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Coastal Construction Manual
Federal Emergency Management Agency
FEMA-55/ February, 1986
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This report was prepared under contract EMW-84-C-1738 with
the Federal Insurance Administration (FIA) of the Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), with additional
support from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource
Management.
January 1986
FOREWORD
This document is the second edition of the Design and
Construction Manual for Residential Buildings in Coastal High
Hazard Areas (Coastal Construction Manual), developed by
the Federal Insurance Administration (FIA) of the Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and published in
January 1931. It provides technical guidance on how to design
and construct buildings in areas subject to coastal flooding,
such that the potential risk of damages from both flood and
wind are minimized. The technical criteria contained in this
manual can be used to comply with the performance standards
of the National Flood Insurance Program. It is intended for use
by designers, builders, developers, community building
officials, and the homeowner. Changes to the 1981 manual
include:
Design guidance for breakaway wall enclosures

Design equations and procedures and listings of the
computer programs used in the manual
Revision of the design procedures to reflect the 1982 ANSI

standards and other recent design information
A chapter on larger structures (mid-rise and high-rise

buildings)
A sample construction code for coastal areas

A new section on the maintenance of coastal buildings
Additional information on construction cost
The intent of this manual is not to encourage building in
coastal flood plains. Rather, when such building does occur, it
is to help ensure that it be designed and constructed in a
manner that minimizes the potential for flood and wind
damage.
DISCLAIMER
The statements, recommendations, and procedures
contained in this manual are those of Dames & Moore and
Bliss & Nyitray, Inc., and do not necessarily reflect the views of
the U.S. Government in general or the Federal Emergency
Management Agency in particular. Dames & Moore and Bliss
& Nyitray, Inc., warrant that their services were performed with
the usual thoroughness and competence of the consulting
engineering profession, and no other warranty, either
expressed or implied, is included or intended.
This manual was developed to provide guidance and
minimum requirements for coastal residential structures. The
user must assume responsibility for adapting and/or
supplementing the information contained herein to meet the
particular requirements of a project. It is intended that this
manual complement state and local codes and ordinances,
whose provisions should prevail in the event of conflict.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ii
FOREWORD
iii
DISCLAIMER
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
xv
LIST OF TABLES
xxi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1-1
1.1
PURPOSE AND SCOPE
1-1
1.2
NATIONAL FLOOD INSURANCE PROGRAM
1-2
1.2. 1
Emergency Program
1-3
1.2.2
Regular Program
1-3
1.2.3
Flood Plain Management
1-3
1.2.4
V Zones
1-4
1.2.5
A Zones
1-4
1.3
BUILDING CODES
CHAPTER 2: COASTAL ENVIRONMENT
1-5
2-1
2.1
NORTH ATLANTIC COAST
2-3
2.2
MIDDLE ATLANTIC COAST
2-6
2.3
SOUTH ATLANTIC COAST
2-7
2.4
GULF COAST
2-8
2.5
PACIFIC COAST
2-12
2.6
HAWAIIAN COAST
2-13
vi Coastal Construction Manual
CHAPTER 3: SITE DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS
3-1
3.1
BUILDING CODE AND ZONING REQUIREMENTS
3-1
3.2
SITE LAYOUT
3-2
3.3
LANDSCAPING
3-2
3.4
DUNE PROTECTION
3-3
3.5
BULKHEADS
3-4
3.6
USE OF EARTHFlLL
3-6
CHAPTER 4: STRUCTURE DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS

4.1
4.2
4-1
ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES
4-1
4.1.1
Wind
4-1
4.1.2
Salt Air, Moisture, and Wind-Driven Rain
4-7
4.1.3
Water, Waves, and Debris
4-8
4.1.4
Effects of Forces on Higher and Larger Structures
4-9
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
4-9
4.2.1
4-9
Wood
4.2.1.1
Piling
4-9
4.2.1.2
Main Supporting Members (Beams)
4-10
4.2.1.3
Other Wood Construction Members
4-10
4.2.1.4
Wood Preservatives
4-10
4.2.2
Masonry Materials and Concrete
4-11
4.2.3
Metals
4-11
4.2.3.1
Aluminum
4-11
4.2.3.2
Steel
4-11
4.2.3.3
Dissimilar Metals
4-11
4.3
Table of Contents vii

