33)WASTE MANAGEMENT( Electronic waste )

Electronic waste describes discarded electrical or electronic devices.

There is a lack of consensus as to whether the term should apply to resale,
reuse, and refurbishing industries, or only to a product that cannot be used for
its intended purpose. Informal processing of electronic waste in developing
countries may cause serious health and pollution problems, though these
countries are also most likely to reuse and repair electronics.
All electronic scrap components, such as CRTs, may contain
contaminants such as lead, cadmium, beryllium, or brominated flame
retardants. Even in developed countries recycling and disposal of e-waste may
involve significant risk to workers and communities and great care must be
taken to avoid unsafe exposure in recycling operations and leaking of materials
such as heavy metals from landfills and incinerator ashes. Scrap industry and
U.S. EPA officials agree that materials should be managed with caution.
"Electronic waste" may be defined as discarded computers, office
electronic equipment, entertainment device electronics, mobile phones,
television, and refrigerators. This definition includes used electronics which are
destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling, or disposal. Others define the reusable (working and repairable electronics) and secondary scrap
(copper, steel, plastic, etc.) to be "commodities", and reserve the term "waste"
for residue or material which is dumped by the buyer rather than recycled,
including residue from reuse and recycling operations. Because loads of
surplus electronics are frequently commingled (good, recyclable, and nonrecyclable), several public policy advocates apply the term "e-waste" broadly
to all surplus electronics.
The high value of the computer recycling subset of electronic
waste (working and reusable laptops, desktops, and components like RAM) can
help pay the cost of transportation for a larger number of worthless pieces
than can be achieved with display devices, which have less (or negative) scrap
value. In A 2011 report, "Ghana E-Waste Country Assessment", found that of
215,000 tons of electronics imported to Ghana, 30% were brand new and 70%
were used. Of the used product, the study concluded that 15% was not reused
and was scrapped or discarded. This contrasts with published but uncredited

claims that 80% of the imports into Ghana were being burned in primitive
conditions.
Recycling
Today the electronic waste recycling business is in all areas of
the developed world a large and rapidly consolidating business. People tend to
forget that properly disposing or reusing electronics can help prevent health
problems, create jobs, and reduce greenhouse-gas emissions. Part of this
evolution has involved greater diversion of electronic waste from energyintensive down cycling processes (e.g., conventional recycling), where
equipment is reverted to a raw material form. This recycling is done by sorting,
dismantling, and recovery of valuable materials. This diversion is achieved
through reuse and refurbishing. The environmental and social benefits of reuse
include diminished demand for new products and virgin raw materials (with
their own environmental issues); larger quantities of pure water and electricity
for associated manufacturing; less packaging per unit; availability of
technology to wider swaths of society due to greater affordability of products;
and diminished use of landfills.
Audiovisual components, televisions, VCRs, stereo equipment, mobile
phones, other handheld devices, and computer components contain valuable
elements and substances suitable for reclamation, including lead, copper,
and gold.
One of the major challenges is recycling the printed circuit boards
from the electronic wastes. The circuit boards contain such precious metals as
gold, silver, platinum, etc. and such base metals as copper, iron, aluminium,
etc. One way e-waste is processed is by melting circuit boards, burning cable
sheathing to recover copper wire and open- pit acid leaching for separating
metals of value. Conventional method employed is mechanical shredding and
separation but the recycling efficiency is low. Alternative methods such
as cryogenic decomposition have been studied for printed circuit board
recycling, and some other methods are still under investigation.

34)ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESMENT AND

MANAGEMENT
(AIR POLLUTION CONTROL LIMITS FOR INDUSTRIAL AREAS)

Air pollution is the introduction of particulates, biological

molecules, or other harmful materials into the Earth's atmosphere, possibly
causing disease, death to humans, damage to other living organisms such as
food crops, or the natural or built environment.
The atmosphere is a complex natural gaseous system that is
essential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to
air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to
the Earth's ecosystems.
Indoor air pollution and urban air quality are listed as two of the
worlds worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's
Worst Polluted Places report. According to the 2014 WHO report, in 2012 the
air pollution caused the deaths of around 7 million people worldwide.
Planning and development authorities consult the Pollution
Control Department (PCD) of the Ministry of the Environment (ENV) on the
siting requirements for new developments and compatibility with the
surrounding land use. PCD also checks at this early stage that the level of
environmental management and control of the proposed developments is
acceptable. Before a proposed development can be constructed under the
Building Control Act, the developer must submit Building Plans (BPs) of the
building works to the Building Plan and Management Division of the Building
and Construction Authority (BCA) for approval.
Before BCA approves the BPs, the BPs will have to be submitted and
cleared by various authorities such as the Fire Safety Bureau (FSB), National
Parks Board, ENV, etc. In ENV, the Central Building Plan Unit (CBPU) of PCD
issues clearance of BPs subject to compliance with sewerage, drainage,
environmental health and pollution control requirements. Technical

requirements on pollution control are stipulated in the Environmental

Pollution Control Act and its regulations, and the Code of Practice on Pollution
Control.
The aim of the Code of Practice is to inform industrialists, architects,
professional engineers and consultants on pollution control requirements for
the submission of development proposals and BPs. The requirements in the
Code of Practice have been changed from prescription-based to performancebased ones. The objective is to enable industrialists, architects, professional
engineers and consultants to exercise flexibility and creativity in their designs
and at the same time meet the requirements.
The EPA has established standard permissible limits for the maximum levels of
toxic air pollutants that can be emitted by some major industrial sources, such
as chemical plants, oil refineries, aerospace manufacturers, and steel mills, as
well as categories of smaller sources, such as dry cleaners, commercial
sterilizers, secondary lead smelters, and chromium electroplating facilities.
Following are a few recommendations for sustainable environmental
management:
1. Appropriate enforcement of laws to facilitate compliance with vehicular and
industrial emission standards (EURO II norms for vehicles throughout the
country from 2005 and banning of 15 years old commercial vehicles)
2. Adoption of cleaner and environment friendly fuels (like CNG in Delhi). Some
examples are fuel cells for vehicles, Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), battery driven
vehicles etc
3. Continual improvement in the existing fuel quality (e.g. introduction of
unleaded petrol, low sulphur diesel). There is a need, in India, to enforce laws
related to improved fuel quality especially for vehicles.
4. Improved engine design that is environment friendly (e.g., Introduction of 4stroke two wheelers)
5. Regular ambient and source air quality monitoring and surveillance including
the pollutant emission levels of vehicles

6. The industries using hydrocarbons should be prompted to recover the

evaporative emissions these for further use. Such industries include dry
cleaning operations, Printing and publishing, petrol distribution, Surface
coating (metal can, wire, furniture etc.) etc.

7. The reduction in evaporative hydrocarbons from consumer products can be

achieved only by replacing the commonly used solvents by less volatile
solvents. Paints, varnishes, sprays, printing inks, aerosols are some of the
products for which solvent replacement can be considered e.g., Indian paint
industry is focusing its R&D on water based paints.
8. Putting up a ban on activities like open burning of refuse (instead compost
the waste) n Fuel Recovery during refuelling.

36)FM &HM LAB (PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF

BERNOULLI'S EQUATION)
The Bernoulli equation can be applied to a great many situations not just the pipe
flow we have been considering up to now. In the following sections we will see
some examples of its application to flow measurement from tanks, within pipes as
well as in open channels.

