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CHAPTER 15 (26):
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
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CHAPTER OUTLINE
The Gains From Trade
The Terms of Trade
Arguments Against Free Trade
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, the student will
be able to:
Describe the benefits of free trade
Distinguish between absolute and
comparative advantage
Describe the economic impacts of trade
Define the terms of trade
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, the student will
be able to:
List the ways in which trade is restricted
Discuss the various arguments against free
trade
Debate the issues surrounding increasing
global economic integration
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VOLUNTARY TRADE
Many people assume that trade between
nations is a zero sum game: a game in
which, for one party to gain, the other
party must lose.
But voluntary exchange is in fact a
positive sum game, meaning that both
parties to a transaction can gain.
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COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE
Assume the following numbers for our
example of comparative advantage:
In the U.S., the opportunity cost of producing one
cow is one guitar.
In Canada, the opportunity cost of producing one
cow is 4/10 of a guitar.
In this example, Canada has the comparative
advantage in cattle, because the opportunity cost
is lower.
2013 Worth Publishers
CoreEconomics Chiang and Stone
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COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE
Both countries can be made better off by
specializing according to their comparative
advantage.
Canada will produce beef.
The United States will produce some beef and
some guitars.
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PRACTICAL CONSTRAINTS ON
TRADE
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PRACTICAL CONSTRAINTS ON
TRADE
Some practical constraints on trade:
The production possibilities curves for nations
are not linear; they are governed by
increasing costs and diminishing returns.
Specializing in one product is risky since the
market for any one product can always
decline, new technology might replace it,
or production can be disrupted by changing
weather patterns.
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EFFECTS OF VOLUNTARY
TRADE
Although it is true that trading partners will
benefit from trade, some individuals and
groups within each country may lose.
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TRADE RESTRICTIONS
The most common forms of trade
restrictions are tariffs and quotas.
A tariff is a tax collected on imports.
A quota restricts the volume of imports.
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TARIFFS
Tariffs are often ad valorem taxes.
This means the product is taxed by a certain
percentage of its price as it crosses the
border.
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600
500
400
Quantity in thousands
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QUOTAS
Under a quota system, the government
limits imports to a specified quantity.
No revenue is collected for the government,
but prices are higher because of the restricted
quantity.
This translates into more profit for the
manufacturer.
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QUOTAS
The United States imposed quotas on
Japanese automobiles in the 1980s.
The primary effect of these quotas was to
dramatically raise the minimum standard
equipment and price for some Japanese cars.
If a firm is limited in the number of vehicles it can
sell, why not sell higher-priced ones where the
profit margins are higher?
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EFFECT OF A QUOTA
Price in $
A quota is a restriction
on the quantity of imports.
The domestic price will rise to
the market-clearing level,
but no revenue is collected
for the government.
600
500
400
Quota
Quantity in thousands
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CHECKPOINT: TERMS OF
TRADE
The terms of trade are determined by the
ratio of the price of exported goods to the
price of imported goods.
Tariffs are taxes on imports that protect
domestic producers and generate revenue
for the government.
Quotas restrict the volume of particular
imports that can come into a country.
2013 Worth Publishers
CoreEconomics Chiang and Stone
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ARGUMENTS AGAINST
FREE TRADE
Antifree trade arguments fall into two
camps:
Traditional economic arguments
Globalization concerns
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TRADITIONAL ECONOMIC
ARGUMENTS
The Infant Industry Argument
An infant industry is one so underdeveloped
as to not be able to survive in the global
environment.
Unless the industrys government provides it
with some protection through tariffs, quotas,
or subsidies, it might not survive in the face of
foreign competition.
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TRADITIONAL ECONOMIC
ARGUMENTS
Drawbacks of the Infant Industry
Argument:
First, protecting an industry must be done in a
way that makes the industry internationally
competitive.
With tariff protection, an industry may never
mature.
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TRADITIONAL ECONOMIC
ARGUMENTS
Drawbacks of the Infant Industry
Argument:
Second, infant industry protection tends to
focus on capital manufacturing.