4-11
DESIGN DETAILS
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
Foundations
4-11
4.3.1.1
Soil Conditions
4-12
4.3.1.2
Piles
4-13
4.3.1.3
Posts
4-18
4.3.1.4
Piers
4-18
Framing
4-20
4.3.2.1
Framing Methods
4-20
4.3.2.2
Beams
4-21
4.3.2.3
Joists and Rafters
4-22
4.3.2.4
Subflooring
4-22
4.3.2.5
Studs
4-23
4.3.2.6
Wall Sheathing
4-23
4.3.2.7
Wall Bracing
4-24
4.3.2.8
Roof Details
4-24
Foundation Bracing
4-27
4.3.3.1
Knee Braces
4-29
4.3.3.2
Grade Beams
4-29
4.3.3.3
Truss Bracing
4-30
4.3.3.4
Shear Walls
4-31
Connections
4-31
4.3.4.1
Roof to Wall
4-33
4.3.4.2
Wall to Floor Joists
4-35
4.3.4.3
Floor Joist to Floor Beam
4-35
4.3.4.4
Floor Beam to Pile, Post, or Pier
4-35
viii Coastal Construction Manual
4.3.5 Breakaway Walls
4-41
4.3.5.1
Breakaway Wall Designs
4-42
4.3.5.2
Design Considerations for Breakaway Walls
4-45
4.3.6 Utilities
4-50
4.3.7 Wind and Storm Protection of Interior
4-52
4.3.7.1
Window Selection
4-52
4.3.7.2
Operable Shutters
4-53
4.3.7.3
Gable and Eave Vents
4-54
4.3.7.4
Roofing Materials
4-54
4.3.8 Maintenance
CHAPTER 5: LARGER STRUCTURES
4-54
5-1
5.1
GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
5-1
5.2
FOUNDATIONS
5-2
5.3
SLABS AT GRADE
5-3
5.4
SUPERSTRUCTURE
5-4
5.5
ELEVATED FLOORS
5-7
5.6
EXTERIOR WALL SYSTEMS
5-8
5.7
RECOMMENDATIONS
5-9
CHAPTER 6: DESIGN PROCEDURES AND EXAMPLES
6-1
6.1
EXAMPLE 1--ELEVATION ON WOOD PILINGS
6-1
6.2
EXAMPLE 2--BRACING REQUIRED
6-11
6.3
EXAMPLE 3--BREAKAWAY WALLS
6-19
Table of Contents ix
APPENDIX A: DESIGN TABLES
A-1
APPENDIX B: BRACING
B-1
B.1
KNEE BRACING
B-1
B.2
TRUSS BRACING
B-1
B.2.1
Diagonals
B-1
B.2.1.1
Lumber Diagonals
B-2
B.2.1.2
Threadbar Diagonals
B-4
B.2.2
B.3
Struts
B-5
GRADE BEAMS
B-6
APPENDIX C: DESIGN WORKSHEETS
C-1
PILE DESIGN WORKSHEET
4 pp.
CONNECTION DESIGN WORKSHEET
2 pp.
BRACING DESIGN WORKSHEET
3 pp.
APPENDIX D: DESIGN EQUATIONS AND PROCEDURES
D-1
D.1
PROCEDURE A-1: DOWNWARD LOADS PER PILE
D-2
D.2
PROCEDURE A-2: HORIZONTAL WIND LOADS PER PILE
D-3
D.3
PROCEDURE A-3: MINIMUM EMBEDMENT DEPTH OF PILES
D-4
D.3.1
Square Piles
D-4
D.3.1.1
Square Piles in Sand
D-4
D.3.1.2
Square Piles in Clay
D-6
D.3.2 Round Tapered Piles
D-7
D.3.2.1
Round Piles in Sand
D-7
D.3.2.2
Round Piles in Clay
D-8
x Coastal Construction Manual

D.4
D.5
D.6
D.7
D.8
PROCEDURE A-4: MAXIMUM UNBRACED HEIGHT OF PILES
D-9
D.4.1
Moment of Wave Forces
D-10
D.4.2
Moment of Current Drag Forces
D-11
D.4.3
Moment of Debris Impact Forces
D-12
D.4.4
Moment of Wind Forces
D-12
D.4.5
Allowable Bending Moment of Piles
D-13
D.4.6
Maximum Unbraced Pile Height
D-14
MAXIMUM UNBRACED HEIGHT FOR PILES SUPPORTING BREAKAWAY WALLS
D-15
D.5.1
Moment of Wind Forces on Superstructure
D-15
D.5.2
Moment of Breakaway Wall Forces
D-15
D.5.3
Allowable Bending Moment in Piles
D-15
D.5.4
Calculation of Maximum Unbraced Pile Height
D-16
PROCEDURE A-5: UPLIFT LOADS PER FOOT OF WALL
D-17
D.6.1
Rafter Connections
D-17
D.6.2
Connections Between Stories
D-19
D.6.3
Bottom Floor Connections (Two-story)
D-20
PROCEDURE A-6: UPLIFT LOADS PER PILE
D-21
D.7.1
Forces on Roof and Attic
D-21
D.7.2
Uplift Forces on Second Story
D-22
D.7.3
Uplift Forces on First Story
D-22
D.7.4
Uplift at Top of Piles Due to Vertical Loads
D-22
D.7.5
Uplift at Top of Piles Due to Moment
D-23
D.7.6
Total Uplift at Top of Piles
D-24
PROCEDURE B-1: HORIZONTAL WATER LOADS PER PILE
D-25
D.8.1
D-26
Wave Forces
Table of Contents xi
D.9
D.8.2
Current Drag Forces
D-27
D.8.3
Debris Impact Forces
D-28
D.8.4
Total Forces on Piles
D-29
PROCEDURE B-2: LOADS TRANSFERRED TO FOUNDATION TRUSS MEMBERS
APPENDIX E: COMPUTER PROGRAM LISTINGS
D-30
E-1
DOWNLOAD
E-2
UPNHORIZ
E-3
EMBED
E-5
UNBRACED
E-6
CUBIC
E-7
UNBR
E-8
UPLIFT
E-9
H2OLOADS
E-11
TRUSS
E-12
APPENDIX F: CONSTRUCTION COST

F.1
F-1
FOUNDATIONS
F-1
F.1.1
Wood Piles
F-1
F.1.1.1
Types of Wood Piles
F-1
F.1.1.2
Wood Pile Costs
F-2
F.1.1.3
Pile Support
F-4
F.1.2
Concrete Piles
F-4
F.1.3
Pile Capsand Grade Beams
F-4
F.1.4
Masonry and Concrete Piers
F-4
F.1.5
Pile to Floor Beam Connections
F-4
xii
F.2
F.3
F.4
STRUCTURAL BRACING
F-4
F.2.1
Joist to Floor Beam Connection
F-5
F.2.2
Stud Straps and Corner Bracing
F-5
F.2.3
Roof Truss Connections
F-5
ADDITIONAL COSTS
F-5
F.3.1
Breakaway Walls
F-6
F.3.2
Other Costs
F-6
COST COMPARISON FOR ELEVATED AND NON-ELEVATED STRUCTURES
APPENDIX G: SAMPLE COASTAL CONSTRUCTION CODE
F-6
G-1
I.
TITLE
G-1
2.
PURPOSE
G-1
3.
SCOPE
G-2
4.
DEFINITIONS
G-2
5.
ELEVATION STANDARDS
G-3
6.
DETERMINATION OF LOADING FORCES
G-3
6.1
WATER LOADS
G-3
6.2
WIND LOADS
G-3
7.
FOUNDATION STANDARDS
G-4
7.1
PILE FOUNDATION DESIGN
G-4
7.1.1
Pile Spacing
G-4
7.1.2
Pile Embedment
G-4
7.1.3
Column Action
G-4
7.1.4
Pile Standards
G-4
7.1.5
Pile Installation
G-5
Table of Contents xiii