1. Pitot Tube
If a stream of uniform velocity flows into a blunt body, the stream lines take a
pattern similar to this:

Streamlines around a blunt body

Note how some move to the left and some to the right. But one, in the centre, goes
to the tip of the blunt body and stops. It stops because at this point the velocity is
zero - the fluid does not move at this one point. This point is known as
the stagnation point.
From the Bernoulli equation we can calculate the pressure at this point. Apply
Bernoulli along the central streamline from a point upstream where the velocity
is u1 and the pressure p1 to the stagnation point of the blunt body where the
velocity is zero, u2 = 0. Also z1 = z2.

This increase in pressure which bring the fluid to rest is called the dynamic
pressure.

Dynamic pressure =

or converting this to head (using

Dynamic head =
The total pressure is know as the stagnation pressure (or total pressure)

Stagnation pressure =
or in terms of head

Stagnation head =
The blunt body stopping the fluid does not have to be a solid. I could be a static
column of fluid. Two piezometers, one as normal and one as a Pitot tube within the
pipe can be used in an arrangement shown below to measure velocity of flow.

A Piezometer and a Pitot tube

Using the above theory, we have the equation for p2 ,

We now have an expression for velocity obtained from two pressure measurements
and the application of the Bernoulli equation.

2. Pitot Static Tube

The necessity of two piezometers and thus two readings make this arrangement a
little awkward. Connecting the piezometers to a manometer would simplify things
but there are still two tubes. The Pitot static tube combines the tubes and they can
then be easily connected to a manometer. A Pitot static tube is shown below. The
holes on the side of the tube connect to one side of a manometer and register
the static head, (h1), while the central hole is connected to the other side of the
manometer to register, as before, the stagnation head (h2).

A Pitot-static tube
Consider the pressures on the level of the centre line of the Pitot tube and using the
theory of the manometer,

We know that

, substituting this in to the above gives

The Pitot/Pitot-static tubes give velocities at points in the flow. It does not give the
overall discharge of the stream, which is often what is wanted. It also has the
drawback that it is liable to block easily, particularly if there is significant debris in
the flow.

3. Venturi Meter
The Venturi meter is a device for measuring discharge in a pipe. It consists of a
rapidly converging section which increases the velocity of flow and hence reduces
the pressure. It then returns to the original dimensions of the pipe by a gently
diverging 'diffuser' section. By measuring the pressure differences the discharge
can be calculated. This is a particularly accurate method of flow measurement as
energy loss are very small.

A Venturi meter
Applying Bernoulli along the streamline from point 1 to point 2 in the
narrow throat of the Venturi meter we have

By the using the continuity equation we can eliminate the velocity u2,

Substituting this into and rearranging the Bernoulli equation we get

To get the theoretical discharge this is multiplied by the area. To get the actual
discharge taking in to account the losses due to friction, we include a coefficient of
discharge

This can also be expressed in terms of the manometer readings

Thus the discharge can be expressed in terms of the manometer reading::

Notice how this expression does not include any terms for the elevation or
orientation (z1 or z2) of the Venturimeter. This means that the meter can be at any
convenient angle to function.

advanced english communication skills lab

(how to improve fluency and coherence)
One of the 4 criteria the IELTS Speaking module is assessed on is fluency and
coherence. What does this mean? Fluency is the ability to maintain a flow of language
without unnatural hesitation. Coherence is the logical organization, development and
connection of ideas. Do you express ideas and opinions clearly and coherently (logically
ordered and easy to follow), without long pauses or hesitations? Do you use discourse
markers appropriately and naturally (i.e. you dont overuse the same few ones) to link your
ideas? Do you stay on topic, develop your ideas but not go in circles (repeating yourself)
or go off on a tangent (moving off the topic)? Unfortunately, there is no quick fix for this.
Fluency comes from a lot of practice speaking, so the best way to improve is to
speak/engage in conversation as often as you can! But you can really think about your
strategy for coherence and practice. When answering a question remember to: Expand on
your answer. Think of logical details that the examiner would want to know about. If
someone else were talking to you, you would naturally have questions to find out more.
What are those questions? Who? What? Where? When? Why? How? How much? How
often? How good? How did you feel? Expand on your answer by adding those details that
make it interesting.
Where appropriate, explain how you feel about something it gives
emphasis to your reasons and details Where appropriate, describe a person, thing or place
Think of a logical order or sequence. Dont jump around from one part to another. The
examiner doesnt know what youre thinking in your head, so you should try to make your
answer easy to follow.
Use common conversational discourse markers to signal how your
sentences and ideas are linked together. Here are some examples: well, this has a lot of
different uses, but mostly at the beginning of speaking in response to the other speaker
ex. Well, I would say my favorite trip was the one I took with my family to the Philippines
for the first time.
actually - used to state a fact or reality, or for stating a correction, or sometimes to signal
that what youre going to say may be unexpected
ex. Actually, I think it was the first time for my parents to go back to their home country in
about 20 years.
as for used in the same sense as regarding or in regard to which can be more formal

ex. As for the food, I found the it to be really fresh and light.
basically when you want to simplify or summarize a complicated or lengthy story/idea
ex. Basically, we were there to visit relatives my parents hadnt seen since they were young
and for me to get to know my parents home country.
I mean used to clarify what was just said or say it in different words
ex. It wasnt at all what I expected. I mean, I thought I knew a lot about the culture and the
food, but it was so different being there.
on the other hand used to introduce a different view or alternative opinion
ex. The big crowds on the streets made it really difficult to walk around. On the other hand,
it made it exciting to be surrounded by so many people.
anyway to move on to another point or close the conversation
as I was saying to bring the topic back to the original point
the thing is to raise an important point
ex. The thing is, I think the trip was just as memorable for my parents as it was for me.
They were so proud to show off their hometown.
at the same time used to contrast what was previously said
ex. It was fun enjoying summer weather during Christmas. At the same time, it didnt really
feel like Christmas to me.

37)DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

(UNDERSTANDING THE FAILURE OF JOINTS IN
STRUSSES)

Truss girders represent a very rational construction form and facilitate

construction making with minimum material expenditure and very high degree of efficiency
regarding construction elements. They are especially suitable for large-span structures and
for greater load transfer in building construction, as well as bridge construction.
Typical truss girder calculation model implies hinge links on joint location, i.e.
grid members are influenced only by axial forces. This approach facilitates calculations
considerably in addition to being based on the tradition of girder design and construction. In
reality, links between individual truss elements are usually made stiff (especially welded
joints). Deviations from centric connecting are common, partly due to physical inability to
create fully centric links, and partly to facilitate structure construction. In these cases
additional stress in truss members occurs (secondary stress), and global truss behaviour is
especially influenced by joints between elements. Because of this, it becomes paramount to
quantify these phenomena in order to assess their effect on actual construction behaviour.
It is known that these phenomena can be tolerated to some extent with regard to ductile
behaviour and plastic reserves of steel, which justifies the application of aforementioned
calculation model.
However, the articulated joint hypothesis is possible only if critical parts of
truss girder (elements or joints) have sufficient rotation capacity. Then the secondary stress
originating from bending moment can be neglected in calculations, viz. local joint effects can
reduce rotation capacity of the elements and thus endanger the supposed global behaviour
mechanism. Scientific research of plane-loaded truss joint behaviour began in the early
sixties and is based on experimental testing with no further theoretical elaboration. Not
until lately have the existing and new experimental data been associated with theory in
greater detail or complexity.
In several possible ways of truss girder joint failure are discussed:
chord face failure (by plastification) or plastic failure of the chord cross-section,
chord side wall failure or chord web failure by yielding, crushing, or instability under the
compression brace member,

 chord shear failure,

punching shear of hollow section chord wall (crack incitation leading to rapture of the
brace member from the chord member),
brace failure with reduced effective width under crack in the welds or in the brace
member,
local buckling failure of the brace member or of a hollow section chord member at the
joint location.

