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Air density.
Electrical angle.
e
Rotor position angle.
r
Slip angle.
slip
Induction machine rotational speed.
r
Stator electrical frequency.
sG
Slip frequency.
slip
Superscripts
Demanded value.
Subscripts
(d, q)
Synchronous rotating coordinates.
G, W
Diesel, wind generation quantity.
r, s
Rotor or stator quantities.
(, )
Stator fixed coordinates.
Index TermsDiesel-driven generators, induction generator, induction motor drives, wind energy.
NOMENCLATURE
General
i
Lm , Ls , Lr
R r , Rs
Te
v
s
DFIG
DGS
GR
ims
p
PWM
Rb
Tsr
V
WECS
I. INTRODUCTION
Manuscript received April 24, 2006; revised January 29, 2007. This work
was supported in part by Fondecyt under Grant 1010942, in part by the British
Council, and in part by the University of Magallanes. Paper no. TEC-001152006.
R. Pena, R. Cardenas, and J. Proboste are with the Electrical Engineering
Department, University of Magallanes, Punta Arenas 113-D, Chile (e-mail:
ruben.pena@umag.cl; rcd@ieee.org; jprobost@umag.cl).
J. Clare and G. Asher are with the School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, U.K. (e-mail:
jon.clare@nottingham.ac.uk; greg.asher@nottingham.ac.uk).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TEC.2007.914681
203
Fig. 1. (a) Frequency distribution for the load at Villa Tehuelches. (b) Fuel
consumption for fixed speed and variable speed operation.
Fig. 2.
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204
Fig. 3.
Proposed control system for the diesel doubly fed induction machine and front-end converter.
vdsG
vqsG
vdrG
vqrG
d dsG
RsG
idsG
0
=
+
iqsG
0
RsG
dt qsG
0
sG
dsG
+
sG
0
qsG
d drG
RrG
idrG
0
=
+
0
RrG
iqrG
dt qrG
0
slipG
drG
+
slipG
0
qrG
(2)
LsG
iqsG .
Lm G
(4)
dim sG
1 + sG
+ im sG = idrG +
vdsG
dt
RsG
(5)
(3)
The aim of the front-end or stator-side converter is to regulate the common dc link voltage E, regardless of the direction
of the power flow. The converter currents are controlled with
the conventional vector control approach [10] with a dq reference frame oriented along the stator voltage vector position
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Fig. 4.
205
Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.
p L2m G
im sG iqrG .
2 LsG
(8)
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206
using (12) and (10), for optimal power capture, the torque component current (iqrW ) is regulated as
iqrW =
Fig. 7.
(9)
where Ct (Tsr , ) and Cp (Tsr , ) are the torque and power coefficients, respectively, is the blade pitch angle, Tsr is the
tip-speed ratio (= T Rb /V ), and T is the rotational speed of
the blades. In this paper, the blade characteristic Ct (Tsr , ) reported in [21] is used. For each wind velocity, there is a point
of maximum power capture when the turbine is operating at the
maximum power coefficient (Cpm ax ) [19]. If the losses are neglected, it can be shown that, in a steady state, the wind turbine
operates at an optimum power coefficient when the generator
electrical torque is regulated as [20], [22]
TeW =
2
kopt rW
(10)
(v sG RsW i sW )
(11)
p L2m W
(im sW iqrW )
2 LsW
(13)
2
2LsW kopt rW
.
2
3pLm W im sW
(12)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
where vdL , vqL , idL , and iqL are the dq components of the
load voltage and current. Because the stator resistance in each
machine is relatively small, vdsW vdsG vdL 0 and the
load power can be obtained as PL vqL iqL . For simultaneous
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Fig. 9.
Fig. 8.
207
(18)
(19)
Fig. 10.
(20)
Experimental system.
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208
) is calculated in
reference speed of the WECS generator (rW
each sampling time (see [22]). The speed-controlled dc machine
forces the DFIG speed to this value. With this emulation technique, the DFIG rotates at the same speed as that of a generator
driven by a real wind turbine. A complete discussion of the
emulation technique used in this paper can be found in [24]
and [25].
Two identical DFIGs are used for the implementation of the
experimental rig. The speed range for both the machines is
from 700 to 1300 r/min (rated speed 1000 r/min), 30% of
the synchronous speed, while the magnetizing current of the
DGS is controlled at 7-A resulting in a 120-V stator voltage.
The dc-link voltage is regulated at 530 V and a 10 F/phase
capacitor is connected to the stator to filter the high-order PWM
harmonics. External DSP interfaces are used to measure the
rotor position (using 10000 pulses per revolution encoders), for
signal conditioning and to provide the PWM signals to the power
converters. The converters switching frequency is 1 kHz and the
sampling time is 0.5 ms.
Fig. 11. Control system performance for load steps. (a) Speed tracking performance. (b) Estimated fuel consumption.
