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Solar Energy 82 (2008) 602612

www.elsevier.com/locate/solener

Thermal modeling of a combined system of photovoltaic

thermal (PV/T) solar water heater
Swapnil Dubey *, G.N. Tiwari
Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016, India
Received 12 June 2007; received in revised form 18 October 2007; accepted 4 February 2008
Available online 29 February 2008
Communicated by: Associate Editor B. Norton

Abstract
In this paper, an integrated combined system of a photovoltaic (glassglass) thermal (PV/T) solar water heater of capacity 200 l has
been designed and tested in outdoor condition for composite climate of New Delhi. An analytical expression for characteristic equation
for photovoltaic thermal (PV/T) at plate collector has been derived for dierent condition as a function of design and climatic
parameters. The testing of collector and system were carried out during FebruaryApril, 2007. It is observed that the photovoltaic
thermal (PV/T) at plate collector partially covered with PV module gives better thermal and average cell eciency which is in accordance with the results reported by earlier researchers.
2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Solar energy; Photovoltaic thermal (PV/T) at plate collector; Solar water heater

1. Introduction
Thermal energy has wider applications in the humans
life. It can be generally utilized in the form of either low
grade (low temperature) or high grade (high temperature).
Jones and Underwood (2001) have studied the temperature
heat prole of the photovoltaic (PV) module in a nonsteady state condition with respect to time. They conducted
experiment for cloudy as well clear day condition. They
observed that the PV module temperature varies in the
range of 300325 K (2752 C) for an ambient air temperature of 297.5 K (24.5 C). The main reasons for reduction of the electrical eciency of the PV module is
packing factor (PF) of PV module, ohmic losses between
two consecutive solar cells and the temperature of the
module. The overall electrical eciency of the PV module
can be increased by increasing the packing factor (PF)

Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 9868929291; fax: +91 11 26591121.

E-mail address: swapnil_iitd@redimail.com (S. Dubey).

0038-092X/$ - see front matter 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.solener.2008.02.005

and reducing the temperature of the PV module by using

the thermal energy associated with the PV module Zondag
et al. (2003) and Chow (2003). The carrier of thermal
energy associated with the PV module may be either air
or water. Once thermal energy withdrawal is integrated
with the photovoltaic (PV) module, it is referred as hybrid
PV/T system.
The hybrid photovoltaic thermal (PV/T) system has the
following applications:
1. Air heating system (Hegazy, 2000; Ineld et al., 2004;
Tripanagnostopoulos et al., 2002; Prakash, 1994;
Cartmell et al., 2004; Bhargava et al., 1991; Joshi and
Tiwari, 2007; Tiwari and Sodha, 2006a, 2007; Zondag,
2007; Tiwari et al., 2006; Guiavarch and Peuportier,
2006) and,
2. water heating system (Zondag et al., 2002; Kalogirou,
2001; Garg et al., 1994; Chow, 2003; Chow et al.,
2006; Tripanagnostopoulos et al., 2002; Zakharchenko
et al., 2004; Sandnes and Rekstad, 2002; Tiwari et al.,
2006; Zondag, 2007).

S. Dubey, G.N. Tiwari / Solar Energy 82 (2008) 602612

603

Nomenclature
A
C
F/
FR
h
PF1
PF2
I(t)
K
m_
Mw
N
Q_ u
Utc,a
UL1
V
Xi

area, m2
specic heat, J/kg K
at plate collector eciency factor, dimensionless
ow rate factor, dimensionless
heat transfer coecient, W/m2
penalty factor due to the glass cover of PV module, dimensionless
penalty factor due to the absorber below PV
module, dimensionless
incident solar intensity, W/m2
thermal conductivity, W/mK
rate of ow of water mass, kg/s
mass of water, kg
no. of values
rate of useful energy transfer, kW
an overall heat transfer coecient from solar
cell to ambient through glass cover, W/m2 K
an overall heat transfer coecient from blacken
surface to ambient, W/m2 K
air velocity, m/s
theoretical values

