static model
Switching motors modeled as Zlr during starting and constant kVA
load after starting
Run load flow when any change in system
Dynamic Motor Starting
Time domain using dynamic model and inertia model
Dynamic model used for the entire simulation
Requires motor and load dynamic (characteristic) model
Page 53 of 178
Component
Bus
Power Grid
Syn Generator
Transformer
Motor
Syn Motor
Static Load
Lump Load
Cable
Transmission Line
9
10
MOV
Protective Devices
11
Capacitor
Required input
Nominal kv
Voltage rating, MVA sc, X/R ratio
1. Swing %v and del
2. Voltage Control MW, Mvar limits
3. Mvar Control-MW, Mvar and Var limits
4. PF Control-MW and PF
5. Imp/Model-Impedance(Xd,Xd,Xd,Xo,X2 and X/R)
1. Rating-Py kV, Sec kV, MVA
2. Impedance-%Z (+Ve & -Ve sequence Impedance)
3. Tolerance
4. Tap-Fixed Tap and LTC settings
5. Grounding-Py and Sec.
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Rating-HP and kV and select MFR details.
3. Model-%LRC, %PF.
4. Model-Parameters-X0, X/R
5. Load Model-Type
6. Inertia-Motor, Load
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Rating-HP and kV and select MFR details.
3. Model-Impedance(Xd,Xo,Xd,X2,X/R)
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Rating-kV, MW, Mvar and PF
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Ratings- kV, MW, Mvar and PF
3. Load Type-Motor Load or Static load
1. Length in ft/m/mile/km
2. Cable Type- Size, Insulation, kV and #/Cable
3. Impedance/conductor-Positive sequence
1. Length in ft/m/mile/km
2. Parameter-Phase conductor
3. Impedance per phase-positive sequence
1. Rating-HP, kV and rated Torque
1. Circuit Breakers-Rated kV, Amps, Interrupting kA
2. Fuses-Rated kV, Size, Amps, Interrupting kA
3. Switches-Rated kV , BIL ratings and amps
4. Contactors- Rated kV, Interrupting kA and amps
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Rating-kV, Max kV, Mvar Bank and No of Banks.
Page 54 of 178
CASE STUDY-1
STEP 1: Draw a SLD with a motor.
Page 55 of 178
Operating Voltage
Units
kV
4.2
420
Amps
0.59
59
1.7
170
Tmax
Starting Voltage
1.0
100
%V
1500
RPM
1489
RPM
Motor
6000
kW
50
Hz
Frequency
P.F %
Efficiency %
100
89
97
75
90
97.1
50
89
96.6
Torque p.u
0.0
0.140
0.2
0.090
0.4
0.150
0.6
0.230
0.8
0.340
1.0
0.465
Page 56 of 178
STEP 3: FINDING THE CURVE TYPE LOAD TORQUE:To find the Speed Vs Torque Characteristics consider the following motor data (as per the data
sheet) for given motor as a Turbo-Compressor load type where load torque is proportional to
square of speed (i.e. TL N2)
To find for 100 % LF and 85 % LF
1)
Formulae:
Top= T fl ----------------------------- eq 1
N fl = S fl = {1- % Sfl/100} -------- eq 2
Nop= N fl ----------------------------- eq 3
Sfl = (N s - N r) / N s ---------------- eq 4
% Sfl = 100* Sfl -------------------- eq 5
Where
Top =Operating Torque in p.u
T fl =Full load Torque in p.u
Nop=Operating Speed in p.u
N fl=Full load Speed in p.u
Sfl=Full load Slip in p.u
Ns=Synchronous Slip in p.u
Nr-Rated Slip in p.u
F-frequency in Hz
P-number of poles
To find Top
eq 1=>
Top = T fl= 100% =1.0 PU
Page 57 of 178
Page 58 of 178
Table 1:
Speed in PU
Torque in PU
REMARKS
0.15
0.20
0.1
0.40
0.163
0.60
0.366
0.80
0.651
0.9913
1.0
(Nop= N fl)
(Top = Tfl )
1.0
1.01756
2)
Formulae:
Top= T fl ----------------------------- eq 6
N op = S op = {1- % Sop /100} ------- eq 7
(Sop / S fl) = 0.80 ---------------------- eq 8
To find Top
eq 6=>
Top = T fl= 80% =0.8 PU
To find Operating Slip (Sop)
eq 8=>
(Sop / S fl) = 0.80
Sop = 0.80 x S fl
We already know that S fl = 0.87 % from eq 4
Sop = 0.80 x S fl
% Sop = 0.80 x 0.87
% Sop = 0.696 %
To find Operating Speed (Nop)
eq 7=>
N op = S op = {1- % Sop /100}
Page 59 of 178
Torque in PU
REMARKS
0.15
0.20
0.1
0.40
0.129
0.60
0.292
0.80
0.5191
0.9930
0.80
(Nop= N fl)
(Top = Tfl )
1.0
0.8112
By using the above case 1 and 2 models the load in curve type between Torque Vs Speed,
for our convenience convert the PU Speed into Percentage of Speed.
As per the table 1 the below table shows the Speed Vs Torque Characteristics for 100% LF.
% Speed p.u
%Torque TL
15
20
10
40
16.3
60
36.6
80
65.1
Page 60 of 178
99.13
100
100
101.7
STEP 4: MODEL THE LOAD AS PER THE ABOVE TABLE FOR 100%LF
Page 61 of 178
MVA= MW/( PF * )
MVA= (6* 0.97)/ 0.89
MVA=6.95 MVA
To find KE
eq 2=>
Page 62 of 178
eq 1=>
H = KE/MVA
H=12.340/6.95
H=1.775 MW-s/MVA
= 0.0073 p.u
MVA = 6.950
R1
= 1.13%
X1
= 16.79%
R2fl
= 0.7%
X2fl
= 14.56%
R2start = 2.98%
X2start = 6.75%
Xm
= 546.62%
To find Zbase.