7.1.6
7.2
8.
Bracing
COLUMN FOUNDATION DESIGN
G-5
G-5
ANCHORING STANDARDS
G-5
8.1
CONNECTORS AND FASTENERS
G-5
8.2
BEAM TO PILE CONNECTIONS
G-5
8.3
FLOOR AND DECK CONNECTIONS
G-6
8.4
EXTERIOR WALL CONNECTIONS
G-6
8.5
CEILING JOIST/RAFTER CONNECTIONS
G-6
8.6
PROJECTING MEMBERS
G-6
9.
ROOF SHEATHING
G-6
10.
PROTECTION OF OPENINGS
G-7
11.
USE OF SPACE BELOW THE LOWEST ELEVATED FLOOR
G-7
11.1
BREAKAWAY WALL DESIGN STANDARDS
G-7
11.2
CERTIFICATION OF BREAKAWAY WALLS
G-7
12.
UTILITIES
G-8
13.
CERTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS
G-8
14.
REFERENCE DOCUMENTS
G-8
APPENDIX H: INDIVIDUALS CONTACTED DURING STUDY

APPENDIX I: BIBLIOGRAPHY (References)
H-1
I-1
LIST OF FIGURES
xv
Figure 1-1
Home damaged by winds during Hurricane Elena
1-2
Figure 2-1
Hurricane experience of eastern United States, 1886-1970
2-4
Figure 2-2
The United States coastline
2-5
Figure 2-3
Representative beach profiles
2-7
Figure 2-4
Undermining of shallow supported foundations by beach erosion
Figure 2-5
Contrasting minor and major damage to two
2-10
adjacent houses during Hurricane Frederic
2-11
Figure 2-6
U-shaped structure damaged by Hurricane Frederic
2-11
Figure 2-7
Simple bulkhead
2-13
Figure 2-8
Typical bulkhead in Hawaii
2-14
Figure 2-9
Soil erosion potential
2-14
Figure 3-1
Typical dune reconstruction
3-3
Figure 3-2
Walkway structure and fencing protect the dune
3-3
Figure 3-3
Example of use of building setback requirements

to locate structures behind the primary dune
3-4
Figure 3-4
Zoning restrictions on coastal development
3-4
Figure 3-5
Erosion damage to individual bulkhead
3-5
Figure 3-6
Rock riprap used as a bulkhead
3-5
Figure 3-7
Concrete seawall with recurved face
3-6
Figure 4-1
Basic wind speed in miles per hour, 50-year recurrence interval
4-2
Figure 4-2
Wind overturning forces
4-3
Figure 4-3
Wind sliding and bending forces
4-4
Figure 4-4
Wind pressure on roof and eaves
4-4
Figure 4-5
Wind pressure on roof when wall opening occurs
4-5
xvi
Figure 4-6
Wind pressure on walls when wall opening occurs
4-5
Figure 4-7
Damage from internal pressure
4-6
Figure 4-8
Wind pressure on corner overhangs
4-6
Figure 4-9
Removal of house from foundation piles by wind forces
4-7
Figure 4-10
Waterborne debris deposited against foundation piling
4-8
Figure 4-11
Nearly intact settling of a house when piles lost capacity
4-12
Figure 4-12
Elevating with wood piles
4-13
Figure 4-13
Effect of scour plus wind and water forces on piles
4-14
Figure 4-14
Effect of storm forces on foundation system with

inadequate pile embedment
4-15
Figure 4-15
Pile embedment
4-15
Figure 4-16
Pile embedment using a drop hammer
4-16
Figure 4-17
Square piles set in preaugered holes
4-17
Figure 4-18
Sketch of foundation for house near Malibu Beach, California
4-18
Figure 4-19
Sketch of concrete masonry unit pier
4-19
Figure 4-20
Concrete masonry unit piers supporting reinforced

concrete framing platform
Figure 4-21
4-19
Floor beams bolted to wood piles with metal

straps tying floor joists to floor beams
4-20
Figure 4-22
Pole construction details
4-20
Figure 4-23
Typical pile, floor beam, floor joist arrangement,

showing bolted beam/pile connection and hurricane
clip connections to floor joists
4-21
List of Figures xvii