For the PV/T water heating system, two types of combipanel (hybrid PV/T) have been considered, namely
(a) The parallel plate conguration, (Prakash, 1994;
Huang et al., 2001; Tiwari and Sodha, 2006a; Tiwari
et al., 2006) and
(b) the tube-in-plate conguration, (Zondag et al., 2002;
Chow, 2003; Chow et al., 2006; Huang et al., 2001;
Kalogirou, 2001; Tiwari and Sodha, 2006b).
Chow et al. (2006) has concluded that the tube-in-plate
absorber collector with single glazing is regarded as one of
the most promising design. He has also concluded that the
partial covered at plate collector by PV module gives better thermal and electrical output from the photovoltaic
thermal (PV/T) water heating system. He has concluded
his ndings on the basis of indoor simulation.
Recently Zondag (2007) carried out rigorous review on
research work of a PV-thermal collector and system, carried out by various scientists till 2006. His review includes
the history and importance of photovoltaic hybrid system
and its application in various sectors. It also includes characteristics equations, a study of design parameters, marketing, etc.
In this paper, an analytical expression for characteristic
equation of combined system of photovoltaic thermal
(PV/T) at plate collectors have been derived and experimentally validated for various congurations. The performance of water heating system has also been carried out.

Yi

experimental values

Subscripts
a
ambient
c
solar cell
c1
rst collector
c2
second collector
e
eective

inlet uid
fo
outgoing uid
g
glass
m
module
p
plate
tk
water tank
Greek letters
a
absorptivity
(as)e product of eective absorptivity and transmittivity
b
packing factor
gi
an instantaneous thermal eciency
s
transmittivity

Thus an increase of an overall eciency of the PV/T system reduces energy pay back time (EPBT), which of-course
aects signicantly the techno-economic analysis of the
PV/T system.
2. Experimental set up and observations
Two at plate collectors connected in series with each
having an eective area of 2.16 m2 are considered for the
present study. Embedded design of an absorber is shown
in Fig. 1a. Specications of at plate collector are given
in Table 1. The whole absorber and glass cover is encased

Fig. 1a. Cut sectional front view of an embedded design of at plate

collector.

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S. Dubey, G.N. Tiwari / Solar Energy 82 (2008) 602612

Table 1
Dimensions of photovoltaic thermal (PV/T) solar water heating system
Sr. no.

Components

Specications

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.

Capacity of storage tank

Collectors
Area of collector
Tube diameter
Tube material
Plate thickness
Air gap
Thickness of insulation
Thickness of glass
Angle of collector
PV module
Area of module
Area of solar cell
Total area of solar cell
Non packing area
No. of solar cells
PV module
DC motor

200 l
Flat plate, tube in plate type
2.16 m2
0.0125 m
Copper tubes
0.002 m
0.01 m
0.1 m
0.004 m
30
Glass to glass type
0.66 m2
0.015 m2
0.54 m2
0.12 m2
36
75 W
18 V, 60 W, 2800 rpm

in an aluminum metallic box with 0.1 m glass wool insulation below the absorber to reduce bottom losses.
A glass to glass photovoltaic (PV) module with an eective area of 0.66 m2 is integrated at the bottom of one of
the collector as shown in Fig. 1b. The ow pattern of water
in such conguration has also been depicted in Fig. 1c. In
this case, solar radiation is transmitted through non-packing area of PV module and nally absorbed by the blackened absorber. Further, the thermal energy associated
with PV module is transferred to absorber by convection
for further heating of absorber. Water below absorber gets
heated and moves in the upward direction. The outlet of
water at the end of absorber which is covered with PV
module (Tfo1, Fig. 1c) becomes inlet to glass-absorber combination. Such collector is referred a photovoltaic/thermal
(PV/T) water collector.
The outlet of photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) water collector (Tfo2) is further connected to the inlet of conventional
at plate collector for higher operation temperature shown
in Fig. 2a. Both collectors are connected to an insulated
storage tank of 200 l capacity. There is a provision of a
DC water pump (18 V, 60 W, 2800 rpm) connected to PV
module to circulate the water between collectors and storage tank in a forced mode. Photograph of DC water pump
is shown in Fig. 2b.
In order to measure the temperature at inlet, outlet and
inside storage tank, the calibrated copper-constantan thermocouples are used. The temperatures are measured with a
digital temperature indicator having an accuracy of 0.1 C
on hourly basis. Hourly solar radiation on at plate collectors have also been measured by using solarimeter having
an accuracy of 20 W/m2, manufactured in India by Central
Electronics Ltd. PV module was manufactured by CEL
Sahibabad, Ghaziabad (U.P.). The current and voltage
are measured by AC/DC digital clamp meter having an
accuracy of 0.1 A and 0.1 V. Photograph of complete
experimental set-up is shown in Fig. 2c.