Zbase = kV^2/MVA
= 6*6/6.950
Zbase = 5.1798
Parameters
Values
Formulae
R2(s)
0.04
1/[1/R2st+(1/R2fl-1/R2st)*(1-S)^2]
X2(s)
0.74
1/[1/X2st+(1/X2fl-1/X2st)*(1-S)^2]
R2eq
4.44
R2(s)/s*Xm^2/[(R2(s)/S)^2+(X2(s)+Xm)^2
X2eq
1.46
Xm*[R2(s)^2/S^2+X2(s)^2+X2(s)*Xm]/[(R2(s)/S)^2+(X2(s)+Xm)^2]
Z2eq
4.67
(R2eq^2+X2eq^2)
Rt
4.50
R1ohm+R2eq
Page 64 of 178
Xt
2.33
X1ohm+X2eq
Zt
5.06
(Rt^2+Xt^2)
Angle of Zt
0.48
tan-1(Xt/Rt)
Zt in degree
27.34
Angle of Zt*180/pi()
p.f
0.89
Cos(angle of Zt)
Is in Amps
684.06
N in RPM
1488
V*1000/((3)*Zt)
(1-0.008)*Ns
By using the above table calculates the Starting Current, Speed by varying the Time and Slip
Speed in
RPM
Time in
sec
Slip in
PU
Is in
Amps
0
75
150
225
300
450
600
750
900
1050
1200
1350
1455
1470
1485
1488
0.000
0.926
1.530
2.040
2.515
3.483
4.579
5.936
7.833
11.070
18.020
23.360
24.040
24.100
24.180
24.240
1.000
0.950
0.900
0.850
0.800
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.020
0.010
0.008
0.008
2828.37
2825.61
2820.93
2814.30
2805.67
2781.88
2747.99
2701.58
2639.07
2554.63
2436.45
2238.84
1396.06
858.17
712.70
684.06
Page 65 of 178
Hand Calculation
ETAP Calculation
Time in
Speed in
Is in
Time in
Speed in
Is in
Sec
RPM
Amps
Sec
RPM
Amps
2.515
300
2805.67
2.515
300
2800.52
7.833
900
2639.07
7.833
900
2610.69
18.02
1200
2436.45
18.02
1200
2416.54
24.10
1470
858.17
24.10
1470
839.69
24.24
1488
684.06
24.00
1488
678.26
Page 66 of 178
Page 67 of 178
INTRODUCTION:
The ETAP Transient Stability Analysis program is designed to investigate the system
dynamic responses and stability limits of a power system before, during, and after system
changes or disturbances. The program models dynamic characteristics of a power system,
implements the user-defined events and actions, solves the system network equation and
machine differential equations interactively to find out system and machine responses in time
domain.
Stability Limits:
There are two types of stability limit for a power system, namely steady-state stability
limit and transient stability limit.
Page 68 of 178
Page 69 of 178
Generator Modeling:
Page 70 of 178
Page 71 of 178
Case Study 1:
A power transmission and distribution system feeding an industrial plant with its own
on-site generation and double busbar arrangement. Normally the busbar coupler is open and
grid infeed is via the non-priority busbar No. 2. On-site generation and a major 5000 hp
induction motor are connected to busbar No. 1. Other smaller motor loads are connected to
busbars 3, 4 and 5.The computer data files represent the grid infeed as a generator with
transient reactance equal to the short circuit reactance Xd and a very large inertia constant
of 100 MJ/MVA. The large induction motors connected to busbars 1 and 5 are represented in
detail in order that slip and current variations during disturbance may be studied. These
motor load torque/speed characteristics are assumed to follow a square law. The two groups
of smaller 415 V motors connected to busbars 3 and 4 are not to be studied in detail and are
represented as constant kVA loads. On-site generator No. 1 is represented simply by its
transient reactance and inertia constant and site conditions are assumed to allow full rated
output during all case studies.
Case study 1
The system is operating with industrial plant on-site generator No. 2 not connected.
Generator No. 1 is delivering full power at near unity power factor. A three phase fault is
imagined to occur on the 6.6 kV feeders to busbar 3 at point (F). The protection and circuit
breaker are such that total fault duration of 0.35 seconds is obtained. Clearance of the fault
disconnects busbar 3 and its associated step-down transformer from busbar 1 and all other
loads are assumed to remain connected.
The study says that the rotor angle of generator 1 is seen to increase during the fault
period. Shortly after fault clearance, a return towards the original operating load angle
position is seen. The generator terminal voltage is also seen to recover towards prefault
value. The on-site generator No. 1 is therefore stable to this particular fault condition.
The behavior of the 5000 hp induction motor load under these fault conditions. During the
fault the slip increases. However, shortly after fault clearance the terminal voltage recovers
and the slip reduces towards the prefault value. Similar behavior for motors 2 and 3 is shown
in Fig. 1.18c. The main motor loads therefore seem to be able to operate under the fault
condition; the smaller motor loads have not been studied. The situation in this configuration
is therefore stable and only one busbar is lost as a result of the fault.
Page 72 of 178
Component
Bus
Power Grid
Syn Generator
Transformer
Motor
Syn Motor
Static Load
Lump Load
Cable
Transmission Line
9
10
MOV
Protective Devices
11
Capacitor
Required input
Nominal kv
Voltage rating, MVA sc, X/R ratio
1. Swing %v and del
2. Voltage Control MW, Mvar limits
3. Mvar Control-MW, Mvar and Var limits
4. PF Control-MW and PF
5. Imp/Model-Impedance(Xd,Xd,Xo,X2 and X/R)
-Dynamic (Xd, XL, Xq, Td0, Sbreak, S100.
6. Inertia
7. Governor
8. Exciter
1. Rating-Py kV, Sec kV, MVA
2. Impedance-%Z (+Ve & -Ve sequence Impedance)
3. Tolerance
4. Tap-Fixed Tap and LTC settings
5. Grounding-Py and Sec.
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Rating-HP and kV and select MFR details.
3. Model-%LRC, %PF.
4. Model-Parameters-X0, X/R
5. Load Model-Type
6. Inertia-Motor, Load
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Rating-HP and kV and select MFR details.
3. Model-Impedance(Xd,Xo,Xd,X2,X/R)
4. Exciter
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Rating-kV, MW, Mvar and PF
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Ratings- kV, MW, Mvar and PF
3. Load Type-Motor Load or Static load
1. Length in ft/m/mile/km
2. Cable Type- Size, Insulation, kV and #/Cable
3. Impedance/conductor-Positive sequence
1. Length in ft/m/mile/km
2. Parameter-Phase conductor
3. Impedance per phase-positive sequence
1. Rating-HP, kV and rated Torque
1. Circuit Breakers-Rated kV, Amps, Interrupting kA
2. Fuses-Rated kV, Size, Amps, Interrupting kA
3. Switches-Rated kV , BIL ratings and amps
4. Contactors- Rated kV, Interrupting kA and amps
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Rating-kV, Max kV, Mvar Bank and No of Banks.
Page 73 of 178
12
Impedance
1. Rating-Amps and kV
2. Impedance- Positive sequence Z and X/R
Page 74 of 178
kV=132
Rated Voltage
%PF=85
Rated PF
MVA=100
Rated Power
Poles=4
Xd'=5%
X2=12%
X0=10%
XL=11%
Xq=92%
Tdo=5.6
Sbreak=0.8
This is the per unit of terminal voltage at which the generator saturation
curve skews from the air-gap line.