1
Kp es 1
u(s)
TeG (s)
(1 + s2 )(sJ + B)
(sJ + B)
(21)
A=
(z + 1)Ts p L2m G
3
i
i (z)
J(z A) 2 LsG m sG qrG
(2J BTs )
(2J + BTs )
C=
(22 Ts )
(22 + Ts )
(22)
the variable delay Nt is calculated as 1 /Ts , where 1 is obtained from (7) and Ts is the sampling time. Using (21) and
(22), the emulation of the diesel engine is implemented. For
each sampling time, (k) is calculated from (22), and is used
as the demand velocity for the speed control system of the cage
induction machine (see Fig. 10) i.e. the induction machine rotates at the same speed as the DGS modeled under dynamic and
steady-state conditions.
B. Experimental Results for the DGS
Experimental results for the DGS supplying energy to a standalone load are presented in this section. The system is tested
for step changes of resistive and inductive loads. Fig. 11(a)
shows the speed tracking performance when step resistive loads
are applied to the stator. The reference and the actual speeds
Fig. 12. Current response corresponding to Fig. 11. (a) Magnetizing and rotor
currents. (b) Stator currents. (c) Front-end converter currents.
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Fig. 13. Voltages and flux corresponding to Fig. 11. (a) DC link and stator
voltages. (b) dq stator flux components.
Fig. 14. Control system response for an inductive load step. (a) Speed tracking
performance. (b) DC link voltage and magnetizing current.
term of the right-hand side in (5). Fig. 12(b) shows the dq axis
DFIG stator current. Because the load is resistive the d-axis stator current is nearly zero and the power factor is close to unity.
The q-axis stator current reflects the power changes due to the
load impacts. Finally, Fig. 12(c) shows the front-end converter
currents. The dq axis front-end converter currents illustrate the
operation close to unity power factor (q-axis current 0). The
d-axis front-end converter current reverses when the speed is
above synchronous, because power is supplied to the load from
the stator and the rotor of the DFIG.
Fig. 13(a) shows the dc link voltage and the rms stator voltage
corresponding to the test of Fig. 11. The dc link voltage excursion is within 10 V during these load and speed transients. The
stator voltage is practically constant, and the regulation is very
good because the effect of the stator resistance voltage drop is
negligible. Fig. 13(b) shows the dq stator flux components for
these load and speed transients. The q-axis stator flux is close
to zero, reflecting the correct orientation of the vector control
system.
Fig. 14 shows the operation of the system when an inductive load step is applied to the stator. Initially, the system is
supplying a 1.9 kW, 0.25 kvar load, with the optimum speed
control strategy enabled, and a speed of about 1128 r/min. At t
1 s, a load step of about 1.65 kvar is applied. Fig. 14(a) shows
209
Fig. 15. Current response for the test of Fig. 14. (a) Reactive power currents.
(b) Active power currents.
the reference and real speeds whereas Fig. 14(b) shows the dc
link voltage and magnetizing current. Initially, at t 1 s, the
reference speed reduces because the load impact causes a magnetizing current (and stator voltage) dip of about 30%; hence,
the power supplied by the machine reduces. The settling time
for the magnetizing current is about 0.8 s. After the transient,
the final value for the speed (1214 r/min) is slightly higher
than the initial speed because of the additional losses produced
by the increase in the stator current.
In Fig. 14, the inductive load step is disconnected at t
13 s. There is an overshoot in the magnetizing current (and
stator voltage) of about 35%; hence, at t 13 s, the reference
speed increases due to the increase in power. As the magnetizing
current error goes to zero, the speed of the system settles down to
about 1128 r/min. The variation on the dc link voltage is mainly
produced by changes in the machine stator voltage. The dip
and the overshoot of E are below 20 V. These results illustrate
well-managed interactions between the controllers.
Fig. 15 shows the dq axis active and reactive power current
components corresponding to the load transients of Fig. 14.
The front-end converter q-axis current (iq ) is regulated at zero
[see Fig. 15(a)], hence, the d-axis rotor current compensates the
increase in the load reactive power. As shown in Fig. 15(b),
the increase in the system losses, produced by the load step,
is compensated by a small increase in the DFIG q-axis rotor
current.
During the load steps, the additional reactive power is supplied by the DFIG with a dynamic that is dependent on the low
bandwidth of the magnetizing current control loop. The dynamic
of the response can be improved if the required reactive power
is supplied by the front-end converter. This is shown in Figs. 16
and 17. The front-end converter reactive power is regulated in
order to supply all the reactive power required by the load (i.e.,
idsG 0). Fig. 16(b) shows that the dip in the magnetizing current for the reactive load step is reduced to 10% [compare with
Fig. 14(b)]. However, the system losses are increased when the
reactive power is supplied from the front-end converter and the
speed settles to a higher value 1300 r/min. A dc link voltage
dip of about 20 V occurs, because during transients, the angle
between the stator flux and the voltage is not /2 as assumed
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210
Fig. 16. System performance with reactive power compensation. (a) Speed
tracking. (b) Magnetizing current and dc link voltage.