Fig. 1b. Photograph of a PV integrated at plate collector.

Fig. 1c. Cut sectional side view of a PV integrated at plate collector.

The following parameters were measured hourly during

the experimentations:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Inlet temperature.
Outlet temperature.
Tank water temperature.
Ambient temperature.
Collector temperature.
Module temperature.
Total and diuse solar intensity on collector.
Total and diuse solar intensity on module.
Load current (IL) and load voltage (VL).
Short circuit current (Isc) and open circuit voltage
(Voc).

The experiments are carried out during FebruaryApril,

2007. The parameters have also been measured by varying
the mass ow rate of water from 0.045 kg/s, 0.06 kg/s and
0.09 kg/s during April, 2007.

S. Dubey, G.N. Tiwari / Solar Energy 82 (2008) 602612

605

Fig. 2a. Cross sectional view of a combined photovoltaic thermal (PV/T) solar water heating system.

The energy balance equations for each component of

(PV/T) solar water heating system are as follows:
(i) For solar cells of PV module (glassglass):
ac sc bc ItW dx U t c;a T c  T a hc;p T c  T p W dx
sc gc bc It  W dx

1a

From Eq. (1a), the expression for cell temperature is

Tc

as1;eff It U t c;a T a hc;p T p

U t c;a hc;p

1b

An expression for temperature dependent electrical eciency of a PV module (Schott, 1985; Evans, 1981) is given
by,
gc g0 1  0:0045T c  25
Fig. 2b. Photograph of a DC motor run by a PV module.

3. Thermal modeling

1c

(ii) For blackened absorber plate temperature below the

PV module (glassglass):
ap 1  bc s2g It hc;p T c  T p hp;f T p  T f

2a

From Eq. (2a), the expression for plate temperature is

In order to write the energy balance equation for each
component of a combined system of photovoltaic/thermal
(PV/T) solar water heater, the following assumptions have
been made:

Tp

 The heat capacity of photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) collector has been neglected in comparison with the heat
capacity of water in the storage tank.
 There is no temperature stratication in the water of the
storage tank due to forced mode of operation.
 One dimension heat conduction is good approximation
for the present study.
 The system is in quasi-steady state.
 The ohmic losses in the solar cell are negligible.

m_ f C f

as2;eff It PF 1 as1;eff It U L1 T a hp;f T f

U L1 hp;f

2b

(iii) For water owing through an absorber pipe below the

PV module (glassglass):
The energy balance of owing water through absorber pipe (Fig. 1c) is given by,
dT f
dx F 0 hp;f T p  T f W dx
dx

The solution of Eq. (3) with the help of Eqs. (1b) and (2b)
and initial conditions namely, at Tfjx=0, Tf = T1 and at
Tfjx=L, Tf = Tfo1, we get,

606

S. Dubey, G.N. Tiwari / Solar Energy 82 (2008) 602612

Fig. 2c. Photograph of a combined photovoltaic thermal (PV/T) glass to glass solar water heating system.

T fo1




PF2 asm;eff It
F 0 Am U L;m

T a 1  exp 
U L;m
m_ f C f


0
F Am U L;m
T fi1 exp 
4a
m_ f C f

Here, Tfo1 is the outlet temperature of the water from the

absorber PV module and Tfo1 becomes inlet temperature
for remaining part of collector.The rate of thermal energy
available at the end of absorber PV module (glassglass)
is evaluated as

Q_ u;c1 m_ f C f T fo2  T fo1

After substituting the expression for Tfo2 from Eq. (5a), we
get,
Q_ u;c1 Ac1 F Rc1 asc1;eff It  U L;c1 T fo1  T a

5b

Q_

Q_ u;m m_ f C f T fo1  T fi
After substituting the expression for Tfo1 from Eq. (4a), we
get,
Q_ u;m Am F Rm PF2 asm;eff It  U L;m T fi  T a