S100=1.07
Damping=5
Grounding=Star
Inertia=100
Generator 1:
Operation Mode: Voltage Control
MW=8.5
kV=6.6
Rated Voltage
Page 75 of 178
%PF=85
Rated PF
MVA=10
Rated Power
Poles=4
Xd'=20%
X2=12%
X0=10%
XL=8%
Xq=92%
Tdo=5.6
Sbreak=0.8
This is the per unit of terminal voltage at which the generator saturation
curve skews from the air-gap line.
S100=1.07
S120=1.08
Damping=5
Grounding=Star
Inertia=7.5
Page 76 of 178
Generator 2:
Operation Mode: Voltage Control
MW=2.125
kV=6.6
Rated Voltage
%PF=85
Rated PF
MVA=2.5
Rated Power
Poles=4
Xd'=25%
X2=12%
X0=10%
X/R=48%
Rotor Type= RR
Xd=110%
XL=11%
Xq=108%
Tdo=5.6
Sbreak=0.8
This is the per unit of terminal voltage at which the generator saturation
curve skews from the air-gap line.
S100=1.07
S120=1.08
Damping=5
Grounding=Star
Inertia=?As per
Page 77 of 178
This value is used as the base MVA for the transformer impedance
Primary kV=132
Secondary kV=6.6
Max MVA=10
%Z=10
%X/R=15.5
Py=Star Sy=delta
(SOLID)
This value is used as the base MVA for the transformer impedance
Primary kV=6.6
%Z=8
%X/R=10.67
Py=Star Sy=delta
(SOLID)
This value is used as the base MVA for the transformer impedance
Primary kV=6.6
%Z=8
%X/R=12.14
Py=Star Sy=delta
(SOLID)
Page 78 of 178
This value is used as the base MVA for the transformer impedance
Primary kV=6.6
%Z=8
%X/R=12.85
Py=Star Sy=delta
(SOLID)
Rated MVA
MW=5
%PF=90
P.F=MVA/MW
Load type
Constant KVA=100%
Rated MVA
MW=2
%PF=90
P.F=MVA/MW
Load type
Constant KVA=100%
kV=6.6
Rated voltage
kV=3.3
Rated voltage
Page 79 of 178
Formulae:
New angle= R+ Delta degree-------------------------------------------------eq 1
R = Pa* t^*/ (4*H) -------------------------------------------------------------eq 2
Delta degree=tan-1((XP-RQ)/ (Vt^2+ (RP+XQ))*180/-------------eq 3
Where
Pa- is the accelerating power
t- is the time in seconds.
H- inertia constants of the machine (MW-seconds/MVA)
Vt-terminal voltage
= 6.6 kV
Base MVA
= 10 MVA
Frequency
= 60 Hz
=4
Xd'
= 0.2 p.u
Xd''
= 0.12 p.u
= 0.0025 p.u
Xd''/R
= 48
Xd=X
= 0.2
Generator 1 Data
Generator Voltage=1.0 p.u
MW
= 8.5
Page 80 of 178
Mvar
= 4.12
To find MVA
MVA = (MW^2+Mvar^2)
= (8.5*8.5+4.12*4.12)
MVA=9.44
To find Zbase
Zbase =kV^2/Base MVA
=6.6*6.6/10
Zbase=4.356
= MW/Base MVA
= 8.5 / 10
P=0.85
= Mvar/Base MVA
= 4.12 / 10
Q=0.41
So w.k.t
Vt =1.0 p.u Terminal Voltage
R=0.0025 p.u
P=0.85 p.u
X=0.2 p.u
Q=0.41 p.u
Page 81 of 178
eq 3=>
deg=8.908
To find the rotor angle
eq 2=>
Note: =2**f
= 0.85*0.42*0.42*2*3.14*60/ (4*7.5)
R = 1.8845 in radian
Note: t- is the fault clearing time
Page 82 of 178
Page 83 of 178
Fig 1
Fig 2
Page 84 of 178
As per Hand
As per ETAP
Comparison
Calculation
T in sec
G1 in degree
G1 in degree
0.42
116.86
118.35
1.49
Note: The final Critical Fault Clearance time 0.42, if it exceeds this time the system becomes
instability, to remain in steady state stability the fault want to cleared with in this time.
Page 85 of 178
Page 86 of 178
Page 87 of 178
= 2.125
Mvar
= 1.31
= 6.6 kV
Base MVA
= 10 MVA
Frequency
= 60 Hz
=4
Xd'
= 0.2 p.u
Xd''
= 0.12 p.u
= 0.0025 p.u
Xd''/R
= 48
Xd=X
= 0.2
Generator 1 Data
Generator Voltage=1.0 p.u
Page 88 of 178
MW
= 8.5
Mvar
= 4.12
To find MVA
MVA = (MW^2+Mvar^2)
= (8.5*8.5+4.12*4.12)
MVA=9.44
To find Zbase
Zbase =kV^2/Base MVA
=6.6*6.6/10
Zbase=4.356
= MW/Base MVA
= 8.5 / 10
P=0.85
= Mvar/Base MVA
= 4.12 / 10
Q=0.41
So w.k.t
Vt =1.0 p.u Terminal Voltage
R=0.0025 p.u
P=0.85 p.u
X=0.2 p.u
Q=0.41 p.u
Page 89 of 178
deg=8.908
To find the rotor angle
eq 2=>
Note: =2**f
= 0.85*0.4*0.4*2*3.14*60/ (4*7.5)
R = 1.8845 in radian
Note: t- is the fault clearing time
w.k.t
Generator 2 Data
Generator Voltage
=1.0 p.u
Base MVA
=2.5
MW
= 2.125
Mvar
= 1.316
To find MVA
MVA = (MW^2+Mvar^2)
= (2.125*2.125+1.03*1.03)
MVA=2.36
= MW/Base MVA
= 2.125 / 2.5
P=0.85
= Mvar/Base MVA
= 1.316 / 2.5
Q=0.527
So w.k.t
Vt =1.0 p.u Terminal Voltage
R=0.0025 p.u
P=0.85 p.u
X=0.25 p.u
Q=0.527 p.u
Page 91 of 178
eq 3=>
deg=10.614
To find the rotor angle
eq 2=>
Note: =2**f
= 0.85*0.4*0.4*2*3.14*60/ (4*3)
R = 4.273
in radian
STEP: 3
Page 92 of 178
For the same transient stability but with equally loaded machines, which is another
simulation carried out for the purpose of the note, the power swings in step-2 plotted shows
stable machine response and instable machine response. See the dotted line shows foe
generator 2, which becomes instable and the continuous line is for generator 1 which remains
stable as per the previous case study. Next change the instable machine inertia i.e., generator
2 inertia equal to generator 1 inertia i.e., 7.5, check the system stability or not, which is
shown in below step-3. The machines swing together and there will be no relative rotor angle
swing between them and both machines are seen to recover back to original operating
condition as soon as the electrical fault is cleared.