Figure 4-24
Laminated beam connected to round timber pile

using 1/2-inch steel plate, hot-dipped galvanized after fabrication
4-22
Figure 4-25
Wooden I-beam
4-23
Figure 4-26
Wall sheathing tie from roof to foundation
4-24
Figure 4-27
Corner wood bracing
4-25
Figure 4-28
Gable/overhang failure
4-25
Figure 4-29
Porch overhang damaged by wind uplift
4-26
Figure 4-30
Performance of braced piles at left vs. unbraced piles at right
4-26
Figure 4-31
Performance of braced piles in foreground vs. unbraced piles in background
4-27
Figure 4-32
Effects of Hurricane Frederic's wind and water forces on unbraced pile system
4-27
Figure 4-33
Knee braces
4-28
Figure 4-34
Wood grade beam in both directions
4-28
Figure 4-35
Slab undermined by storm scour
4-29
Figure 4-36
Perimeter grade beam provided additional stability
4-29
Figure 4-37
Slab on grade with thickened edge perimeter grade beam
4-30
Figure 4-38
Double level truss bracing system
4-30
Figure 4-39
Single level truss bracing system
4-31
Figure 4-40
Floor joists insufficiently attached to floor beams by end nailing alone
4-32
Figure 4-41
Metal strap roof anchor
4-33
Figure 4-42
Metal plate roof anchor
4-34
Figure 4-43
Metal hurricane clips
4-36
Figure 4-44
Wood joist anchors
4-36
xviii Coastal Construction Manual
Figure 4-45
Wood joist anchor installation
4-37
Figure 4-46
Double notched spaced beam to pile connection
4-37
Figure 4-47
Connection for built-up beam
4-37
Figure 4-48
Connection at single-notched pile
4-37
Figure 4-49
Spiked grid connection
4-38
Figure 4-50
Mortised gusset connection
4-38
Figure 4-51
Notched pile with gusset
4-38
Figure 4-52
Steel plate insert
4-38
Figure 4-53
Over notched wood pile
4-39
Figure 4-54
Failure of pile connections at floor beam and at knee brace
4-39
Figure 4-55
Steel reinforcing bar inadequate to attach floor beam to this pile
4-39
Figure 4-56
Masonry pier--strap anchor connection
4-40
Figure 4-57
Masonry pier--bolt through beam connection
4-40
Figure 4-58
Masonry pier--beam seat connection
4-40
Figure 4-59
Concrete masonry unit piers connected by galvanized clips to floor beams
4-40
Figure 4-60
Lattice enclosure under elevated structure
4-42
Figure 4-61
Storm damage during Hurricane Alicia
4-42
Figure 4-62
Lattice wall
4-43
Figure 4-63
Wood stud breakaway wall
4-44
Figure 4-64
Light-gauge metal stud breakaway wall
4-45
Figure 4-65
Masonry breakaway wall
4-46
Figure 4-66 a&b Effect of enclosure walls on waves
4-47
Figure 4-67
4-49
Pile spacing effect on distribution of wall loads
List of Figures xix

Figure 4-68
Bracing considerations
4-50
Figure 4-69
Heating/cooling unit elevated to above the BFE
4-52
Figure 4-70
Shutters for window protection
4-53
Figure 4-71
Plywood sheets used for window protection
4-53
Figure 4-72
Loss of roofing in Hurricane Elena
4-55
Figure 4-73
Corrosion of cast iron sewer trap in coastal environment
4-55
Figure 5-1
Typical pile/pile cap/column/grade beam connection
5-2
Figure 5-2
Pile to pile cap connection for high-rise foundations
5-3
Figure 5-3
Skeleton framed building under construction
5-3
Figure 5-4
Typical plan of high-rise building
5-3
Figure 5-5
Typical high-rise shear wall
5-4
Figure 5-6
Shear wall reinforcement
5-5
Figure 5-7
Typical high-rise floor slab section
5-5
Figure 5-8
Typical plan of low- to mid-rise structure
5-6
Figure 5-9
Typical section through low- to mid-rise bearing wall building
5-6
Figure 5-10
Mid-rise residential structure with bearing walls
5-7
Figure 5-11
High-rise structure with poured concrete bearing walls under construction
5-7
Figure 5-12
Two-way floor slab in skeleton framed building
5-8
Figure 5-13
Elevated first floor on high-rise structure, partially enclosed by lattice
5-8
Figure 5-14
Coastal construction with setback requirements
5-9
Figure 6-1
Site plan
6-1
xx
Figure 6-2
View from beach
6-2
Figure 6-3
Main level plan
6-2
Figure 6-4
Framing plan
6-3
Figure 6-5
Ground level plan
6-4
Figure 6-6
Example I, pile design worksheet
6-5
Figure 6-7
Example I, connection design worksheet
6-9
Figure 6-8
Example 2, pile design worksheet
6-12
Figure 6-9
Example 2, bracing design worksheet
6-16
Figure 6-10
Example 3, pile design worksheet
6-20
Figure A-1
Number of piles required
Figure A-2
Concrete pier cross section
A-45
Figure A-3
Grade beams and slabs
A-45
Figure B-1
Truss normal to beach
B-2
Figure B-2
Exterior diagonal to pile connection
B-3
Figure B-3
Interior diagonal to pile connection
B-4
Figure B-4
DYWIDAG threadbar diagonal connections
B-5
Figure D-1
Water depth relationships
D-10
Figure D-2
Resisting force--roof connections
D-18
Figure D-3
Resisting force--story connections
D-19
A-1
LIST OF TABLES
xxi
Table 2-1
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale
2-2
Table A-1
Downward Loads per Pile
A-4
Table A-2
Horizontal Wind Loads per Pile
A-5
Table A-3
Minimum Embedment Depth of Piles
A-11
Table A-4
Maximum Unbraced Height of Piles
A-13
Table A-4.1
Maximum Unbraced Height of Piles Supporting Breakaway Walls
A-20
Table A-5
Uplift Loads per Foot of Wall
A-21
Table A-6
Uplift Loads per Pile
A-35
Table A-7
Capacity per Bolt of Floor Beam Connections
A-42
Table A-8
Concrete Masonry Unit Piers
A-43
Table A-9
Concrete Piers
A-44
Table A-10
Fastener Capacities in Shear
A-46
Table A-11
Fastener Schedule for Breakaway Walls
A-47
Table B-1
Horizontal Water Loads per Pile
Table B-2
Loads on Transverse Truss Members
B-14
Table B-3
Allowable Loads for Single 2-by-8 Diagonals
B-15
Table B-4
Allowable Loads for Single 3-by-8 Diagonals
B-15
Table B-5
Allowable Strut Loads
B-15
Table F-1
Pile Costs
F-2
Table F-2
Costs for Components of Pile Foundations
F-3
Table F-3
Costs for Piers and Shear Wall Foundations
F-5
Table F-4
Costs for Other Components of Elevated Construction
F-6
Table F-5
Breakaway Wall Costs
F-7
Table F-6
Elevation Costs for 28-by-32-foot House
F-8
B-7
Introduction 1-1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
PURPOSE AND SCOPE
This manual provides guidance for the design and