4b

(iv) The outlet water temperature at the end of rst collector (Fig. 1c):
Following Due and Beckman (1991) and Tiwari
(2002), an expression for the outlet water temperature
at the end of rst collector will be,




asc1;eff It
F 0 Ac1 U L;c1
T fo2
T a 1  exp 
U L;c1
m_ f C f


0
F Ac1 U L;c1
T fi2 exp 
5a
m_ f C f

T fo3

Here, T2 = Tfo1 can be evaluated from Eq. (4a).The rate

of thermal energy available from the rst at plate collector
can be evaluated as

Here, T fo1 T fi m_ fu;m

Cf
(v) The outlet temperature from second collector:
Similarly, an expression of outlet water temperature
at the end of second at plate collector can be written
as a function of the outlet water temperature
(T3 = Tfo2) which is inlet to second collector as




asc2;eff It
F 0 Ac2 U L;c2
T fo3
T a 1  exp 
U L;c2
m_ f C f


0
F Ac2 U L;c2
T fi3 exp 
6a
m_ f C f
Here, T3 = Tfo2 can be evaluated from Eq. (5a).The above
equations can be rearranged to get the nal outlet water
temperature at the end of collectors connected in series
(Tfo3),





asc2;eff It
F 0 Ac2 U L;c2
Ta
1  exp 
U L;c2
m_ f C f
3
2

 0

asc1;eff It
F Ac1 U L;c1

T
1

exp


a
m_ f C f
7
6 8 U L;c1


7
6 

 0
 9
F 0 Ac2 U L;c2
PF2 asm;eff It
7
6>
F Am U L;m
>
=


exp

6<

T
1

exp


7
a
m_ f C f
U L;m
F 0A U
6
m_ f C f
 0

exp  m_c1f CfL;c1 7
5
4>
F Am U L;m
>
;
: T fi1 exp  m_ C
f

6b

S. Dubey, G.N. Tiwari / Solar Energy 82 (2008) 602612

(vi) The rate of thermal energy available at the end of second collector:
An expression for the rate of thermal energy available
at the end of second collector will be as follows:
Q_ umc1c2 m_ f C f T fo3  T fi

After substituting the expression for Tfo3 from Eq. (6a), we

get,
Q_ u;c2 Ac2 F Rc2 asc2;eff It  U L;c2 T fo2  T a
Here, T fo2 T fi
(7) we get,

Q_ u;m
m_ f C f

Q_ u;c1
On
m_ f C f

solving Eqs. (4b), (5b) and

Q_ umc1c2 Am F Rm PF2 asm;eff 1  K 1

Ac1 F Rc1 asc1;eff 1  K 2
Ac2 F Rc2 asc2;eff It  Am F Rm U L;m 1  K 1
Ac1 F Rc1 U L;c1 1  K 2
Ac2 F Rc2 U L;c2 T fi1  T a
A F

U L;c1

where K 1 c1 m_Rc1
h
i f Cf
Ac2 F Rc2 U L;c2
K2
m_ f C f

Case B: The absorber is 50% covered by photovoltaic

(PV) module at the bottom of the collector. In
this case an instantaneous eciency can be
obtained by using Eqs. (4b), (5b) and (9) as
gi aseff  U L

The rate of thermal energy available at the end of second

at plate collector in terms of outlet temperature from
the rst collector (Tfo2) can be evaluated as
Q_ u;c2 m_ f C f T fo3  T fo2

Ac2 F Rc2 U L;c2

m_ f C f

Ac1 F Rc1 U L;c1 Ac2 F Rc2 U L;c2

m_ f C f 2

 and

607

where,

T fi  T a
It

h


Rc1 U Lc1
aseff Am F Rm PF2 asm;eff 1  Ac1 FmC

_ f

Ac1 F Rc1 asc1;eff =Am Ac1

Ac1 F Rc1 U Lc1

_ f
mC

10b

and

U L Am F Rm U Lm 1

Ac1 F Rc1 U c1 =Am Ac1

In this case:
The gain factor = 0.52.
T a
The loss factor = 4.48 or, gi 0:52  4:48 T fiIt
.
In this case the gain factor as well as loss factor is
increased in comparison with case A as expected. This
is in accordance with the results reported by Chow
et al. (2006).
Case C: The absorber is partially (30.56%) covered by
photovoltaic (PV) module and connected in series
with conventional collector (present model). In
this case the instantaneous eciency can be
obtained by using Eqs. (4b), (5b), (7) and (9) as
gi aseff  U L

T fi  T a
It

10c

(vii) The instantaneous thermal eciency:

An instantaneous thermal eciency of at plate collector can be obtained as
gi

Q_ u
N c  Ac  It

Case A: The absorber is fully covered by photovoltaic

(PV) glass to glass module. In this case an instantaneous eciency can be obtained by using Eqs.
(4b) and (9) respectively as
gi F Rm PF2 asm;eff  U L;m