Third, many industries seem to be able to
develop without protections, so countries may
be wasting their resources and reducing their
incomes by imposing protection measures.
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TRADITIONAL ECONOMIC
ARGUMENTS
Antidumping Argument:
Dumping means that goods are sold at lower
prices (perhaps below cost) abroad than in their
home market. This often is a result of
government subsidies.
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TRADITIONAL ECONOMIC
ARGUMENTS
Firms can use dumping as a form of predatory
pricing.
They charge higher prices in domestic markets to
support unrealistically low prices in foreign markets.
If the federal government determines that a foreign
firm is dumping products onto the American market,
it can impose antidumping tariffs on the offending
products.
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TRADITIONAL ECONOMIC
ARGUMENTS
Low Foreign Wages:
Some advocates of trade barriers maintain
that domestic firms and workers need to be
protected from cheap foreign labor.
On balance, however, the benefits of lowerpriced goods considerably exceed the costs
of lost employment.
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TRADITIONAL ECONOMIC
ARGUMENTS
National Defense:
In times of national crisis, the United States
must rely on key domestic industries, such as
oil, steel, and the defense industry.
Some argue that these industries may require
protection even during peacetime to ensure
that they are already well established if a
crisis prevents importing key products.
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GLOBALIZATION CONCERNS
Trade and Domestic Employment
Some firms, unable to compete with imports,
will be forced to lay off workers. Even so,
increased trade usually allows firms that are
exporters to expand their operations and hire
new workers.
For workers who lose their jobs, switching
industries can be difficult and time consuming.
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GLOBALIZATION CONCERNS
Trade and the Environment:
Concerns that expanded trade will lead to
increased environmental degradation as
companies take advantage of lax
environmental laws in the developing world
Fears that environmental laws will be viewed
as disguised protectionism
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GLOBALIZATION CONCERNS
Trade and the Environment:
Will free trade come at the expense of the
environment?
Every action involves a tradeoff.
However, trade policies can also be
complementary to good environmental
policies.
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GLOBALIZATION CONCERNS
Trade and the Environment:
As professors Bhagwati and Hudec argue,
there has been no systematic race to the
bottom.
Many corporations often have the highest
environmental and labor standards in the
developing world.
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GLOBALIZATION CONCERNS
Trade and the Environment:
As incomes rise over time, environmental
protection takes on added importance
everywhere.
The demand for environmental quality is
income elastic.
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GLOBALIZATION CONCERNS
Working Conditions in Developing
Nations:
Some anti-globalization activists argue that
trade with developing countries simply
exploits workers where wages are low.
But it is not clear that workers would be
helped if the United States were to cut off its
trade with low-wage countries.
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CHECKPOINT:
ARGUMENTS AGAINST FREE TRADE
The infant industries argument claims that
some industries need protection to survive
in a global competitive environment.
Dumping involves selling products at lower
prices in foreign markets, often with the
help of subsidies from the government.
Some argue that domestic workers need
protection from low wages overseas.
2013 Worth Publishers
CoreEconomics Chiang and Stone
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CHECKPOINT:
ARGUMENTS AGAINST FREE TRADE
Globalization has meant that some U.S.
workers have lost jobs to foreign
competition.
The overall effect of international trade has
been to increase overall employment.
Concern about the environment is often a
factor in trade negotiations.
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CHAPTER SUMMARY
Voluntary exchange is a positive sum game,
meaning that both parties to a transaction can
benefit.
International trade is based on the principle of
comparative advantage.
The terms of trade are defined as the average
price of exports divided by the average price of
imports.
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CHAPTER SUMMARY
The most common forms of trade restrictions are
tariffs and quotas.
The traditional economic arguments against free
trade include the following:
Infant industries
Antidumping
Key industries
Environmental degradation
Protection against cheap labor
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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
Take a look at the items in your backpack.
How many of them were made in other
countries? What about the backpack itself?
Explain the way in which a country can
benefit from trading with other countries that
are less productive overall.
Does an increase in international trade
threaten the national security of the United
States?
2013 Worth Publishers
CoreEconomics Chiang and Stone
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