construction of coastal residential structures able to resist
damage from flood, wind, and erosion hazards. Included
herein are discussions of new residential structures--principally
detached single-family, attached single-family (townhouse),
and low-rise (three-story or less) multifamily houses.
Nonresidential structures of similar sizes, loads, and
construction can also be considered by interpreting the data
and procedures found in this manual, as can retrofitting of
existing structures.
This introductory chapter is followed by a general
description in Chapter 2 of the coastal regions of the United
States, weather conditions, some current construction
practices,
and
generalized
shoreline
construction
considerations. Chapter 3 presents general information and
recommendations on site design. Chapter 4 constitutes a
major portion of the manual; it describes forces to be resisted,
materials used, and many design and construction details. A
discussion of application of these coastal construction
concepts to larger structures is provided in Chapter 5. Design
procedures and worked design examples are presented in
Chapter 6 to demonstrate the use of the design tables in the
appendices. The appendices present the design data tables,
bracing details, detailed design equations and procedures,
computer program listings, construction cost information, a
sample coastal construction ode, references, individuals
contacted in researching this manual, and other pertinent
information.
This manual will be of assistance primarily to persons in

construction of modest (one- and two-story) residential
structures (and similar-sized nonresidential structures) in
coastal areas of the United States. Individual home owners,
building contractors, and architects or engineers can all apply
the information presented in this design manual. Using the
data included herein, a design professional may extrapolate for
residential (or nonresidential) structures slightly larger than the
one- and two-story houses considered in the design equations,
charts, and tables and described in the example solutions.
The construction details, design procedures, and charts
in this manual are based upon a comprehensive evaluation of
many existing beach houses, current construction practices
along U.S. coastlines, and various building codes applicable to
coastal construction. Practical designs of modest cost and
construction details are presented to provide for storm-resistant
residential structures.
Examination of both damaged homes (Figure 1-1) and
storm-resistant structures along the Atlantic and gulf coasts has
demonstrated the desirability of some of the construction
details included herein. On the Atlantic coast, public officials,
architects, engineers, and builders from Massachusetts to the
Florida Keys were interviewed. They contributed ideas,
comments, and recommendations on construction in coastal
high hazard areas. Similar information was gathered from
Florida to Texas along the gulf coast, California for the Pacific
coast. This manual presents a composite of recommended
and required construction details for the entire U.S. coastline.
Much information was obtained by evaluating the
damage in Alabama caused by
Hurricane Frederic in
September 1979; Hurricane Alicia, which hit the Texas gulf
coast in August 1983; Hurricane Elena, which hit the gulf coast
in Florida to eastern Texas in September 1985; and
1-2 Coastal Construction Manual

to 12 feet above grade, a more substantial bracing system is
necessary. A system of trusses built between the elevating
piles or poles is recommended to resist lateral forces from wind
and waves.
1.2
Figure 1-1. Home damaged by winds during Hurricane Elena.
Hurricane Gloria, which in late September 1985 affected the

entire east coast before coming ashore on Long Island.
Firsthand investigations of the aftermaths of these storms,
together with other accounts of storm effects, investigations of
current practice, and personal site visits contributed to the
material contained in the manual.
Only modest variations in construction practice were
found from one geographic location to another. However, for
areas subject to higher winds and waves, special attention to
erosion and scour is necessary to ensure sufficient lateral
support to the foundations. Construction details such as grade
beams have been "borrowed" from certain geographic areas to
handle this problem.
Similarly, foundation bracing is
suggested for use in many coastal areas where additional
strength is required due to high wind and wave forces. When
structures are elevated more
NATIONAL FLOOD INSURANCE PROGRAM
Initiated by Congress in 1968, broadened and

strengthened by amendments in 1969, 1971, and 1973, the
National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) is designed to fulfill
one essential purpose: flood hazard mitigation through the
amount of property exposed to damage from flooding. The
program is administered by the Federal Insurance
Administration (FIA) of the Federal Emergency Management
Agency (FEMA), and its scope includes all communities
identified by FIA as containing flood hazard areas. To date
more than 17,500 communities have been so identified, of the
approximately 22,000 estimated to contain such areas.
The NFIP is based on the dual principles of making flood
insurance available to property owners in flood-prone areas,
and of requiring sound flood plain management in flood-prone
communities. As long as the community elects to participate in
the program, the program offers flood insurance protection for
buildings and their contents located in the community.
In return for making flood insurance available, the NFIP
requires affected communities to prudently regulate new
construction and development in special flood hazard areas.
These areas include all land inundated by the flood that has a
1 percent chance of being equalled or exceeded in any given
year. This event is known as the "base flood" or "100 year
flood" and is used by virtually every Federal agency in the
administration of programs related to flood plains. In addition,
this same standard is required, either by
Introduction 1-3
law or regulation, in many states and is used administratively in
the operations of virtually every state's programs dealing with
the use of flood plains.
1.2.1 Emergency Program
The NFIP is administered in two phases: the Emergency
Program and the Regular Program.
The function of the Emergency Program is to make flood
insurance readily available to property owners throughout
flood-prone communities. The operation of the program is
simple and direct. FEMA notifies a community that it has been
identified as flood prone by providing the community with a
Flood Hazard Boundary Map (FHBM). Prepared from the best
available data, this map is a preliminary delineation of special
flood hazard areas within the community.
A community
receiving such a map may participate in the program by
completing an application to FEMA. Upon approval of the
application, limited amounts of Federally subsidized insurance
become available in that community.
The limits of coverage for the initial or first-layer
insurance protection available under the Emergency Program
are $35,000 for single-family structures and $100,000 for all
other residential and nonresidential structures. Coverage for
the contents of structures may also be purchased. Up to
$10,000 per unit may be purchased for residential structures
and up to $100,000 per unit may be purchased for
nonresidential structures.
1.2.2 Regular Program
Once a community has qualified for the Emergency Phase of
the NFIP and insurance protection is available, an
extensive technical Flood Insurance Study of the flood hazards