Page 93 of 178
Note: =2**f
= 0.85*0.4*0.4*2*3.14*60/ (4*7.5)
R = 1.709
in radian
Now the Generator 2 becomes stable by changing the inertia value equal to generator 1
Note: The final Critical Fault Clearance time 0.4, if it exceeds this time the system becomes
instability, to remain in steady state stability the fault want to cleared with in this time. So
this time want to set in the relay, which will operate the circuit breaker.
Page 94 of 178
STEP 5:
See the machines, generator 1 and generator 2 becomes stability because of by changing the
inertia of Generator H1=Generator H2. Now we want to find the Critical fault clearance time
same as we done before in the case 1 i.e., single machine system.
Page 95 of 178
with loads shared in equal proportion of their ratings, if the operating machines
are of unequal rating
The risks involved in paralleling machines with unequal loading are the possible loss of
synchronism between machines with possible shaft damage due to large torque swings that
will occur under transients associated with close up 3 phase electrical faults that may not be
cleared quickly in unit protection.
Page 96 of 178
5. STAR-PROTECTIVE DEVICE
COORDINATION
Page 97 of 178
INTRODUCTION:
Star is a fully integrated system protective device coordination and selectivity module within
ETAP. Star represents a new concept in performing steady-state and dynamic device
coordination, protection, and testing. This is achieved by utilizing intelligent one-line
diagrams, comprehensive device libraries, and an integrated multi-dimensional database.
Star enables power engineers to easily and efficiently perform protective device
coordination studies. The built-in intelligent features provide informed and reliable
recommendations regarding the feasibility of the devices under consideration. Engineers can
quickly realize possible design issues and make informed decisions to improve system
reliability, increase system stability, and boost financial savings. Stars short-circuit and
sequence-of-operation calculations are conducted and reported using the settings of the study
case selected in the toolbar. This allows you to switch between study cases without having to
reset the study case options each time. This feature is designed to organize your study efforts
and save you time.
The current/time tripping characteristics of IDMT over current relays may need to be
varied according to the tripping time required and the characteristics of other protection
devices used in the network. For this purpose, IEC 60255 defines a number of standard
characteristics as follows.
Objectives:
Offers insight into troubleshooting false trips, relay mis-operation, and miscoordination
Page 98 of 178
Aids system engineers & planners to quickly realize possible design issues &
make informed decisions
Components
Parameters
1. Input-Current-Py and Sy amps.
2. Output-Interlock-Add device id and action.
3. OCR-Library-Select manufacture.
4. TCC kA- Calculated or user-defined.
1. Input-Current-Py and Sy amps.
2. Output-Interlock-Add device id and action.
Frequency Relay
Voltage Relay
Motor Relay
Current Transformer
Potential Transformer
Component
Bus
Power Grid
Required input
Nominal kv
Voltage rating, MVA sc, X/R ratio
Page 99 of 178
Syn Generator
Transformer
Motor
Syn Motor
Static Load
Lump Load
Cable
Transmission Line
9
10
MOV
Protective Devices
11
Capacitor
12
Impedance
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
1.
2.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
1.
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
1.
2.
Typical Procedure:
A typical procedure for organizing data before beginning coordination studies by computer it as
follows.
1. Note motor horse power, full load power, acceleration time and locked rotor current.
2. For each protective device: note short circuit current, full load current and voltage level at
each device. List device manufacture and type and program file name for the device.
3. For each low-voltage breaker, indicate long time, short time, instantaneous. Note settings
if existing device.
4. For each fuse, note rating.
5. For each relay, note tap settings, CT ratio, tap and time dial, if know, and whether relay
has instantaneous.
6. For each transformer, note kVA, fan cooled rating, impedance, and transformer
connection.
7. For cable damage curves: note cable size, conductor material, and cable insulation.
Graphical printing/plotting.
Step 2: Enter the input Parameters for all the components including current transformer
(CT) ratio depend upon the transformer primary and secondary full load amps and the relay
(Over current relay) details by selecting the manufacture from the library and relay operation for
to operate the circuit breaker CB2
SYSTEM PARAMETERS:Voltage
: 33KV, 50 Hz
: 800.2 MVAsc
Fault kA
: 14 kA
X/R ratio
: 40
TRANSFORMER:Primary
: 33 kV
Secondary
: 11 kV
Capacity
: 10 MVA
Impedance
: 8.35
To Find
Formulae:
Py FLA= KVA/ ( (3)*Py kV)
Sy FLA=KVA/ ( (3)*Sy kV)
Transformer Full Load Amps
Py FLA= KVA/ ( (3)*Py kV)
=10000/ (1.723*33)
=175 Amps
Sy FLA=KVA/ ( (3)*Sy kV)
=10000/ (1.723*11)
=962.3 Amps
CT-RATIO:Primary
: 200
Secondary
:1
Burden
: 2.5 VA
RELAY DATA:Type
: ALSTOM
Model
: P139
Functions
Application
t=TMS*(80/Ir^2-1) -----------eq 1
I=CT ratio * Ir ------------------eq 2
#Note: As per IEC 60255 standards
Consider
TMS =0.9
Ir
=1.1
CT ratio=200
Where
TMS-Time Multiplier Setting.
Ir-Relay Current Settings.
I-Relay current in Amps.
To find t in seconds
eq 1=>
t=TMS*(80/Ir^2-1)
=0.9*(80/ (1.1*1.1-1))
t=342.86 sec
To find I in amps
eq 1=>
I=CT ratio * Ir
=200*1.1
I=220 amps
The below table shows current with respect to time for different relay current.
Extremely Inverse
EI
80
Page 106 of 178
CT ratio
TMS
200
0.9
342.86
57.60
24.00
9.00
4.80
3.00
2.06
1.50
1.14
0.90
0.73
0.46
0.32
0.18
0.13
1
Amps
220
300
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2500
3000
4000
6200
Hand Calculation
t in sec
ETAP Calculation
I in Amps
I in Amps
0.9
1800
1796
1.5
1400
1402
2.06
1200
1199
1000
1005
4.8
800
799.6
9.0
600
598.2
6. HARMONIC ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION:
Harmonics are voltages and/or currents present in an electrical system at some multiple of the
fundamental frequency. (IEEE Std 399, Brown Book). Because of the wide and ever increasing
applications of power electronic devices, such as variable speed drives, uninterruptible power
supplies (UPS), static power converters, etc., power system voltage and current quality has been
severely affected in some areas. In these areas components other than that of fundamental
frequency can be found to exist in the distorted voltage and current waveforms. These components
usually are the integer multipliers of the fundamental frequency, called harmonics. In addition to
electronic devices, some other nonlinear loads, or devices including saturated transformers, arc
furnaces, fluorescent lights, and cycloconverters are also responsible for the deterioration in power
system quality.