38)GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-II
(HANDLING TILTING AND SHIFTS DURING
SINKING WELLS)
Precautions during sinking
a) When the wells have to be sunk close to each other and clear distance between them is
not greater than the diameter of wells, sinking shall be taken up on all wells and they shall
be sunk alternately so that sinking of wells proceeds uniformly. Simultaneous and even
dredging shall be carried out in the wells in such a manner that the difference in the levels
of the sump and cutting edge in the adjacent wells does not exceed half the clear gap
between them. Plugging of all the wells shall be done together.14 Section 1200 Well
Foundations
b) During sinking of dumb-bell or double D-shaped wells, the excavation in both the dredge
holes should be carried out simultaneously and equally.
c) Bore chart shall be referred to constantly during sinking for taking adequate care while
piercing different types of strata. The type of soil as obtained during the well sinking should
be compared with bore chart so as to take prompt decisions.
d) Before seasonal floods, all wells on which sinking is in progress shall be sunk to sufficient
depths below the designed scour level. Further, they shall be temporarily filled and plugged
so that they do not suffer any tilt or shift during the floods.
e) All necessary precautions shall be taken against any possible damage to the foundations
of existing structures in the vicinity of the wells, prior to commencement of dredging from
inside the well.
f) The dredged material shall not be allowed to accumulate over the well. It shall be dumped
and spread, as far away as possible, and then continuously and simultaneously removed, as
directed by the Engineer. In case the river stream flows along one edge of the well being
sunk, the dredged material shall not be dumped on the dry side of the bank but on the side
on which the river current flows.
g) Very deep sump shall not be made below the well curb, as it entails risk of jumping
(sudden sinking) of the well. The depth of sump shall be generally limited to one-sixth of the
outer diameter/least lateral dimension of the well in plan. Normally the depth of sump shall
not exceed 3.0 m below the level of the cutting edge unless otherwise specially permitted
by the Engineer.
h) In case a well sinks suddenly with a jerk, the steining of the well shall be examined to the
satisfaction of the Engineer to see that no damage has occurred to it.

i) In pneumatic sinking, the well shall not, at any time, be dropped to a depth greater than
500 mm by the method of blowing down.
j) Dewatering shall be avoided if sand blows are expected. Any equipment and men working
inside the well shall be brought out of the well as soon as there are any indications of a
sand-blow.
k) Sand blowing in wells can often be minimised by keeping the level of water inside the well
higher than the water table and also by adding heavy kentledge.15 Well Foundations
Section 1200
l) In soft strata prone to settlement/creep, the construction of the abutment wells shall be
taken up only after the approach embankment for a sufficient distance near the abutment
has been completed.

Tilts and Shifts

The inclination of the well from the vertical is known as tilt and the horizontal
displacement of the center of the well at the founding level from its theoretical position is
known as shift. Unless otherwise specified, the tilt of any well shall not exceed 1 (horizontal)
in 80 (vertical), and the shift at the well base shall not be more than 150 mm in any
resultant direction. Tilts and shifts shall be carefully checked and recorded in the format
vide Appendix 1200/II regularly during sinking operations. For the purpose of measuring the
tilts along the two axes of the bridge, reduced level of the marks painted on the surface of
the steining of the well shall be taken. For determination of shift, locations of the ends of
the two diameters shall be precisely measured along the two axes, with reference to fixed
reference points.

Whenever any tilt is noticed, adequate preventive measures like placing

eccentric kentledge, pulling, strutting, anchoring or dredging unevenly and depositing
dredge material unequally, putting obstacles below cutting edge. Water jetting etc., shall be
adopted before any further sinking. After correction, the dredged material shall be spread
out uniformly. A pair of wells close to each other have a tendency to come closer while
sinking. Timber struts may be introduced in between the steining of these wells to prevent
tilting. Tilts occurring in a well during sinking in dipping rocky strata can be safeguarded by
suitably supporting the curb.
In the event of a well developing tilt or shift beyond the specified permissible
values, the Contractor shall have to carry out, at his own cost, suitable remedial measures to
the satisfaction of the Engineer, to bring the tilt and shift within permissible values. If the
resultant tilt and / or shift of any well exceeds the specified permissible values, generally it
should not exceed 1 in 50 and 300 mm respectively. The well so sunk shall be regarded as

not conforming to specifications and a sub-standard work. The Engineer in his sole
discretion, may consider accepting such a well, provided:
i) Calculations for foundation pressures and steining stresses, accounting for the actual tilt
and shift furnished by the Contractor show that the well is safe. Remedial measures
required to bring the stresses within permissible values (such as increase in the dimension
of the16 Section 1200 Well Foundations well cap, provision of dummy weights on the well
cap etc.), shall be carried out by the Contractor at his own cost.
ii) The Contractor shall be subjected to reduction in rates as a penalty in accordance with
Clause 1215(g). In case the Engineer, in his discretion, rejects the well, the Contractor shall
dismantle the rejected well to the extent directed by the Engineer and remove the debris.
Further, the Contractor shall, at his own risk and cost complete the bridge with modified
span arrangement acceptable to the Engineer.

39)WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING-II

(SIPHON AQUEDUCT DESIGN CRITERIA KEY
POINTS)
In an irrigation project, when the network of main canals, branch canals, distributaries, etc.
are provided, then these canals may have to cross the natural drainages like rivers, streams,
nallahs, etc at different points within the command area of the project. The crossing of the
canals with such obstacle cannot be avoided. So, suitable structures must be constructed at
the crossing point for the easy flow of water of the canal and drainage in the respective
directions. These structures are known as cross-drainage works.

Necessity of Cross-drainage works:

The water-shed canals do not cross natural drainages. But in actual orientation of the canal
network, this ideal condition may not be available and the obstacles like natural drainages
may be present across the canal. So, the cross drainage works must be provided for running
the irrigation system.
o At the crossing point, the water of the canal and the drainage get intermixed. So, far the
smooth running of the canal with its design discharge the cross drainage works are required.
o The site condition of the crossing point may be such that without any suitable structure, the
water of the canal and drainage can not be diverted to their natural directions. So, the cross
drainage works must be provided to maintain their natural direction of flow.

Aqueduct
The aqueduct is just like a bridge where a canal is taken over the deck supported by piers
instead of a road or railway. Generally, the canal is in the shape of a rectangular trough
which is constructed with reinforced cement concrete. Sometimes, the trough may be of
trapezoidal section.
o An inspection road is provided along the side of the trough.
o The bed and banks of the drainage below the trough is protected by boulder pitching with
cement grouting.
o The section of the trough is designed according to the full supply discharge of the canal.
o A free board of about 0.50 m should be provided.
o The height and section of piers are designed according to the highest flood level and
velocity of flow of the drainage.
o The piers may be of brick masonry, stone masonry or reinforced cement concrete.

o Deep foundation (like well foundation) is not necessary for the piers. The concrete
foundation may be done by providing the depth of foundation according to the availability of
hard soil.