in the community is conducted by an engineering contractor
for FEMA. This detailed study includes development of a
Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM) and is conducted at no cost
to the community. The flood elevations derived from this study
and the resulting FIRM are the basis on which the insurance
rates for the community are established and specific flood plain
management regulations formulated. Once a community
adopts the appropriate flood plain management regulations,
the community enters the Regular Program and additional
flood insurance coverage becomes available, but at actuarial
rates. These rates, based on the severity of the flood hazard,
are charged for additional or second-layer coverage for
existing structures and for all coverage for new structures. New
construction is that which is started after the effective date of
the FIRM or December 31,1974, whichever is later.
1.2.3 Plain Management
The specific flood plain management regulations that
must be adopted depend to some degree upon the data
developed in the detailed insurance study and provided to the
community by FEMA. Therefore, these regulations may be
adopted incrementally by the community as the necessary data
become available. For example, throughout the Emergency
Program the community is required to apply minimal flood plain
management regulations based on the FHBM and is required
to use reasonably any additional data that may be available
from other sources to establish the flood elevations.
However, after the Base Flood Elevations (BFE's) and
FIRM are available from FEMA, the community must adopt
regulations that will protect any new construction from
inundation during the 100 year flood.

FIRM's prepared for coastal communities depict the 100
year coastal flood plain and the elevations of the 100 year
flood. On this type of FIRM, the 100 year coastal flood plain is
divided into two adjacent zones that define the different
degrees of hazard present, and thus require different flood
plain management techniques to satisfy the damage reduction
requirements of the NFIP. The V zone (velocity zone) is that
portion of the coastal 100 year flood plain that would be
inundated by tidal surges with velocity wave action. Generally,
the V zone indicates the inland extent of a 3-foot breaking
wave, where the stillwater depth during the 100 year flood
decreases to less than 4 feet.
screening intended to collapse under wind and water loads

without damaging the elevated portion of the building or the
foundation.
The A zone is that portion of the 100 year flood plain not
subject to wave action. However, the residual forward
momentum of the breaking wave may be present in this zone.
Additional NFIP standards for V zones require that fill not

be used for the structural support of new or substantially
improved structures, and that sand dunes and mangrove
stands may not be altered so as to increase the potential for
flood damage.
FIRM's published for coastal communities include BFEs

that incorporate wave heights or wave runup associated with
the 100 year flood. Due to differing shoreline conditions,
FIRM's for east coast and gulf coast communities include wave
heights in BFE's, while FIRM's for west coast communities
include wave runup. Use of this manual is unaffected by which
wave characteristic was used for the applicable FIRM, and the
term wave height is generically used.
1.2.4 V Zones
The minimum requirements for construction in V zones
differ significantly from the minimum requirements for
construction in coastal A zones.
In V zones, all new
construction and substantial
improvements to existing
structures must be elevated on adequately anchored pilings or
columns so that the bottom of the lowest horizontal structural
members of the lowest floor (excluding the pilings and
columns) is at or above the BFE. A registered professional
engineer or architect must certify that the structure is securely
fastened to adequately anchored pilings or columns to
withstand velocity waters and hurricane wave wash forces. In
addition, the space below the lowest floor may be used solely
for parking of vehicles, building access, or storage and must
be free of obstructions, or may be enclosed with nonsupporting
breakaway walls, open wood lattice work, or insect
1.2.5 A Zones
In coastal A zones, the FIRM identifies the appropriate
100 year flood elevation. The A zone is that portion of the 100
year coastal flood plain subject to wave action of lesser
severity. It is important to note that because of momentum of
breaking waves, water may be moving at high velocities in this
zone, especially in the vicinity of the V zone/A zone interface.
At a minimum, new construction or substantial improvements of residential structures in coastal A zones must be
elevated so that the lowest floor (including basements) is at or
above the BFE. This elevation may be accomplished through
use of fill, raised foundations, or piles or columns.
Introduction 1-5
1.3
BUILDING CODES
FEMA's NFIP regulations and building code

requirements are essentially parallel efforts, both with the
purpose of providing well constructed and safe housing.
Because of its more specialized interests, FEMA has initiated
actions relating to construction improvements in flood prone
areas, and is continuing to work with code groups and other
interested parties. These actions include efforts to ensure
compatibility between NFIP regulations and guidelines and
code provisions (e.g., BOCA, Standard, and Uniform Codes),
and updating of publications such as this Coastal Construction
Manual and the Elevated Residential Structures manual.
Historically,
building
codes
were
developed
independently by communities to meet their specific needs.
Although many communities, and some states, continue to
have their own codes, most have now chosen to adopt (with
amendments) one of the three model building codes (Standard
(Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc., 1982);
BOCA (Building Officials and
Code
Administrators
International, Inc., 1984); and Uniform (International Congress
of Building Officials, 1984)). Each of these model codes has
language and provisions suitable to large regions of the
country--the Standard Code being in common use in the
South, the BOCA Code in the Midwest and East, and the
Uniform Code in the West. The model codes have been
extensively revised over the years to reflect new construction
materials and techniques, changing government regulations,
and increasing awareness in such areas as seismic-resistant
design and energy conservation.
Coastal construction codes have been adopted at the