The presence of harmonics in a power system can give rise to a variety of problems including
equipment overheating, reduced power factors, deteriorating performance of electrical equipment,
the incorrect operation of protective relays, interference with communication devices, and in some
cases, circuit resonance to cause electric apparatus dielectric failure and other types of severe
damage. Even worse, harmonic currents generated in one area can penetrate into the power grid
and propagate into other areas, resulting in voltage and current distortions for the entire system.
This phenomenon has become a major concern for power quality due to the ever-increasing usage
of electronic devices and equipment in power systems.
Some of the main features of the ETAP Harmonic Load Flow Study are summarized below:
Generation of harmonic source based on device parameters for VFD, UPS, charger,
inverter, SVC and HVDC
Total harmonic distortions (THD) for both bus voltages and branch current
Total RMS value for both bus voltages and branch currents
Total arithmetic summation value (ASUM) for both bus voltages and branch currents
Telephone influence factors (TIF) for both bus voltages and branch currents
Classification of Harmonics
Harmonics may be classified as:
1. Characteristic Harmonics
Generally produced by power converters
2. Non-Characteristic Harmonics
Typically produced by arc furnaces and discharge lighting (from non-periodical
waveforms)
Least expensive
In PowerStation
Distortion Limits:
Recommended Practices for Utilities (IEEE 519):
Bus Voltage At PCC
Individual Distortion
THD (%)
THD (%)
69 kV and below
3.0
5.0
1.5
2.5
1.0
1.5
Voltage
: 33KV, 50 Hz
: 1000 MVAsc
Fault kA
X/R ratio
: 40
TRANSFORMERs:Primary
: 33 kV
Secondary
: 6.6 kV
Capacity
: 10 MVA
Impedance
: 8.35 %
: 6.6 kV
Amps
: 220 amps
%PF
: 80 %
FORMULAE:h=np1----------------------------------------eq 1
%Ih=100/h------------------------------------eq 2
Where
h=harmonic order from 1 to n.
p=number of pulses. (in this case p=12)
%Ih= magnitude of harmonic current.
To find harmonic order
Consider n= 1
eq 1=>
h=np-1
=1*12-1
h=11
Page 114 of 178
Consider n= 1
eq 1=>
h=np+1
=1*12+1
h=13
in the same method do for 2 to n, upto 73rd harmonics
To find magnitude of harmonic Current for above order 11th and 13th order.
eq 2=>
%Ih=100/h
=100/11
%Ih =9.09
%Ih=100/h
=100/13
%Ih =7.69
So do for upto 73rd harmonic. we get
n
Harmonic
Order , h
Magnitude
%lh
11
9.091
13
7.692
23
4.348
25
4.000
35
2.857
37
2.703
Using the above table create the harmonic library for current source and update in the static load
component.
Ih= I*%Ih/100
=220*9.09/100
Ih=20 Amps
In same method do for different harmonic order. we get
Harmonic
Order , h
11
13
23
25
35
37
Magnitude
%Ih
9.091
7.692
4.348
4.000
2.857
2.703
Harmonic
current, Ih
20.00
16.92
9.57
8.80
6.29
5.95
STEP 5: RUN THE HARMONIC LOAD FLOW TO FIND THE HARMONIC CURRENT
FOR DIFFERENT ORDER:
Harmonic
%Ih
Ih, Current
Phase Volt
Xhnet
Xheq
Vh drop
Isys
Vh square
Isys square
1
220
3810.62
0.26
0.26
11
9.09
20.00
13
7.69
16.92
23
4.35
9.57
25
4
8.80
35
2.86
6.29
2.87
2.87
3.40
3.40
6.01
6.01
6.53
6.53
9.15
9.15
57.50
57.50
220
20.00
14520851.9 3306.16
48400 400.00
57.50
57.50
57.50
57.50
16.92
9.57
8.80
6.29
3306.16
3306.16 3306.16 3306.16
286.39
91.49
77.44
39.51
19836.94
930.188
37 Formulae
2.7 h/100
5.95 220*%Ih/100
VL/Sqrt(3)
9.67 Total reactance
9.67 Xeq=Xnet
57.50
5.95
3306.16
35.35
Ih* Xheq
Isys=Ih
Vh*Vh
Isys*Isys
Vh^2
Isys ^2
Formulae:
%THD= [( ( Vh^2)/Vph]/100----------------------eq 4
Where
THD= Total Harmonic Distortion.
Vh= is the voltage drop
Vph= phase Voltage
To find % THD
We know that from the above table
Vh^2=19836.94
eq 4=>
%THD= {( ( Vh^2)/Vph}/100
= {(19836.94)/3810.62}/100
Formulae:
%THD= [( ( Isys^2)/Vph]/100----------------------eq 5
To find % THD
We know that from the above table
Isys^2=930.188
eq 5=>
%THD= {( ( Isys^2)/Vph}/100
= {(930.188)/3810.62}/100
= 11th Order
Harmonic Current
= 20
Existing PF
= 80
Desired PF
= 89
Load MVA
= 2.5 MVA
Note: Load MVA and Existing PF are taken after running the Load Flow Analysis. Enter all
the know values and size the filter, ETAP will automatically size the filter based on the order
of the Harmonic with respective current. After sizing and updated the values enter the
inductor Q-factor
Introduction:
This design calculation note evaluates the GIS (Gas Insulated Substation) ground grid
requirements to be considered in order to control the substation grid potential rise
gradient to safe and tolerable values so as to avoid shock or injury to any substation
operating personnel due to grid potential rise that occurs during an earth fault.
The object of the substation grounding design is to provide as nearly as possible a surface
under and around the substation, which shall be at a uniform potential during an earth
fault. This is achieved by providing a ground grid or mat comprising of a number of
adequately spaced, square or rectangular meshes of bare copper grounding conductor
buried in the soil around the substation, and connected to requisite number of ground rod
electrodes.
Standards:
The assessment of HV substation grounding has been based on the consideration of
ground grid touch and step potential rise gradient, as per the following standards:
Methods:
The Ground Grid Systems module utilizes the following four methods of computation:
IEEE 80-1986
IEEE 80-2000
IEEE 665-1995
IEEE Methods
Handles 2 layers plus protective surface material (1 layer for touch potential)
Rectangular and triangular shapes only, with vertical and horizontal conductors
Any shape
The tolerable Step and Mesh potentials and compares them with actual, calculated
Step and Mesh potentials (IEEE Std 80 and IEEE Std 665).