Siphon Aqueduct

The siphon aqueduct, the bed of the drainage is depressed below the bottom level of the
canal trough by providing sloping apron on both sides of the crossing.
o The sloping apron may be constructed by stone pitching or cement concrete.
o The section of the drainage below the canal trough is constructed with cement concrete in
the form of tunnel. This tunnel acts as a siphon.
o Cut off walls are provided on both sides of the apron to prevent scouring.
o Boulder pitching should be provided on the upstream and downstream of the cut-off walls.
o The other components like canal trough, piers, inspection road, etc. should be designed
according to the methods adopted in case of aqueduct.

41)ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
(ROCK MECHANICS)
Rock mechanics is a theoretical and applied science of the mechanical behaviour of
rock and rock masses; compared to geology, it is that branch of mechanics concerned with the
response of rock and rock masses to the force fields of their physical environment.
Rock mechanics forms part of the much broader subject of geomechanics, which is
concerned with the mechanical responses of all geological materials, including soils. Rock mechanics,
as applied in engineering geology, mining, petroleum, and civil engineering practice, is concerned
with the application of the principles of engineering mechanics to the design of the rock structures
generated by mining, drilling, reservoir production, or civil construction activity such as tunnels,
mining shafts, underground excavations, open pit mines, oil and gas wells, road cuts, waste
repositories, and other structures built in or of rock. It also includes the design of reinforcement
systems, such as rock bolting patterns.
One of the most important roles as an engineering geologist is the interpretation
to forms of land and earth processes to identify potential geologic and related man-made hazards
that may have a great impact on civil structures and human development. The background in
geology provides the engineering geologist with an understanding of how the earth works, which is
crucial minimizing earth related hazards. Most engineering geologists also have graduate degrees
where they have gained specialized education and training in soil mechanics, rock
mechanics, geotechnics, groundwater, hydrology, and civil design. These two aspects of the
engineering geologists' education provides them with a unique ability to understand and mitigate for
hazards associated with earth-structure interactions.
Engineering geologic studies may be performed:
for residential, commercial and industrial developments;
for governmental and military installations;
for public works such as a power plant, wind turbine, transmission line, sewage
treatment plant, water treatment plant, pipeline (aqueduct, sewer, outfall), tunnel, trenchless
construction, canal, dam, reservoir, building, railroad, transit, highway, bridge, seismic
retrofit, airport and park;
for mine and quarry excavations, mine tailing dam, mine reclamation and mine tunnelling;
for wetland and habitat restoration programs;
for coastal engineering, sand replenishment, bluff or sea cliff stability, harbour, pier and waterfront
development;
for offshore outfall, drilling platform and sub-sea pipeline, sub-sea cable; and
for other types of facilities.

The methods used by engineering geologists in their studies include

geologic field mapping of geologic structures, geologic formations, soil units and hazards;
the review of geologic literature, geologic maps, geotechnical reports, engineering plans,
environmental reports, stereoscopic aerial photographs, remote sensing data, Global Positioning
System (GPS) data, topographic maps and satellite imagery;
the excavation, sampling and logging of earth/rock materials in drilled borings, backhoe test pits and
trenches, fault trenching, and bulldozer pits;
geophysical surveys (such as seismic refraction traverses, resistivity surveys, ground penetrating
radar (GPR) surveys, magnetometer surveys, electromagnetic surveys, high-resolution sub-bottom
profiling, and other geophysical methods);
deformation monitoring as the systematic measurement and tracking of the alteration in the shape
or dimensions of an object as a result of the application of stress to it manually or with an automatic
deformation monitoring system; and other methods.
The field work is typically culminated in analysis of the data and the preparation of an engineering
geologic report, geotechnical report, fault hazard or seismic hazard report, geophysical
report, ground water resource report or hydro geologic report. The engineering geologic report is
often prepared in conjunction with a geotechnical report, but commonly provide geotechnical
analysis and design recommendations independent of a geotechnical report. An engineering
geologic report describes the objectives, methodology, references cited, tests performed, findings
and recommendations for development. Engineering geologists also provide geologic data on
topographic maps, aerial photographs, geologic maps, Geographic Information System (GIS) maps,
or other map bases.

45)GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LAB

(CBR TESTS-FIELD SAMPLES TESTED)
The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test is a load test applied to the surface and
used in soil investigations as an aid to the design of pavements. The laboratory test uses a
circular piston to penetrate material compacted in a mold at a constant rate of penetration.
The CBR is expressed as the ratio of the unit load on the piston required to penetrate 0.1 in.
(2.5 mm) and 0.2 in (5 mm) of the test soil to the unit load required to penetrate a standard
material of well-graded crusted stone. This test method is used to determine the CBR of a
material compacted in a specied mold. It is incumbent on the requesting agencies to specify
the scope of testing to satisfy agency protocol or specic design requirements.
Possible scope of testing includes:
CBR penetration tests are performed on each point of a compaction test performed in
accordance with Method C of D698 or D1557. The CBR mold with the spacer disk specied
in this standard has the same internal dimensions as a 6-in. (150-mm) diameter compaction
mold.
Another alternative is for CBR test to be performed on material compacted to a
specic water content and density. Alternatively, a water content range may be stated for one
or more density values. This will often require a series of specimens prepared using two or
three compactive efforts for the specied water content or over the range of water contents
requested. The compactive efforts are achieved by following procedures of D698 or D1557
but varying the blows per layer to produce densities above and below the desired density. The
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test is a load test applied to the surface and used in soil
investigations as an aid to the design of pavements. The laboratory test uses a circular piston
to penetrate material compacted in a mold at a constant rate of penetration. The CBR is
expressed as the ratio of the unit load on the piston required to penetrate 0.1 in. (2.5 mm) and
0.2 in (5 mm) of the test soil to the unit load required to penetrate a standard material of wellgraded crusted stone.
This test method is used to determine the CBR of a material compacted in a specied
mold. It is incumbent on the requesting agencies to specify the scope of testing to satisfy
agency protocol or specic design requirements. Possible scope of testing includes:
CBR penetration tests are performed on each point of a compaction test performed in
accordance with Method C of D698 or D1557. The CBR mold with the spacer disk specied
in this standard has the same internal dimensions as a 6-in. (150-mm) diameter compaction
mold.
Another alternative is for CBR test to be performed on material compacted to a
specic water content and density. Alternatively, a water content range may be stated for one
or more density values. This will often require a series of specimens prepared using two or
three compactive efforts for the specied water content or over the range of water contents

requested. The compactive efforts are achieved by following procedures of D698 or D1557
but varying the blows per layer to produce densities above and below the desired density.
test method covers the determination of the CBR (California Bearing Ratio) of
pavement sub grade, sub base, and base course materials from laboratory compacted
specimens.
The test method is primarily intended for (but not limited to) evaluating the
strength of materials having maximum particle sizes less than 34 in. (19 mm).
When materials having maximum particle sizes greater than 34 in. (19 mm) are
to be tested, this test method provides for modifying the gradation of the material so that the
material used for tests all passes the 34-in. sieve while the total gravel (+No. 4 to 3 in.)
fraction remains the same. While traditionally this method of specimen preparation has been
used to avoid the error inherent in testing materials containing large particles in the CBR test
apparatus, the modied material may have signicantly different strength properties than the
original material. However, a large experience base has developed using this test method for
materials for which the gradation has been modied, and satisfactory design methods are in
use based on the results of tests using this procedure.
Past practice has shown that CBR results for those materials having substantial
percentages of particles retained on the No. 4 sieve are more variable than for ner materials.
Consequently, more trials may be required for these materials to establish a reliable CBR.
This test method provides for the determination of the CBR of a material at
optimum water content or a range of water content from a specied compaction test and a
specied dry unit weight. The dry unit weight is usually given as a percentage of maximum
dry unit weight determined by Test Methods D698 or D1557.