T fi  T a

It

where,aseff Am F Rm PF 2 asm;eff 1  K 1 Ac1 F Rc1 

asc1;eff 1  K 2 Ac2 F Rc2 asc2;eff =Am Ac1 Ac2 and
U L Am F Rm U L;m 1  K 1 Ac1 F Rc1 U L;c1 1  K 2 Ac2 F Rc2
U L;c2 =Am Ac1 Ac2 K1 and K2 are dened in Eq. (8).
In this case:
The gain factor = 0.64.
The loss factor = 5.18,
T a
or, gi 0:64  5:18 T fiIt
Further, it is important to note that there is further gain
in gain and loss factor due to more glazed surface area.
Eqs. Eqs. (10ac) are similar to characteristic equation
for at plate collector known as HottleWhillerBliss
(HWB) characteristic equation.

10a

In this case:
The gain factor, FRmPF2 (as)m,e = 0.33.The loss factor,
T T
FRmUL,m = 3.3 or, gi 0:33  3:3 fiIt a .
In this case the value of gain factor is less by about 26%
in comparison with the value reported by Chow et al.
(2006) and Tiwari et al. (2006). It may be due to the fact
that;
(i) The PV module was glazed in case of design of
Chow et al. (2006) with larger value of packing
factor (0.93) and
(ii) The PV module is placed over absorber in the
case of design of Tiwari et al. (2006) for faster
heat transfer unlike the present model.

(viii) Energy balance for complete water heating system:

The rate of thermal energy available at the outlet of second collector is fed into insulated storage tank, and then
the energy balance of whole system will be,
dT w
Q_ u;mc1c2 M w C w
UAtk T w  T a
dt

11

The above equation can be solved by assuming T = Tw

due to perfectly insulating connecting pipes. Here, it is
assumed that there is no withdrawal of hot water from
the storage tank. Using Eq. (8) the tank water temperature
can be obtained by,

S. Dubey, G.N. Tiwari / Solar Energy 82 (2008) 602612

aseff It  UAeff T w  T a
dT w
UAtk T w  T a
M wCw
dt
UAeff UAtk 
M w Cw

and f t

On solving the above dierential equation the expression

for tank water temperature can be obtained as
Tw

f t
1  eat T w0 eat
a

4. Result and discussion

Eq. (6b) has been computed using MATLAB software for evaluating the outlet water temperature for three
65

12

To compare the results of the calculations with the experimental results, the correlation coecient (r) and root mean
square percent deviation (e) have been evaluated by using
the following expressions:
P
P
P
N X i Y i  X i Y i
q

r q
13
P
P 2
P
P
2
N X 2i  X i N Y 2i  Y i
s
P 2
ei
14
and e
N
h
i
where, ei X iXYi i  100.
In addition to the above equations the relations used for
dening the design parameters (Table 2) and dierent conTable 2
Design parameters of photovoltaic thermal (PV/T) collector and storage
tank
Parameters

Values

AC1
AC2
Am
Cf
D
F0
FRc1
FRc2
FRm
h
hc,p
hp,f
PF1
PF2
K
m_
Mw
UL
UL1
ULC1
ULC2
ULm
Ut c,a
(UA)tk
V
W
ac
sc
bc
gc
ap
sg

2.16 m2
1.5 m2
0.66 m2
4190 J/kg K
0.0125 m
0.968
0.95
0.94
0.96
1000 W/m2
5.7 W/m2
100 W/m2
0.375
0.965
204 W/m K
0.06 kg/s
200 kg
6 W/m2
3.56 W/m2 K
6 W/m2
6 W/m2
3.44 W/m2 K
9.5 W/m2 K
4.38 W/K
1 m/s
0.125 m
0.9
0.95
0.83
0.12
0.8
0.95

Outlet Temperature, o C

where, a

60
55
50
45
40

e = 0.843
r = 0.9996

Theoretical

35
30
10:00

Experimental
11:00

12:00

13:00

14:00

15:00

16:00

Time (Hour)
Fig. 3a. Hourly variation of outlet temperature in the month of February
2007.

90
Outlet Temperature, o C

dT w
aT w f t
dt
aseff ItUAeff UAtk T a
.
M w Cw

or,

guration of PV/T collectors connected in series are given

in Appendices I and II, respectively.

80
70
60

e = 1.37
r = 0.9997

50
Theoretical

40

Experimental
30
10:00

11:00

12:00

13:00

14:00

15:00

16:00

Time (Hour)
Fig. 3b. Hourly variation of outlet temperature in the month of March
2007.