Fig. 18.
Fig. 17. Reactive power current components. (a) DFIG currents. (b) Front-end
converter currents.
Fig. 19. WECS connection to the system. (a) DGS speed. (b) Magnetizing
current and dc link voltage.
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Fig. 20. Rotor and stator current corresponding to the test of Fig. 19. (a)
Reactive power component. (b) Active power current components.
Fig. 22. Control system response for a WECS DFIG q-axis current step. (a)
Currents in the WECS. (b) Currents in the DGS.
Fig. 23.
Fig. 21. Control system response for a WECS DFIG d-axis current step. (a)
Currents in the WECS. (b) Currents in the DGS.
The active and reactive power current components, corresponding to the test of Fig. 19, are shown in Fig. 20. Initially,
the DGS reactive stator current is zero and the total reactive current is supplied from the front-end converter [iq in Fig. 20(a)].
The rotor current idrG sets the flux in the DGS machine. At
t 3 s, the front-end reactive current is decreased using a slow
ramp. Finally, when iq 0, the reactive power of the load is
supplied by the DGS. Fig. 20(b) shows the DGS torque currents
and the front-end converter active power current component
(iqrW = 0 for this test). The variation in the DGS torque current
is negligible. Therefore, considering the increase in the generator speed (see Fig. 19), the power supplied from the DGS is
slightly higher than that supplied before the connection of the
WECS generator.
The next experimental test shows the power balance produced
when a change in the active and/or reactive power generated by
the WECS is balanced by an opposite variation in the active
and/or reactive power generated from the DGS DFIG [see (20)
and Figs. 8 and 9]. The load connected to the system is 2.0
kW, and before the transient, the power factor seen from the
DGS is 0.8 lagging. The speed of the WECS is controlled at
800 r/min. Fig. 21(a) shows the response of the WECS DFIG
rotor current controller. The q-axis rotor current is regulated at
zero, and a step demand of 3-A reactive current is produced.
Fig. 21(b) shows the reactive and magnetizing currents of the
211
DGS speed for active and reactive power changes from the WECS.
DGS DFIG when the step increase in idrW takes place. Because
a part of the magnetizing current, required by the DGS generator,
is provided from the WECS, the current idrG in the DGS DFIG
reduces. Therefore, the power factor seen from the DGS DFIG
stator increases to 0.95.
The performance of the system for a step change in the torque
current, iqrW , is shown in Fig. 22. The WECS dq rotor currents, with the reactive current component set to zero, are shown
in Fig. 22(a). For this test, the DGS DFIG q-axis rotor current
does not change significantly, because the power balancing is
produced mainly by changes in the rotational speed of the DGS
and a small variation in the torque current of the DGS generator [see Figs. 22(b) and 23]. For this test, the variation in the
magnetizing current is also low. The DGS speed corresponding
to the tests of Figs. 21 and 22 is shown in Fig. 23. For the idrW
step change, there is an increase in the DGS losses and the speed
of the DGS system rises. Therefore, for this operating point the
DGS DFIG is less efficient when the magnetizing current is supplied from the stator instead of the rotor. When a step increase
in iqrW is applied, a part of the power required by the load is
supplied from the WECS and the speed of the DGS reduces
accordingly.
The performance of the winddiesel system for a step increase
in wind velocity is shown in Fig. 24. A step in the wind velocity
is not realistic but is a very drastic change, appropriate to verify
the performance of the proposed control system. The optimum
speed for the WECS corresponds to continuous operation at
maximum power coefficient, and for each wind velocity, is given
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212
Fig. 24.
Fig. 26. Active current components corresponding to the test of Fig. 24. (a)
DGS DFIG current. (b) Front-end converter current. (c) WECS DFIG current.
Fig. 25. Currents and voltages corresponding to the test of Fig. 24. (a) DC
link voltage. (b) DGS DFIG Magnetising current. (c) DGS DFIG stator voltage.
by [19]
rW ,opt =
Tsr,opt V
GR
Rb
(23)
Fig. 27. System performance for a typical wind profile. (a) Wind profile. (b)
Optimal speed and WEC real speed. (c) DGS optimal speed and real speed.
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213
APPENDIX
SYSTEM RATING
Diesel machine (emulated): 3.0 kW, 4 cylinder, 4 stroke,
2 = 0.1 s, J = 0.8 kg m2 . Wind turbine (emulated): 1300
r/min, J = 0.9 kg m2 , Rb = 1.25 m, GR = 1.70, vrated =
10 m/s. Doubly fed induction machines: 2.5 kW, 6 poles, Stator 220 V delta, rotor 250 V star, Rr = 0.525 , Rs = 0.398,
Ls = 0.0835 H, Lm = 0.0796, Lr = 0.0825. Front-end converter: C = 2600 F , Lf = 12 mH. To improve current filtering 30 mH is added to the rotor.