46)ENGINEERING GEOLOGY LAB

(GENERATION OF STRIKE AND DIP MAPS)
Strike and dip refer to the orientation or attitude of a geologic feature.
The strike line of a bed, fault, or other planar feature, is a line representing the intersection
of that feature with a horizontal plane. On a geologic map, this is represented with a short
straight line segment oriented parallel to the strike line. Strike (or strike angle) can be given
as either a quadrant compass bearing of the strike line (N25E for example) or in terms of
east or west of true north or south, a single three digit number representing the azimuth,
where the lower number is usually given (where the example of N25E would simply be
025), or the azimuth number followed by the degree sign (example of N25E would be 025).
The dip gives the steepest angle of descent of a tilted bed or feature relative to
a horizontal plane, and is given by the number (0-90) as well as a letter (N,S,E,W) with
rough direction in which the bed is dipping. One technique is to always take the strike so the
dip is 90 to the right of the strike, in which case the redundant letter following the dip angle
is omitted. The map symbol is a short line attached and at right angles to the strike symbol
pointing in the direction which the planar surface is dipping down. The angle of dip is
generally included on a geologic map without the degree sign. Beds that are dipping
vertically are shown with the dip symbol on both sides of the strike, and beds that are flat
are shown like the vertical beds, but with a circle around them. Both vertical and flat beds
do not have a number written with them.

strike and dip of the beds. 1-Strike, 2-Dip direction, 3-Apparent dip 4-Angle of dip

Strike and dip

Strike line and dip of a plane describing attitude relative to a horizontal plane and a vertical
plane perpendicular to the strike line
Another way of representing strike and dip is by dip and dip direction. The dip
direction is the azimuth of the direction the dip as projected to the horizontal (like the trend
of a linear feature in trend and plunge measurements), which is 90 off the strike angle. For
example, a bed dipping 30 to the South, would have an East-West strike (and would be
written 090/30 S using strike and dip), but would be written as 30/180 using the dip and
dip direction method.
Strike and dip are determined in the field with a compass and clinometer or a
combination of the two, such as a Brunton compass named after D.W. Brunton a Colorado
miner. Compass-clinometers which measure dip and dip direction in a single operation (as
pictured) are often called "stratum" or "Klar" compasses after a German professor.
Any planar feature can be described by strike and dip. This
includes sedimentary bedding, faults andfractures, cuestas, igneous dikes and sills, metamor
phic foliation and any other planar feature in the Earth. Linear features are measured with
very similar methods, where "plunge" is the dip angle and "trend" is analogous to the dip
direction value.

Apparent dip is the name of any dip measured in a vertical plane that is not
perpendicular to the strike line. True dip can be calculated from apparent dip using
trigonometry if you know the strike. Geologic cross sections use apparent dip when they are
drawn at some angle not perpendicular to strike. Armed with a topographic map, the
geologist records observations about the rocks he sees, and he then plots, among other things,
a variety of different symbols recording anything he sees, from the rock type to its structures.
One of the most important things a geologist has to note is the attitude of the sedimentary
rocks in the area. With these data, the geologist is able to create a geologic map.

A topographic map (left) and a geologic map (right) of the same area

In the following illustration we can see a very simple geologic map of a flat area (no topography). There are
three different kinds of rocks, represented by different colors and symbols: a shale, a sandstone, and a
limestone. There are also five T-shaped symbols, with the number 30 by their side. These symbols represent the
attitude (strike and dip) of the sedimentary layer at the exact position in the field where it is plotted on the map.
The strike and the dip of the layers are represented, respectively, by the long arm of the T and by the short arm
of the T. The number by the symbol indicates the angle of tilt of the dip with respect to the horizontal surface.
This whole concept can also be seen in the cross section at the bottom of the illustration: the layers are all
tilted by an angle of 30 to the left with respect to the horizontal surface, as shown by the symbols on the map.

47)ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

(IMPROVEMENT OF STRENGTH PARAMETERS OF LOOSE
SANDY SOILS BY LIME GROUTING)
Proper treatment of problem soil conditions and the preparation of the
foundation are extremely important to ensure a long-lasting pavement structure that does
not require excessive maintenance. Some agencies have recognized certain materials simply
do not perform well, and prefer to remove and replace such soils (e.g., a state specification
dictating that frost susceptible loess cannot be present in the frost penetration zone).
However, in many cases, this is not the most economical or even desirable treatment (e.g.,
excavation may create disturbance, plus additional problems of removal and disposal).
Stabilization provides an alternate method to improve the structural support of the
foundation for many of the subgrade conditions presented in the previous section. In all
cases, the provision for a uniform soil relative to textural classification, moisture, and
density in the upper portion of the subgrade cannot be over-emphasized. This uniformity
can be achieved through soil sub-cutting or other stabilization techniques. Stabilization may
also be used to improve soil workability, provide a weather resistant work platform, reduce
swelling of expansive materials, and mitigate problems associated with frost heave. In this
section, alternate stabilization methods will be reviewed, and guidance will be presented for
the selection of the most appropriate method.
Lime treatment or modification consists of the application of 1 - 3%
hydrated lime to aid drying of the soil and permit compaction. As such, it is useful in the
construction of a "working platform" to expedite construction. Lime modification may also
be considered to condition a soil for follow-on stabilization with cement or asphalt. Lime
treatment of subgrade soils is intended to expedite construction, and no reduction in the
required pavement thickness should be made.
Lime may also be used to treat expansive soils, as discussed in Section 7.3.
Expansive soils as defined for pavement purposes are those that exhibit swell in excess of
3%. Expansion is characterized by heaving of a pavement or road when water is imbibed in
the clay minerals. The plasticity characteristics of a soil often are a good indicator of the
swell potential, as indicated in Table 7-17. If it has been determined that a soil has potential
for excessive swell, lime treatment may be appropriate. Lime will reduce swell in an
expansive soil to greater or lesser degrees, depending on the activity of the clay minerals
present. The amount of lime to be added is the minimum amount that will reduce swell to
acceptable limits. Procedures for conducting swell tests are indicated in the ASTM D 1883
CBR test and detailed in ASTM D 4546.