state and local levels. Other states, in recognizing the needs of
coastal communities and counties for guidance in this area,
have made available coastal code language for adoption by
local jurisdictions. Appendix G to this manual provides a
sample coastal construction code that may be adopted, with
modifications as appropriate, by jurisdictions for whom state or
other regional guidance has yet to be provided.
Coastal Environment 2-1
Chapter 2
COASTAL ENVIRONMENT
Coastal design and construction are affected by a
number of natural and man-influenced factors. These include
the physiography, weather, development patterns, and
construction practices for a given coastal regime. This chapter
provides a general overview of these factors and their
relationship to or influence on residential construction in
coastal high hazard areas.
Coastal considerations in dwelling development mainly
involve the dynamic beach response to wave energy and water
levels. Long-term beach processes are beyond the scope of
this manual, but they form an important design checkpoint.
Many of our shorelines are moving or naturally eroding, and
man's actions to resist or alter these processes must be
undertaken with recognition of both the complexity of the
interrelationships and the tremendous energies involved.
Erosion of the shore can occur when material supply is
reduced and the dynamic beach profile is disrupted. Such
erosion is frequently caused when the area between the
source of littoral sand and the site under study is disrupted.
Such alterations include:
Damming of waterways that previously carried stream

erosion material to the shoreline.
Building of offshore structures such as breakwaters,

jetties, and groins.
Dredging of offshore channels.

Long-term, gradual shoreline loss and short-term, storminduced scour and erosion are both significant factors to be
considered when selecting and building on a coastal site.
Long-term erosion rates of 1 to 2 feet per
year are common along sandy shorelines, and even greater

rates are experienced in areas such as tidal inlets. These longterm effects have a variety of causes, including the present
gradual raising of ocean levels due to climatic warming, and
dynamic beach processes such as alongshore transport of
sand and the accumulation of sand in tidal inlets, capes, jetties,
and various other natural and manmade shoreline features
(Rogers, 1982). There is concern that the rising sea level is
developing from long-range global climatic changes, that it is
permanent, not cyclic, and due (or at least related) to what is
known as the greenhouse effect.
Long-term planning may
need to consider permanent sea level rise. The sediment
budget and coastal processes in an area should be analyzed
to establish historical shoreline behavior patterns and
determine housing setback distances.
Short-term erosion and scour at a site can be dramatic
over the course of a single storm or storm season. Once
exposed by erosion, bulkheads, pilings, and other manmade
structures are increasingly attacked by wave action and
several feet of scour can occur. Experience has generally
shown that it is best to locate structures well away from eroding
beaches to avoid the effects of erosion the structure's expected
lifetime. Where this is infeasible, foundations should be
designed for the anticipated erosion, rather than relying upon
erosion control structures such as seawalls, bulkheads, or rock
revetments. Erosion control structures should be built only in
areas where protection from an imminent hazard is required.
An assessment of the erosion and storm damage potential at
a site can be based on historical and other information
available through state coastal zone management agencies,
the Corps of Engineers, and state universities.
Advisory
services such as Sea Grant, the county extension office, and
the Soil Conservation Service are good sources and also have
personnel familiar with

specific local conditions. Long-term residents should not be
overlooked as sources of historical flooding and damage
information.
Many of the above-named organizations have published
information available to assist the siting and construction of
coastal structures. The most inclusive and comprehensive
source to date is the "Living With The Shore" series by Duke
University Press, which when completed will include more than
20 books covering the Atlantic, Pacific, and Great Lakes
shorelines.
Beach profile response to storm activity over a short
period should be considered. Principal design criteria include
beach profile shape, probable storm surge, and incident wave
characteristics. Flat beaches signify little storm erosion and
relatively slight storm wave action due to the energydissipation effect over the flat slope. Steep profiles are usually
associated with coarse beach sands and indicate an area
subject to more severe wave attack. Furthermore, a steeper
beach slope to backshore dunes promotes accelerated erosion
rates, particularly during periods of abnormally high tide; such
a situation warrants increased setback distances. Generally,
fine beach material and flat beaches are indicative of less
erosion and wave force, while coarse sand and steep beach
slopes indicate more forceful erosion and wave action.
However, significant erosion can be expected to occur under
hurricane conditions even on flat beach slopes.
A beach is constantly in a state of dynamic flux,
characterized by two modes of transport:
littoral drift
alongshore and onshore-offshore movement. Incident wave
energy usually breaks onshore at a slight angle to the
shoreline, which results in a net component of energy along
the coast depending on the wave direction. This combination of
breaking waves and angular attack can transport considerable
amounts of sand alongshore.
Seasonal beach profile changes from erosion and accretion

are associated with the incident wave's height, period, and
shape characteristics. Short-period plunging storm waves
erode beaches, and longer-period prevailing spilling-type
waves cause accretion of foreshore and backshore areas. The
width of the beach berm and extent and dimensions of
backshore dunes determine the amount of natural storm
protection available to coastal dwellings.
To summarize, the particular beach characteristics, the
storm and surge history, and the beach profile response to
these factors determine desirable location and design of
dwelling units and their susceptibility to water level and wave
attack. In other words, it is more effective and less costly to
design so as to work with nature rather than trying to fight it.
For the purpose of characterizing some of the severe to
storms to which the U.S. coastline is subject, the SaffirSimpson Hurricane Scale is presented in Table 2-1. This
scale is used by the National Weather Service to give public
safety officials a continuing assessment of the potential for
wind and storm-surge damage from a hurricane in progress.
TABLE 2-1
SAFFIR-SIMPSON HURRICANE SCALE
Scale No.
(Category)
Winds
(mph)
Storm-Surge
(ft)
Potential
Damage
1
2
3
4
5
74-95
96-110
111-130
131-155
>155
4-5
6-8
9-12
13-18
>18
Minimal
Moderate
Extensive
Extreme
Catastrophic
A number of studies of tropical cyclones, including