Outlet Temperature, o C

608

75
70
65
60
55
50
e = 0.948
45
r = 0.9996
Theoretical
40
Experimental
35
30
9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00
Time (Hour)

Fig. 3c. Hourly variation of outlet temperature in the month of April

2007.

0.6

Instanteneous Efficiency,

e = 22.35
r = 0.993

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Theoretical

0.1

Experimental
0
0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

0.7
0.6

e = 21.48
r = 0.986

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Theoretical

0.1

Experimental

0
0

0.14

609

0.02

0.04

0.06

Instanteneous Efficiency,

Fig. 4a. Hourly variation of instantaneous eciency v/s (T  Ta)/I(t) in

the month of February 2007.

0.6
0.5

e = 16.81
r = 0.972

0.4
0.3
0.2
Theoretical
Experimental

0
0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

(Tfi -Ta)/I(t)
Fig. 4b. ourly variation of instantaneous eciency v/s (T  Ta)/I(t) in
the month of March 2007.

typical days during the month of February to April, 2007

for a given design and climatic parameters. The hourly
variations of theoretical and experimental results are
shown in Figs. 3ac. The correlation coecient (r) and root
mean square percent deviation (e) are evaluated using Eqs.

0.12

0.14

Fig. 4c. Hourly variation of instantaneous eciency v/s (T  Ta)/I(t) in

the month of April 2007.

(13) and (14), respectively are shown in the same gures. It

is observed that there is a good agreement between theoretical values and experimental values of experimental set up.
Similarly, Eq. (10c) has been computed for evaluating
the instantaneous eciency during the month of February
to April, 2007. Theoretical and experimental variations of
T a
are shown in Figs. 4ac.
instantaneous eciency v/s T fiIt
The gain and loss factor obtained for present design
(30.56% covered with PV module) of system are 0.64 and
5.18, respectively. It is important to mention that the gain
factor and loss factor is higher than the case A (100% covered with PV module) and case B (50% covered with PV
module).
Hourly variation of cell temperature and cell eciency is
shown in Fig. 4d. Figure shows that the increase in cell
temperature decreases the cell eciency and it becomes
almost constant at constant cell temperature and at the
end of the day it will again increase due to decrease in cell
temperature as concluded by Schott (1985) and Evans,
1981.
Hourly variation in outlet water temperatures by
varying the mass ow rate of water from 0.045 kg/s,
0.060 kg/s and 0.09 kg/s is shown in Fig. 5.

Cell Temperature

Cell Efficiency

Cell efficiency

0.1

(Tfi -Ta)/I(t)

(Tfi -Ta)/I(t)

0.1

0.08

0.12

60

0.115

50
40

0.11

30
0.105

20

0.1
0.095
10:00

10

11:00

12:00

13:00

14:00

15:00

Cell temperature, o C

Instanteneous Efficiency,

S. Dubey, G.N. Tiwari / Solar Energy 82 (2008) 602612

0
16:00

Time (Hour)
Fig. 4d. Hourly variation of cell eciency and cell temperature in the month of February 2007.

610

S. Dubey, G.N. Tiwari / Solar Energy 82 (2008) 602612

Tank Water Temperature, o C

Outlet Temperature, o C

60
55
50
45
40

m=0.045kg/sec

35

m=0.06kg/sec
m=0.09kg/sec

30
9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10:00

e = 13.45
r = 0.941

Theoretical
Experimental
14:00

Time (Hour)

Tank Water Temperature, o C

Tank Water Temperature, o C

e = 10.06
r = 0.953

60
50
40
30

0
10:00

Theoretical
Experimental
14:00

18:00

22:00

2:00

6:00

Fig. 6b. Hourly variation of tank water temperature in the month of

March 2007.

70

10

22:00

Time (Hour)

Fig. 5. Hourly variation of outlet temperature by varying the mass ow

rate of water (0.045, 0.06 and 0.09 kg/s) in the month of April 2007.

20

18:00

2:00

6:00

70
60
50
40

e = 12.72
r = 0.850

30
20

Theoretical

10

Experimental

0
9:00

13:00

Time (Hour)

17:00

21:00

1:00

5:00

Time (Hour)

Fig. 6a. Hourly variation of tank water temperature in the month of

February 2007.

Fig. 6c. Hourly variation of tank water temperature in the month of April
2007.