Lime or pozzolanic stabilization of soils improves the strength characteristics

and changes the chemical composition of some soils. The strength of fine-grained soils can
be significantly improved with lime stabilization, while the strength of coarse-grained soils is
usually moderately improved. Lime has been found most effective in improving workability
and reducing swelling potential with highly plastic clay soils containing montmorillonite,
illite, and kaolinite. Lime is also used to reduce the water content of wet soils during field
compaction. In treating certain soils with lime, some soils are produced that are subject to
fatigue cracking.
The most common varieties of lime for soil stabilization are hydrated lime
[Ca(OH)2], quicklime [CaO], and the dolomitic variations of these high-calcium limes
[Ca(OH)2MgO and CaOMgO]. While hydrated lime remains the most commonly used lime
stabilization admixture in the U.S., use of the more caustic quicklime has grown steadily
over the past two decades. Lime is usually produced by calcining2 limestone or dolomite,
although some lime-typically of more variable and poorer quality-is also produced as a byproduct of other chemical processes.
For lime stabilization of clay (or highly plastic) soils, the lime content should
be from 3 - 8% of the dry weight of the soil, and the cured mass should have an unconfined
compressive strength of at least 0.34 MPa (50 psi) within 28 days. The optimum lime
content should be determined with the use of unconfined compressive strength and the
Atterberg limits tests on laboratory lime-soil mixtures moulded at varying percentages of
lime. As discussed later in this section, pH can be used to determine the initial, near
optimum lime content value. The pozzolanic strength gain in clay soils depends on the
specific chemistry of the soil - e.g., whether it can provide sufficient silica and alumina
minerals to support the pozzolanic reactions. Plasticity is a rough indicator of reactivity. A
plasticity index of about 10 is commonly taken as the lower limit for suitability of inorganic
clays for lime stabilization. The lime-stabilized subgrade layer should be compacted to a
minimum density of 95%, as defined by AASHTO T99.
Typical effects of lime stabilization on the engineering properties of a variety of
natural soils are shown in Table 7-18 and Figure 7-22. These are the result of several
chemical processes that occur after mixing the lime with the soil. Hydration of the lime
absorbs water from the soil and causes an immediate drying effect. The addition of lime also
introduces calcium (Ca+2) and magnesium (Mg+2) cations that exchange with the more
active sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) cations in the natural soil water chemistry; this
cation exchange reduces the plasticity of the soil, which, in most cases, corresponds to a
reduced swell and shrinkage potential, diminished susceptibility to strength loss with
moisture, and improved workability. The changes in the soil-water chemistry also lead to
agglomeration of particles and a coarsening of the soil gradation; plastic clay soils become
more like silt or sand in texture after the addition of lime. These drying, plasticity reduction,

and texture effects all occur very rapidly (usually with 1 hour after addition of lime),
provided there is thorough mixing of the lime and the soil.
When soils are treated properly with lime, it has been observed that the limesoil mixture may be subject to durability problems, the cyclic freezing and thawing of the
soil. The durability of lime stabilization on swell potential and strength may be adversely
affected by environmental influences:
Water: Although most lime stabilized soils retain 70% to 85% of their long-term strength
gains when exposed to water, there have been reported cases of poor strength retention for
stabilized soils exposed to soaking. Therefore, testing of stabilized soils in the soaked
condition is prudent.
Freeze/thaw cycles: Freeze/thaw cycles can lead to strength deterioration, but subsequent
healing often occurs where the strength loss caused by winter freeze/thaw reverses during
the following warm season. The most common design approach is to specify a sufficiently
high initial strength gain to retain sufficient residual strength after freeze/thaw damage.
Leaching: Leaching of calcium can decrease the cation exchange in lime stabilized soil,
which, in turn, can reverse the beneficial reduction in plasticity and swell potential. The
potential for these effects is greater when low lime contents are used.
Carbonation: If atmospheric carbon dioxide combines with lime to form calcium carbonate,
the calcium silicate and calcium aluminate hydrate cements may become unstable and
revert back to their original silica and alumina forms, reversing the long-term strength
increase resulting from the pozzolanic reactions. Although this problem has been reported
less in the United States than in other countries, its possibility should be recognized and its
potential minimized by use of ample lime content, careful selection, placement, and
compaction of the stabilized material to minimize carbon dioxide penetration, as well as
prompt placement after lime mixing, and good curing.
Sulphate attack: Sulphates present in the soil or groundwater can combine with the calcium
from the lime or the alumina from the clay minerals to form ettringite, which has a volume
that is more than 200% larger than that of its constituents. Massive irreversible swelling can
therefore occur, and the damage it causes can be quite severe. It is difficult to predict the
combinations of sulphate content, lime content, clay mineralogy and content, and
environmental conditions that will trigger sulphate attack. Consequently, if there is a
suspicion of possible sulphate attack, the lime stabilized soil should be tested in the
laboratory to see whether it will swell when mixed and exposed to moisture.

48)ESTIMATING AND COSTING

(ESTIMATING OF SINGLE STORIED BUILDING)
Cost estimating is essential for cost planning and budgeting and takes place in
all stages of project development. Methods for cost estimation vary as the project evolves
from the early stages of conception to the construction phase. In principle, as the project
evolves, more information becomes available thus more accurate may be estimation and
more precise may be estimation methods. Accordingly, estimation methods may be
grouped as follows (expected precision is indicated between brackets):
Estimation methods at the inception stage (30% to 50%);
Design phase estimation methods (15% to 30%);
Construction phase estimation methods (5% to 15%).
The fundamental difference between methods included in the first two
classes and those included in the last class above is that the former depend on reliable
historical cost data whereas the latter follow an analytical approach based on the costs of
resources required for project completion. Moreover, the accuracy of estimation during the
design phase increases as more information on the project is released by the design team.
Table 1 below lists a few methods currently used in construction and classifies them
according to the project phase for which they are appropriate. Note that the design phase is
divided into three sections for three stages of design development.
Although guess-estimating may not be considered a methodology for estimating,
it is sometimes useful for a preliminary educated guess on the approximate amount of
investment required for the project.
Single rate approximate estimating
Cost per unit
The cost per unit is commonly used by national and international bodies such
as education services, health services and office building investors at the inception stage of
project development. It is adequate for preliminary estimating of some type of building
facilities for which there is recent comparable unit data available. The total cost of the
project will be given by:
Total cost = cost per unit x number of units.
Units to consider will be dependent of the type of building, for example, theatre seat, car
park place, hotel bedroom, hospital bed space, etc. Obviously, for unit cost data to be
reliable, it must come from a significant number of buildings of the same type, and ought to

be updated to take into consideration cost depreciation over time. The method is very easy
to use but may be rather imprecise even for the inception stage, for which a poor degree of
precision is expected (say, 30% to 50%). For this reason, it is sometimes recommended that
ranges of values instead of single values may be used for unit costs.
However, clients tend to use it very often for budgeting purposes. For
example, if a client has a certain amount of money to spend in a facility, then it may be
possible to consider the likely number of functional units to provide within the target cost
available. Conversely, if the client decides to build up a hotel of 50 bedrooms, and historical
data shows that for similar quality standard the cost of a bedroom is, say, between 15 000
and 20 000, then the client knows that the expected budget for the project ranges
between 750 000 and 1 000 000.
Floor area method
The floor area method is very popular in many European countries because of
its simplicity. It is also adequate for preliminary estimating but obviously needs some more
information from the project than the cost per unit method described above. The total cost
of the project will be given by:
Total cost = cost per square meter x total project area.
In order to use the method, the building must be first measured by its internal dimensions
at each floor level. No deductions are made for internal walls, ducts, lifts or stair cases. The
costs of previous similar buildings are used to establish a sound cost per square meter that
can be used for calculation of the total project cost by using the above expression.
Adjustments may be made to historical data for location and inflation.
Subjective judgement may also be needed for establishing the adequate cost per square
meter to use. For example, the standard of finishes, the shape of the building and the
number of storeys may possibly unbalance average data collected from similar buildings. In
a more comprehensive version of the method, different types of floor areas and
corresponding costs per square meter are taken into consideration. Table 2 depicts the
breakdown of a dwelling, measured areas for each floor type and corresponding historical
costs per square meter. This requires more information on the project, obviously coming
from a later stage of design than above, and implies the availability of historical data in a
more detailed fashion than just a global figure per square meter as in the standard version
of the method. But it can lead to much better results and avoid some subjective
judgements. In a way, this variant of the cost per square meter method may be considered a
multiple rate estimating and be included in the second class of Table 1.