Graphic profiles for the absolute Step and Touch voltages, as well as the tables of the
voltages at various locations (Finite Element Method).
The optimum number of parallel ground conductors and rods for a ground grid.
Encompass all area within the substation fence and extend at least 3 feet outside
Size conductors
Step 1 Soil Resistivity Analysis:The resistivity of earth varies within extremely wide limits, between 1 and 10,000 ohmmeters. To design the most economical grounding system for a substation, it is necessary
to obtain accurate data on the soil resistivity and its variation at the station site. The
following are the steps to done to find soil resistivity.
Increasing area is more effective than adding additional conductor to reduce grid
resistance
Step 3 Ground Fault Currents:The maximum ground fault current constitutes a major factor in the grounding system
design. This determines the cross-section of the grounding conductor as well as total rise
of the grounding system potential. The potential gradients are also a function of this
current.
Interested in maximum amount of fault current expected to flow into the ground grid
Step 4 Fault Clearing Time:There are many considerations which influence the choice of fault clearing time such as
the system stability, the type of switchgear and relay used.
The Russian practice is to adopt 0.2 sec as the time of clearing the fault whereas in
U.S.A, the trend is towards adopting 4 sec i.e. the same duration as is used for short time
rating of switchgear. The short time rating of switch gear as per Indian and British
practice is based on 3 seconds; therefore 3 sec time may be adopted as the fault clearing
time for grounding calculation.
Typical Values:
INPUT DATA REQUIRED FOR DESIGNING GGS IEEE METHOD IN ETAP:For Soil Editor
Soil resistivity of upper layer ohm-m
Soil resistivity of lower layer ohm-m
Material
Depth in ft
For Conductor:
Length of area provided with bare buried conductor, Lx, Ly in feet
Breadth of area provided with bare buried conductor
Depth of burial of conductor in ft
Conductor cross section area of buried copper conductor
Length of Conductor
Number of conductors in X and Y direction
Size of the conductors in mm2 or AWG/kcmil
Type of conductors
For Rod:
Total number of earth pits
Rod depth in feet
Diameter of ground rods in inch
Arrangement of the rod
Type of the rod.
-------------------------------------------- eq2
s = 2000
ts = 0.2
Rk= 1000 as per IEEE 80 for 50kg body weight.
To find Ik
eq3=>
To find Rf
eq2=>
Rf =3*s* Cs
=3*2000*0.886
Rf =5316
To find Etouch
eq2=>
Etouch =948.83
TO FIND STEP POTENTIAL:
FORMULAE:Estep= (Rk +2Rf )*Ik
Rf =3*s* Cs
----------------------------------- eq4
------------------------------------------- eq5
s = 2000
Page 136 of 178
ts = 0.2
Rk= 1000 as per IEEE 80 for 50kg body weight.
To find Ik
eq6=>
Rf =3*s* Cs
=3*2000*0.886
Rf =5316
To find Estep
eq4=>
Estep =3017.15
STEP 3:- CALCULATION FOR TO FIND GROUND GRID RESISTANCE USING
SCHWARZS FORMULA.
To find R1
eq8=>
R1 = [/ (*Lc)]*[ln (2*Lc/h') + K1*(Lc/A) - K2]
= [1000/(3.14*3433)]*[ln(2*3433/0.0687)+1.1*(3433/1250)-4.88]
R1=10.518 ohm
To find R2
eq9=>
R2 = [a/ (2*n* *dr)]*[ln (8*dr/d2) - 1 + 2*K1*(dr/A)*(n - 1)]
= [355.26/(2*6997*3.14*2.7)]*[ln(8*2.7/0.02)-1+2*1.1*(2.7/1250)*( /1250-1)^2]
R2=3.453 ohm
To find R12
eq10=>
R12 = [a/ ( *Lc)]*[ln (2*Lc/dr) + K1*(Lc/A) - K2 + 1]
= [355.26/(3.14*3433)]*[ln(2*3433/2.7)+1.1*(3433/1250)-4.88+1]
R12=3.649 ohm
To find R12
Eq7=>
Rg=R1+R2-R12/ (R1+R2-2R12)
=10.518+3.453-3.649/(10.518+3.453-2*3.649)
FORMULAE:GPR=Rg*IG----------------------------------------------------eq11
IG=Df *If--------------------------------------------------------eq12
Where
Rg= grid resistance in ohms
If= rms symmetrical current in amps.
IG=Maximum grid current in amps
Df = is the decrement factor for the entire duration of fault
w.k.t
If=40kA
Rg=4.92 ohms
Df= 1.125
X/R=20
tf=0.2s
To find IG
eq12=>
IG=Df *If
=1.125*13.475
IG=15.156 kA
To find GPR
eq11=>
GPR=Rg*IG
=4.88*15.156*1000
GPR=73991.28 Volts
ETAP Results
948.83
948.8
Tolerable Step
3017.15
3017.2
Rg in Ohm
4.88
4.883
GPR in Volts
73991.28
74003.5
Volts
INTRODUCTION:
The majority of power systems operate at a lagging power factor due to inductive
loads and delivery apparatus (lines and transformers). Power systems are inductive in nature,
and require additional reactive power flow from the power grid. But excessive reactive power
demands result in reduced system capacity, increased losses, and decreased voltage, as well
as higher operating costs. Shunt capacitor banks are able to compensate for var requirements,
but bank size, location, the capacitor control method, and cost considerations are important
issues that need to be optimized during the design phase. An ideal solution would be a
capacitor placement tool able to weigh all these factors and that considers load levels. This
solution should also be able to place capacitors for voltage support and power factor
correction, while minimizing the total cost of installation and operation. ETAP now provides
just such an application in its Optimum Capacitor Placement (OCP) module.