Eq. (12) was used for evaluating the storage tank water
temperature for a given design and climatic parameters and
the results are shown in Figs. 6a-c. The correlation coecient and root mean square percent deviation between

experimental and theoretical results have also been shown

in the same gures.
Fig. 7 shows the power generated by PV module and
power consumed by water pump during the sunshine hour.

PV Module

Water Pump

Power generated by PV
module, Watt

18.7
75

18.3
17.9

65

Net power
saving

55

17.5
17.1
16.7

45

16.3

35
25
9:00

15.9
10:00

11:00

12:00

13:00

14:00

15:00

Power consumed by water

pump, Watt

85

15.5
16:00

Time (Hour)
Fig. 7. Hourly variation of power generated by PV module and power consumed by water pump.

S. Dubey, G.N. Tiwari / Solar Energy 82 (2008) 602612

5. Conclusions
In this paper, the thermal model of photovoltaic thermal
(PV/T) solar water heating system shows good agreement
with the experimental results. The results also indicate that
there is a signicant increase in the instantaneous eciency
from 33% to 64% from case A to case C due to increase in
glazing area. The combined system of photovoltaic thermal
(PV/T) solar water heater presented in this study is a self
sustainable system. This system can be installed at remote
areas for fulllment of hot water requirements and the electrical energy saved by this system can be utilized for other
purposes.
Appendix I
Following Due and Beckman (1991) and Tiwari
(2002), the at plate collector eciency is given by
F 0 W U L
PDh

where, F

tanhmW D=2
mW D=2

and m

q
UL
Kd

Now, the ow rate factor (FR) given by




_ f
Ac U L F 0
mC
1  exp 
FR
_ f
Ac U L F 0
mC
In modeling equations, we use the following relations for
dening the design parameters, which is shown in Table 2.
asm;eff PF1 as1;eff as2;eff
Here, as1;eff ac  gc bc sc and as2;eff ap 1  bc s2g
and the penalty factors due to glass cover of PV module
(PF1) and absorber below PV module (PF2) are dened
h
h
as PF1 U t c;ac;phc;p and PF2 U L1 p;f
hp;f
U t c;a 5:7 3:8V ; U L1
U Lm

(I) Both collectors are fully covered by glass, Due and

Beckman (1991).



A  F R  U Lc
aseff A  F R asc;eff 1 
_ f
mC
i
A  F R asc;eff =2  A 0:644; and
15



A  F R U Lc
U L A  F R U Lc 1 
_ f
mC
A  F R U Lc =2  A 5:09:
(II) Both collectors are fully covered by PV.



A  F R  U Lm
aseff A  F R  PF2 asm;eff 1 
_ f
mC
i
A  F R  PF2 asm;eff =2  A 0:301; and



A  F R U Lm
U L A  F R U Lm 1 
_ f
mC
A  F R U Lm =2:A 2:84:

DWWDF

U t c;a  hc;p
;
U t c;a hc;p

U L1  hp;f
U L1 hp;f

hc;p 5:7 3:8 V; V 0 m=s

The values of h, hp,f, ac, sc, bc, gc, ab and sg are taken from
Due and Beckman (1991), Tiwari (2002) and Tiwari and
Sodha (2006b).

611

16

17

18

(III) Both collectors are partially covered by PV, depends

upon the requirement of hot water or electricity
generations.



A  F R  U L
aseff A  F R aseff 1 
_ f
mC

A  F R aseff =2  A 0:472 considering 50

 50%PV  glass combination; and



A  F R  U L
U L A  F R U L 1 
_ f
mC

19

A  F R U L =2  A 4:02 considering 50

 50%PV  glass combination:

20




 h
Rc U Lc
where, A  F R aseff Am F Rm PF2 asm;eff 1  Ac FmC

_ f
h


Rc U Lc
Ac F Rc asc;eff  and A  F R U L Am F Rm U Lm 1  Ac FmC

_ f
Ac F Rc U Lc .
Here, we have seen that the gain factor is higher when collectors are fully covered by glass and it decreases to half when
the collectors are fully covered by PV. Partially covered collectors by PV is depends upon the primary requirement,
either hot water or electricity generation.

References
Appendix II
An expression for instantaneous eciency (gi) for at
plate collectors are given as (Due and Beckman, 1991)


T fi  T a
gi F R aseff  U L
It
where an expression for (as)e and UL for dierent congurations of two water collectors connected in series considering A1 = A2 and FR1 = FR2 are as follows:

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