In current construction practice, separate assessments are usually made

for some works that, due to their great variety and cost, may significantly alter the total
building cost appraisal. This is the case of foundations, external works, incoming services,
drainage etc. Therefore, costs considered in Table 2 above do not include those works.
Parallel to the floor area method which is building specific, single rate estimating methods
may be used for certain external works, especially in road and railway projects. The
advantages and limitations of these methods are identical to those described above.
Similarly, instead of using a single rate value, distinct rates for specific works may be
adopted

49)PAVEMENT DESIGN
(DESIGN OF GEO TEXTILE PAVEMENT)
This course covers physical properties, functions, design methods, design
details and construction procedures for geotextiles as used in pavements and drainage
applications. Geotextile functions described include pavements, filtration and drainage. This
course does not cover the use of other geosynthetics such as geogrids, geonets,
geomembranes, plastic strip drains, composite products and products made from natural
cellulose fibers. geotextiles are made from polypropylene, polyester, polyethylene,
polyamide (nylon), polyvinylidene chloride, and fiberglass. Polypropylene and polyester are
the most used. Sewing thread for geotextiles is made from Kevlar or any of the above
polymers. The physical properties of these materials can be varied by the use of additives in
the composition and by changing the processing methods used to form the molten material
into filaments. Yarns are formed from fibers which have been bundled and twisted together,
a process also referred to as spinning. (This reference is different from the term spinning as
used to denote the process of extruding filaments from a molten material.) Yarns may be
composed of very long fibers (filaments) or relatively short pieces cut from filaments (staple
fibers).Exposure to sunlight degrades the physical properties of polymers. The rate of
degradation is reduced by the addition of carbon black but not eliminated. Hot asphalt can
approach the melting point of some polymers. Polymer materials become brittle in very cold
temperatures. Chemicals in the groundwater can react with polymers. All polymers gain
water with time if water is present. High pH water can be harsh on polyesters while low pH
water can be harsh on polyamides. Where a chemically unusual environment exists,
laboratory test data on effects of exposure of the geotextile to this environment should be
sought. Experience with geotextiles in place spans only about 30 years. All of these factors
should be considered in selecting or specifying acceptable geotextile materials. Where long
duration integrity of the material is critical to life safety and where the in-place material
cannot easily be periodically inspected or easily replaced if it should become degraded (for
example filtration and/or drainage functions within an earth dam), current practice is to use
only geologic materials (which are orders of magnitude more resistant to these weathering
effects than polyesters).
Geotextile Functions and Applications.
Geotextiles perform one or more basic functions: filtration, drainage, separation, erosion
control, sediment control, reinforcement, and (when impregnated with asphalt) moisture
barrier. In any one application, a geotextile may be performing several of these functions.
Filtration. The use of geotextiles in filter applications is probably the oldest, the most widely
known, and the most used function of geotextiles. In this application, the geotextile is
placed in contact with and down gradient of soil to be drained. The plane of to the expected

direction of water flow. The capacity for flow of water normal to the plane of the geotextile
is referred to as permittivity. Water and any particles suspended in the water which are
smaller than a given size flow through the geotextile. Those soil particles larger than that
size are stopped and prevented from being carried away. The geotextile openings should be
sized to prevent soil particle movement. The geotextiles substitute for and serve the same
function as the traditional granular filter. Both the granular filter and the geotextile filter
must allow water (or gas) to pass without significant build-up of hydrostatic pressure. A
geotextile-lined drainage trench along the edge of a road pavement is an example using a
geotextile as a filter. Most geotextiles are capable of performing this function. Slit film
geotextiles are not preferred because opening sizes are unpredictable. Long term clogging
is a concern when geotextiles are used for filtration.
Drainage. When functioning as a drain, a geotextile acts as a conduit for the movement of
liquids or gases in the plane of the geotextile. Examples are geotextiles used as wick drains
and blanket drains. The relatively thick nonwoven geotextiles are the products most
commonly used. Selection should be based on transmissivity, which is the capacity for inplane flow. Questions exist as to long term clogging potential of geotextile drains. They are
known to be effective in short duration applications.
Erosion Control. In erosion control the geotextile protects soil surfaces from the tractive
forces of moving water or wind and rainfall erosion. Geotextiles can be used in ditch linings
to protect erodible fine sands or cohesion less silts. The geotextile is placed in the ditch and
is secured in place by stakes or is covered with rock or gravel to secure the geotextile, shield
it from ultraviolet light, and dissipate the energy of the flowing water. Geotextiles are also
used for temporary protection against erosion on newly seeded slopes. After the slope has
been seeded, the geotextile is anchored to the slope holding the soil and seed in-place until
the seeds germinate and vegetative cover is established. The erosion control function can
be thought of as a special case of the combination of the filtration and separation functions.
Sediment Control. A geotextile serves to control sediment when it stops particles
suspended in surface fluid flow while allowing the fluid to pass through. After some period
of time, particles accumulate against the geotextile, reducing the flow of fluid and increasing
the pressure against the geotextile. Examples of this application are silt fences placed to
reduce the amount of sediment carried off construction sites and into nearby water courses.
The sediment control function is actually a filtration function.
Reinforcement. In the most common reinforcement application, the geotextile interacts
with soil through frictional or adhesion forces to resist tensile or shear forces. To provide
reinforcement, a geotextile must have sufficient strength and embedment length to resist
the tensile forces generated, and the strength must be developed at sufficiently small
strains (i.e. high modulus) to prevent excessive movement of the reinforced structure. To
reinforce embankments and retaining structures, a woven geotextile is recommended
because it can provide high strength at small strains.

Separation. Separation is the process of preventing two dissimilar materials from mixing. In
this function, a geotextile is most often required to prevent the undesirable mixing of fill
and natural soils or two different types of fills. A geotextile can be placed between a railroad
subgrade and track ballast to prevent contamination and resulting strength loss of the
ballast by intrusion of the subgrade soil. In construction of roads over soft soil, a geotextile
can be placed over the soft subgrade, and then gravel or crushed stone placed on the
geotextile. The geotextile prevents mixing of the two materials.
Moisture Barrier. Both woven and nonwoven geotextiles can serve as moisture barriers
when impregnated with bituminous, rubber-bitumen, or polymeric mixtures. Such
impregnation reduces both the cross-plane and in-plane flow capacity of the geotextiles to a
minimum. This function plays an important role in the use of geotextiles in paving overlay
systems. In such systems, the impregnated material seals the existing pavement and
reduces the amount of surface water entering the base and subgrade. This prevents a
reduction in strength of these components and improves the performance of the pavement
system.