REFERENCES
Fig. 28. Control system response for the test corresponding to Fig. 27. (a) DC
link voltage. (b) DGS DFIG magnetizing current. (c) Stator voltage.
current, and stator voltage is very good during the whole wind
profile.
V. CONCLUSION
In this paper, the control strategy of a wind energy system embedded in a hybrid winddiesel variable-speed energy system
has been proposed. The generation system uses two doubly fed
induction machines with corresponding PWM rotor inverters
connected to a common dc bus. An additional front-end converter connected to the same dc bus is employed to allow the
system to operate below and above the synchronous speed. The
control strategy for the diesel-driven generator allows indirect
control of the stator voltage (the ac system load voltage) by
regulating the stator flux magnitude via the control of the rotor
current. The load frequency is also regulated by the diesel generator by imposing the rotor currents with the slip frequency. The
wind energy system control strategy considers the generator as
connected to a grid. The electrical torque of the WECS generator
is controlled to drive the system to the rotational speed, where
maximum energy capture is obtained. Depending on the load
size and the power supplied by the WECS generator, the control system regulates the DGS rotational speed to minimize fuel
consumption.
An experimental prototype has been set up, emulating the
diesel engine and the wind turbine, in order to experimentally verify the proposed control strategy. Several tests including the connection of the WECS generator to the system,
load impacts, step changes in wind velocity, and operation
of the WECS with a realistic wind profile, have been carried
out.
The experimental results have verified that the stator voltage
regulation is very good. It has been experimentally demonstrated
that the front-end converter can be used to supply reactive power
to improve the transient performance of the magnetizing current
control when a sudden reactive power load is connected to the
stator. The performance obtained from the experimental tests is
excellent, showing the feasibility of the proposed winddiesel
system.
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214
[19] A. Miller, E. Muljadi, and D. Zinger, A variable speed wind turbine power
control, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 181186, Jun.
1997.
[20] E. Muljadi and C. P. Butterfield, Pitch-controlled variable-speed wind
turbine generation, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 240246,
Jan./Feb. 2006.
[21] J. Craig, Dynamics of wind generators on electric utility network, IEEE
Trans. Aerosp. Syst., vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 483493, Jul. 1976.
[22] R. Cardenas and R. Pena, Sensorless vector control of induction machines for variable speed wind energy applications, IEEE Trans. Energy
Convers., vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 196205, Mar. 2004.
[23] G. A. Smith and K. A. Nigim, Wind-energy recovery by a static scherbius
induction generator, in Proc. Inst. Electr. Eng. C, Nov. 1981, vol. 128,
pp. 317324.
[24] R. Cardenas, R. Pena, G. Asher, and J. Clare, Emulation of wind turbines
and flywheels for experimental purposes, presented at the 2001 Eur.
Power Electron. Conf., Graz, Austria.
[25] H. Akpolat, G. Asher, and J. Clare, Dynamic emulation of mechanical
loads using a vector-controlled induction motor-generator set, IEEE
Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 370379, Apr. 1999.
Jon Clare (M90SM04) was born in Bristol, England. He received the B.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in
electrical engineering from the University of Bristol,
Bristol, U.K., in 1979 and 1990, respectively.
From 1984 to 1990, he was a Research Assistant
and a Lecturer at the University of Bristol, where
he was engaged in teaching and research in power
electronic systems. Since 1990, he has been with
the Power Electronics, Machines and Control Group,
University of Nottingham, Nottingham, U.K., where
he is currently a Professor in the Power Electronics
and also the Head of the Research Group. His current research interests include
power electronic converters and modulation strategies, variable-speed drive systems and electromagnetic compatibility.
Prof. Clare is a member of the Institution of Electrical Engineers. He is also
an Associate Editor for the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS.
Greg Asher (M98SM04F07) received the Graduate degree in electrical and electronic engineering
from Bath University, Bath, U.K., in 1976, and the
Ph.D. degree in bond graph structures and general
dynamic systems from University of Bath, in 1979.
In 1984, he was a Lecturer in Control in the School
of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University
of Nottingham, Nottingham, U.K., where in 2000, he
was appointed the Professor of Electrical Drives, and
where he is currently the Head of the School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering. He is the author or
coauthor of more than 180 research papers published in various international
journals. His past research interests include motor drive systems, particularly
the control of ac machines.
Prof. Asher was a member of the Executive Committee of European Power
Electronics (EPE) Association until 2003. He is an Associate Editor of the IEEE
Industrial Electronics Society and is currently the Chair of the Power Electronics Technical Committee for the Industrial Electronics Society.
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