KEY FEATURES:
Calculate the most cost-effective installation locations and best bank size
FLEXIBLE OPERATION:
CAPABILITY:
Page 143 of 178
REPORTING:
Capacitor properties
Cost summary
Component
Bus
Power Grid
Syn Generator
Transformer
Motor
Syn Motor
Static Load
Lump Load
Cable
Transmission Line
9
10
MOV
Protective Devices
11
Capacitor
12
Impedance
13
Capacitor
Required input
Nominal kv
Voltage rating, MVA sc, X/R ratio
5. Swing (slack) %v and del
6. Voltage Control (PV) MW, Mvar limits
7. Mvar Control (PQ) -MW, Mvar and Var limits
8. PF Control-MW and PF
1). Py kV, Sec kV, MVA, %Z Positive sequence
Impedance,
2). %Tap, Tolerance and LTC settings
3. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
4. Rating-HP and kV
3. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
4. Rating-HP and kV
3. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
4. Rating-kV, MW, Mvar and PF
4. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
5. Ratings- kV, MW, Mvar and PF
6. Load Type-Motor Load or Static load
4. Length in ft/m/mile/km
5. Cable Type- Size, Insulation, kV and #/Cable
6. Impedance/conductor-Positive sequence
4. Length in ft/m/mile/km
5. Parameter-Phase conductor
6. Impedance per phase-positive sequence
6. Rating-HP, kV and rated Torque
7. Circuit Breakers-Rated kV
8. Fuses-Rated kV
9. Switches-Rated kV and amps
10. Contactors- Rated kV and amps
3) Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
4) Rating-kV, Max kV, Mvar Bank and No of Banks.
5) Loading Category ID and % Loading
6) Equipment Cable data
3) Rating-Amps and kV
4) Impedance- Positive sequence Z and X/R
1) Rated kV, kvar/bank and number of banks
2) Loading Category ID and % Loading
3) Equipment cable data
=13.8 kV
MVAsc
=50 MVAsc
X/R
=8
Transformer (T1):
Primary kV =13.8 kV
Secondary kV=4.16 kV
MVA
=15 MVA
Impedance
=Typical
X/R
=Typical
Transformer (T2):
Primary kV =13.8 kV
Secondary kV=4.0 kV
MVA
=15 MVA
Impedance
=Typical
X/R
=Typical
Generator (G2):
Operating Mode= Voltage Control
MW
= 20 MW
kV
=4.16 kV
Cable 1=2:
Length
= 100 ft
= 0.556
=0.044
Lump 1
MVA
=8 MVA
kV
=4.16 kV
%PF
=85%
Lump 2
MVA
=8 MVA
kV
=4.0 kV
%PF
=85%
FORMULAE:Kvar=Kvar/bank*( # no of Banks)
-------------------------------eq 1
Amps=kvar/(sqrt(3)*kV) amps
-------------------------------eq 2
-------------------------------eq 3
F = 10^6/(Xc*2**f)
-------------------------------eq 4
w k.t
kV= 4.16 kV
Kvar= 2215.65 Kvar
To find Capacitor Current
eq 2=>
Amps =kvar/(sqrt(3)*kV)
=2215.65/(sqrt(3)*4.16)
=307.50 amps
To find Capacitor Reactance
eq 3=>
Xc
=10^3* (kV^2/kvar)
=10^3*(4.16^2/2215.65)
=7.81
To Find Farad
eq 4=>
= 10^6/(Xc*2**f)
=10^6/(7.81*2*pi()*60)
=339.63 F
ETAP Results
No of Banks
12
12
Kvar/Banks
200
200
Amps
307.5
320.5
Xc
7.81
7.6
339.63
353
INTRODUCTION:
The ETAP Arc Flash Analysis module incorporates the latest software technology available
to investigate a worker potential exposure to arc flash energy, which may be required for the
purpose of injury prevention and determination of appropriate levels of Personal Protective
Equipment (PPE). The incident energy and flash protection boundaries are determined based
on the following two available standards for arc flash analysis:
ETAP Arc Flash is a fully integrated module that takes advantage of all the capabilities
already built into ETAP. The program automatically determines the bolted Short-circuit
current. It also calculates the individual arcing current contributions and arc fault clearing
time of all the protective devices involved in the arc fault by interfacing with ETAP Star
(Protective device selectivity and coordination module). In addition, ETAP determines
automatically the system grounding configuration and other information required to
determine the most adequate and conservative hazard analysis results. All the automation
dramatically reduces the time required to perform an arc flash analysis according to the
standards.
STANDARDS:
Select either the ANSI or IEC standard. There is no IEC arc flash standard, but selecting IEC
will change the arc flash results since the short-circuit currents used to calculate the arc flash
results are determined based on IEC 60909 standards.
DEFINITIONS:
Bolted Fault Current ( Bus Fault Current) - The bolted fault current is the current that
would flow through a short circuit consisting of two conductors bolted together. It is the
maximum current available to flow through a short circuit. This information is used to
calculate the arc fault currents. Bolted fault currents should be determined for each piece of
equipment likely to require maintenance or inspection while energized.
Note: If the nominal kV is greater than 15kV, the Bolted Current is equal to Arcing Current.
Arc Fault Current - The current that flows through an arcing fault is usually significantly
less than the bolted fault current, due to greater resistance. Arc fault current calculations are
based on voltage, bolted fault current, conductor gap distance, and other factors. IEEE 1584
presents two formulas for calculating arc fault currents, one for use with 0.208-1 kV systems,
and the other for systems between 1 and 15 kV.
Working
distance
Equipment class
Low-voltage
switchgear
24"
15 kV/5 kV
switchgear
36"
Low-voltage MCCs
and panelboards
18"
Cables
18"
Flash Protection Boundary - Distance at which the incident energy level equals 1.2 cal/cm2
for fault clearing time greater than 0.1 seconds. For voltages greater than 1000V, use 1.5
cal/cm2 for clearing times that are 0.1 seconds or faster.
Incident Energy - Incident energy is defined in NFPA 70E as "the amount of energy
impressed on a surface, a certain distance from the source, generated during an electrical arc
event." In an arc flash hazard study, the "surface" is the worker's body at the assumed
working distance. Incident energy is expressed in calories/cm2
Equipment Type
Open air
D (Distance Exponent)
2.0
1.473
0.973
1.641
Cables
2.0
E=5.12*105VIbf(t/D2)
Where
E= Incident Energy in Cal/cm2
V=System Voltage
Ibf=Bolted fault current in kA ( Symmetrical RMS)
t=Fault Clearing Time (FCT) in Seconds.
D=Distance from the possible arc current in mm
w.k.that
D=1 inch
V=20 kA
Ibf= 3.557 kA
t=0.099 Sec
To find Incident Energy:-
E=5.12*105VIbf(t/D2)
=5.12*100000*20*3.557*(0.099/457.2^2)
Incident Energy(E) =17.25 Cal/cm2
2. To find Arcing Current (Ia):
FORMULAE:- as per equ 4
IgIa=0.00402+0.983IgIbf
Where
Ig=log10
Ia= Arcing Current in kA
Ibf=Bolted fault Current in kA
w.k.t.,
Ig = log10=1
Ibf=3.557 kA
To find Arcing Current:IgIa=0.00402+0.983IgIbf
1*Ia=0.00402+0.983*3.557
Arcing Current (Ia)=3.50 kA
DB = 5.68 ft
4. Hazard/Risk Categories:
The System Bus B is under Category is 3 as per the standard (see the above sidebar 3)
the incident energy is between the range of 8-25 Cal/cm2
ETAP
Calculation
Difference
Incident Energy
17.25 Cal/cm2
17.31 Cal/cm2
0.06 Cal/cm2
Arcing Current
3.5 kA
3.557 kA
0.05 kA
Flash Boundary
5.68 ft
5.71 ft
0.03 ft
INTRODUCTION:
Cable derating analysis is an important part of power system design and analysis. When you
are designing a new system, this determines the proper size of cables to carry the specified
loads. When performing an analysis of an existing system, it examines cable temperatures
and determines their ampacities.