50)ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
(POLLUTION STUDY OF HEAVY METALS IN AQUATIC
SEDIMENTS)
Heavy meals are one of the more serious pollutants in our natural
environment due to their toxicity, persistence and bioaccumulation problems (Tam & Wong,
2000). Trace metals in natural waters and their corresponding sediments have become a
significant topic of concern for scientists and engineers in various fields associated with
water quality, as well as a concern of the general public. Direct toxicity to man and aquatic
life and indirect toxicity through accumulations of metals in the aquatic food chain are the
focus of this concern.
The presence of trace metals in aquatic systems originates from the natural
interactions between the water, sediments and atmosphere with which the water is in
contact. The concentrations fluctuate as a result of natural hydrodynamic chemical and
biological forces. Man, through industrialisation and technology, has developed the capacity
to alter these natural interactions to the extent that the very waters and the aquatic life
therein have been threatened to a devastating point.
The activity of trace metals in aquatic systems and their impact on aquatic life
vary depending upon the metal species. Of major importance in this regard is the ability of
metals to associate with other dissolved and suspended components. Most significant
among these associations is the interaction between metals and organic compounds in
water and sediment. These organic species, which may originate naturally from process
such as vegetative decay or result from pollution through organic discharge from municipal
and industrial sources, have a remarkable affinity and capacity to bind to metals. This
phenomenon would naturally alter the reactivity of metals in the aquatic environment.
(Signer, 1974).
Many human activities (e.g.; mining, overuse of chemicals, industrial waste from
ports and refineries) have a negative impact on several biological processes and there is no
doubt that these will continue to affect the functioning of highly productive coastal
ecosystems. Contamination caused by trace metals affects both ocean waters, those of the
continental shelf and the coastal zone where, besides having a longer residence time, metal
concentrations are higher due to input and transport by river runoff and the proximity to
industrial and urban zones (various authors quoted in Guzman & Garcia, 2002).
Trace metals, including those defined as heavy, arising from industrial and
mining activities are discharged into coastal waters and estuaries at many sites. The term
heavy metal refers to any metallic chemical element that has a relatively high density and is
toxic, highly toxic or poisonous at low concentrations. These anthropogically derived inputs

can accumulate in local sediments (up to five orders of magnitude above the overlying
water Bryan & Langston, 1992) and invertebrates living on or in food, and the rate of
accumulation caries widely between species and heavy metal concentration found in
clean conditions. Less is known of the uptake of these metals by ingestion with food or
from close contact with contaminated sediments (Harris & Santos, 2000).
For some time, there has been serious concern about the simultaneous
input of unwanted trace elements, present in these mineral fertilisers, like Cd or Cr. These
trace metals are much more likely available to biota than those amounts bound to the soil
(Sager, 1997).
Approximately 80% of total chromium from mineral fertilizerss emanates
from basic slag and basic slag potash. Regional differences in application rates and crops
lead to differences in trace element loads per farmed area up to 6-fold. Further on, inputs
from fertilizers have been compared with input by atmospheric deposition. As a source of
lead and cadmium, long-range transport via the atmosphere supersedes the input from
mineral fertilizers, whereas in case of chromium it is reverse. It is widely recognised that
marine ecosystems can become contaminated by trace metals from numerous and diverse
sources. However, anthropogenic activities, such as mining and industrial processing of ores
and metals, still remain the principal cause of the increased amount of heavy metals which
have been dumped into the ocean metal tolerance in corals has been suggested to explain
the higher concentrations of some metals and the lack of physiological response (example;
bleaching) in corals living under chronic pollution. On the other hand, a reduction in coral
skeletal extension was reported in association with high metal concentrations in coral
tissue, but it was considered impossible to separate cause from effect in the field. We can
speculate that most species might be resistant to some degree of pollution in those
habitats. Our poor understanding of the physiological response of coral to metal pollution
precludes any further discussion on this matter. The observed increase in vanadium and the
decline in growth rates in the study area provide strong circumstantial evidence of a sub
lethal effect of oil pollution, but not specifically metal pollution in coastal areas. Ecological
supporting evidence also points at the oil industry as a major factor responsible for the
degradation of the reefs in this area

51)GROUND WATER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT

(ASSESMENT OF QUALITY OF GROUND WATER FOR
IRRIGATION)
Groundwater plays an important role in Indian agriculture. The suitability of
irrigation water depends upon many factors including the quality of water, soil type, salt
tolerance characteristics of the plants, climate and drainage characteristics of the soil
(Michael, 1990). Groundwater always contains small amount of soluble salts dissolved in it.
The kind and quality of these salts depend upon the sources for recharge of the
groundwater and the strata through which it flows. The excess quantity of soluble salts may
be harmful for many crops. Hence, a better understanding of the chemistry of groundwater
is very essential to properly evaluate groundwater quality for irrigation purpose. Paddy
crops, vegetables, fruits and food crops are the common agricultural produce of the people
in the study area. The canal and tank waters are not available at many places in the study
area or in case if available, they may not be able to supply adequate water for irrigating
crops even at critical stages of crop growth.
Under these circumstances, the groundwater becomes the main source of
irrigation. Geochemical processes in groundwater involve the interaction of country rocks
with water, leading to the development of secondary mineral phases Groundwater always
contains measurable quantities of dissolved substances, which are called salts. The salts
present in the water, besides affecting the growth of the plants directly, also affect the soil
structure, permeability and aeration, which indirectly affect the plant growth. The total
concentration of soluble salts in irrigation water can thus be expressed for the purpose of
classification of irrigation water. The sodium or alkali hazard limit for irrigation is
determined by the absolute and relative concentration of cations and is expressed in terms
of sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). There is a significant relationship between SAR values of
irrigation water and the extent to which sodium is absorbed by the soil. If groundwater used
for irrigation is high in sodium and low in calcium, the cation-exchange complex may
become saturated with sodium. This can destroy the soil structure owing to dispersion of
the clay particles.
A simple method of evaluating high sodium water is the SAR. Calculation of
SAR for given water provides a useful index of the sodium hazard of that water for soils and
crops. A very low SAR (less than 2) indicates no danger from sodium, low SAR (2 to 10)
indicates little danger from sodium; medium hazards are indicated between 10 to 18; high
hazards between 18 to 26 and very high hazards more thanA simple method of evaluating
high sodium water is the SAR. Calculation of SAR for given water provides a useful index of
the sodium hazard of that water for soils and crops. A very low SAR (less than 2) indicates no
danger from sodium, low SAR (2 to 10) indicates little danger from sodium; medium hazards
are indicated between 10 to 18; high hazards between 18 to 26 and very high hazards more

than The sodium percentage in the study area varies from 47.92 to 58.28 . As per the world
health organization, 2011 standards, the sodium percentage of 60 is the maximum
recommended limit for irrigation water. The high sodium saturation in the water samples
directly causes calcium deficiency in human beings.
Excess of magnesium in ground water samples affects the quality of soils,
which causes poor in yield of crops. The magnesium ratio in some groundwater samples
varies from 28.98 to 39.06 epm . From the above table, the Magnesium ratios were found to
be more than the permissible limit in all water sample locations, except in few locations.
High Mg ratio in the ground water samples leads to surface and subsurface water interact
with country rock (Pandian et. al., 2007). The study area occupies mostly charnockite and
fissile hornblende biotite gneiss as country rock which highly my rich minerals such as
pyroxene, mica, garnet etc. of some Mg bearing minerals. The bicarbonate concentration
under "Increasing Problem" zone was found in 82% of the total samples in the study area .
The samples under "Severe Problem" zone were observed at only four sites. However, larger
numbers of samples were observed under "increasing problem zone". In general, the higher
value of bicarbonate (> 15 epm) observed during pre monsoon ground water sampling
periods was essentially due to biochemical reactions. Mandel and Shiftan (1981) reported
bicarbonate content more than 1 meq/l (epm) or 60 mg/1 (ppm) in the water is necessarily
attributed from the biological activities of plant roots, from the oxidation of organic matter
included in the soils and in the rock, and from various chemical reactions.