ETAP provides five types of calculations for cable derating analysis, namely, steady-state
temperature calculation, uniform-ampacity cable ampacity calculation, uniform-temperature
cable ampacity calculation, cable sizing, and transient temperature calculation. The steadystate temperature calculation is based on the IEC 60287 or the NEC accepted Neher-McGrath
method.
The cable ampacity calculation and cable sizing are based on the NEC accepted NeherMcGrath method only. The transient temperature calculation is based on a dynamic thermal
circuit model. All of these calculations can handle multi-raceway systems and consider the
effect of heat generated by neighboring cables and external heat sources.
UGS
presentation
is
conceptually
cross-section
of
desired
raceways,
conduits/locations, cables, and heat sources, which are in the same vicinity which was as
shown in the below Fig 1. The UGS presentation allows you to graphically arrange raceways,
conduits, cables, and external heat sources to represent cable routing and to provide a
physical environment to conduct cable ampacity derating studies.
Each UGS presentation is a different cross-section of the underground system. This is a
different concept than the multi-presentation of the one-line diagram, where all presentations
have the same elements.
Fig 1
You can create as many UGS presentations as you wish. There is no limit on the number of
raceways and heat sources that can be created/added in one presentation. In UGS, each
presentation acts independently. If you add a raceway to a UGS presentation, this raceway
will not be shown in the other UGS presentations. However, raceways from any UGS
presentation can be added to the other UGS presentations as existing raceways. Also, if you
delete a raceway from a UGS presentation into the Dumpster, this raceway can be added to
other UGS presentations as an existing raceway.
uniform-ampacity
ampacity
calculation,
uniform-temperature
ampacity
Determine an initial loading level based on the base ampacity from the Cable Library and using cable
derating factors for the given configuration.
2.
3.
4.
If the temperature of the hottest cable is within close range of the temperature limit, the solution has
been reached. If not, adjust the cable loading uniformly at the same percentage, either increasing or
decreasing the loading in order to make the highest cable temperature come closer to the temperature
limit. Then go to back to step 2 to recalculate cable temperature.
If the Update Currents from Ampacity Calc option is checked in the study case, the cable
allowable current is updated by the calculated ampacity.
Determine an initial loading level based on the base ampacity from the Cable Library and using cable
derating factors for the given configuration.
2.
3.
Check cable temperature values against the cable temperature limit. If the temperature values of all the
cables are within close range of temperature limit, the solution has been reached. If not, determine the
load change required for the cable temperature to approach the temperature limit based on the gradient
of cable temperature change.
4.
Update the cable loading and go back to step 2 to recalculate cable temperature.
If the Update Currents from the Ampacity Calculation option is checked in the study case,
the cable allowable current will be updated by the calculated ampacity.
If for any of the cables the Fixed Current option from the Loading page of the Cable Editor
is checked then Uniform Temperature calculations cannot be conducted. In this situation
ETAP stops the calculations and provide an error message informing the user that UGS
contains a cable with fixed ampacity.
3. Conduit/Location Data
The data for conduit/location can be entered into the Location page of the Raceway editor. A
conduit/location can be empty (contain no cables).
Conduit
A conduit can only be placed in a duct bank raceway. The minimum requirements for conduit
data include location, type, outside diameter, and thickness.
Location
A location is a specified space in a direct buried raceway in which cables are placed.
Location can only be assigned to a direct buried raceway. The only requirement for location
data is its location.
4. Cable Data
Cable data is entered into several pages of the Cable editor.
b).PhysicalPage
This page is designed especially for entering parameters employed in cable derating
calculations. These parameters describing the physical aspect of a cable are required to
calculate cable electrical resistance, thermal resistance of different layers, dielectric losses,
etc.
c).LoadingPage
The data entered in this page describe the loading condition of a cable. The Transient Load
Profile data is used for transient temperature calculation. The Operating Load or the first
current value in the Transient Load Profile list are used, depending on the selection in the
Cable Derating Study Case, as the initial or steady-state load current in the transient
temperature calculation, steady-state temperature calculation, and cable sizing.
The Load Factor is used in all types of cable derating calculations to represent cyclic load
conditions.
The Projection Multiplication Factor is used to modify cable loading in the transient
temperature calculation, steady-state temperature calculation, and cable sizing, if the
corresponding option is checked in the Cable Derating Study Case.
The Sheath/Armor Current is specified as a percentage of the load current. It represents the
situation where the sheath/armor is intentionally utilized to carry part of the load current. In
all other situations, sheath/armor current should be set to zero. The Sheath/Armor Current is
considered by the Neher-McGrath method only.
d).AmpacityPage
The Application Multiplication Factor is used to modify cable loading in the transient
temperature calculation, steady-state temperature calculation, and cable sizing, if the
corresponding option is checked in the Cable Derating Study Case.
5. External Heat Source Data
The external heat source data required for cable derating calculations include the location of
the external heat source, its outside diameter, and its temperature.
STEP 2: Enter the cable input dates as per the data sheet given below.
Cable Datas for 300mm2:
Basic Datas:
Cable Length
: 1.5 km
Resistance
: 0.079 / km.
Reactance
: 0.1 / km.
Cable Data Sheet
Fig 2
Physical Dimensions:Rdc
: 60.1
Cable OD
: 10.8 cm
Conductor OD
: 2.37 cm
Insulation Tickness
: 8 mm
Sheath tension
: 4.4 mm
Jacket tension
: 4.5 mm
Cable weight
: 18710 kg/km
Max. SW pressure
: 355 kg/m
Loading:Operating Load/current (we can get this by running load flow analysis)
a. Cable 1 : 87.8 Amps
b. Cable 2 : 267.3 Amps
c. Loading current for sizing: Select operating current.
UGS Load factor
: 100%
STEP
5:
Output
Report
Manager.
Note:-
1. From the above summary report shows that the required size of the cable for the system is
35mm2 and 95mm2 with respect to the load current. The derating current or Ampacity of the
cable is 87.8 and 267.30 amps for cable1 and cable 2 respectively.