hurricanes, have been made by the National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). In one study for the
period 1886-1970 (Simpson and Lawrence, 1971), tropical
cyclones are divided into three categories. One category
includes all cyclones whose maximum (reported) sustained
winds were 40 mph (gale force) or higher; the second, includes
tropical cyclones with reported winds of 74 mph (hurricane
force) or higher; the third category "great hurricanes,"
characterizes storms with sustained winds of 125 mph or more.
Based on these data, areas with a high probability of
hurricanes (Figure 2-1) were identified, based on observed
past storm occurrences. Sectors not experiencing a "great
hurricane" during the period of study are not immune.
For discussion purposes, the coastline of the contiguous
48 states and Hawaii was divided into six regions and data
were collected on historical and current construction practices.
Information presented in this manual should be applicable to
almost all coastal areas of the United States. Each region has
unique general shoreline features, development patterns, and
its own storm history. This regionalization serves an additional
purpose of providing convenient geographic segments for
discussion. Construction and design considerations for Hawaii
are not fully included in this document, though a limited amount
of information is provided. The designated regions are listed
below and are based on the coastal classification scheme of
Terrell (1979):
North Atlantic Coast , the Maine-Canada border south

to Cape Cod.
Middle Atlantic Coast , Cape Cod south to the

Virginia-North Carolina border.
South Atlantic Coast , the Virginia-North Carolina

border south to the southern tip of Florida.
Gulf Coast , the southern tip of Florida west to Mexico.

Pacific Coast , the California-Mexico border north to
the Washington-Canada border.
Hawaiian Coast , the entire coastline of the Hawaiian

Islands.
General descriptions of these differing coastal
environments follow. Locations referenced in the text are
shown on Figure 2-2.
2.1
NORTH ATLANTIC COAST
The North Atlantic region comprises two general

segments in New England, characterized by their differences in
terrain and residential development. The natural division
between these two areas is Cape Elizabeth, Maine.
From the Maine-Canada border to Cape Elizabeth the

coastline is rocky, steep, and deeply incised with numerous
bays, estuaries, and islands. There are small areas of mudflat,
marshes, and shallow areas but generally the coast is of high
energy and experiences high tidal ranges. South of Cape
Elizabeth to Cape Cod, the shoreline grades from rocky to
sandy, especially south of Cape Ann. Beaches are generally of
high energy.
The southern portion of the North Atlantic coastline,
through Massachusetts,
is
heavily
populated
and
extensively developed. This portion of the coastline also
contains many older structures, some of which date from the
nineteenth century. Both the mainland and the barrier beaches
have been developed. Because of the desirability of the
properties involved, very small lots with minimal setbacks and
little space between residences have resulted.

Many residences have been winterized and are inhabited
year-round.
The northern portion of the area is much less developed,
consisting primarily of rugged terrain, scattered resort
residences, rural areas, and fishing villages. Where structures
are present, ocean and side yard setbacks are again minimal
and there is a tendency toward crowding. The northern portion
is much less susceptible to large seasonal influxes of
population than the southern portion.
Much of the development in both the northern and
southern portions of this region either predates construction
codes or was constructed under codes with few specific
provisions for coastal construction.
The northern New England area experiences a
moderate to severe climate, suffering from increasingly harsher
winters toward the north. Generally, north of Cape Cod,
Massachusetts, the northeaster is the most damaging event
and controls design. These are relatively slow moving storms,
with large amounts of precipitation and high winds, and are
primary cause of coastal flooding erosion. Hurricanes are not
as severe a threat as these winter storms.
Figure 2-1. Hurricane experience of eastern United States, 1886 to 1970.
In general, the Massachusetts coastal area has a

continuous fluctuation in weather elements due to its northern
latitude and the fact that it is situated in a path followed by lowpressure systems. Statistics developed by the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers in Boston indicate that over the past 50year period, three or four northeaster-type storms have
occurred during each month between November and March.
These generally cause at least some damage, such as
shingles and shutters being blown away. Hurricanes in 1938
and 1954 as well as northeasters in 1972 and 1978 severely
affected the area.
Figure 2-2. The United States coastline.

2.2
MIDDLE ATLANTIC COAST
The Middle Atlantic Region also comprises two general

segments characterized by their differences in terrain and
development; the natural division is Montauk Point. The
coastline from Cape Cod to Montauk Point, including Long
Island Sound, is fairly irregular with several large islands, bays,
and sounds. The beaches are mainly sandy and are variously
characterized by high energy areas, marshy areas, barrier
islands, and dunes.
From Montauk Point to the Virginia-North Carolina
border, the coastline contains wide, sandy, high energy
beaches. Extensive marsh areas are protected by a series of
barrier islands with dune systems. Estuaries of varying sizes,
including Chesapeake Bay and Delaware Bay, are found
throughout this portion of the coast.
Development between Cape Cod and Montauk Point is
similar to that described above for the southern portion of the
North Atlantic coastline. The coastline south of Montauk Point
is characterized by resort towns, summer residence
communities, and state and Federal park lands and refuges. In
several areas, primarily near the mouths of major bays and
rivers, harbors have been developed that have fostered
considerable growth. Such population centers include New
York City, at the mouth of the Hudson River, and the Hampton
Roads, Virginia, area at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay.
Between these population centers, the coastline has a
distinctly rural character, with summer tourism the primary
commerce. Much of the land on which resort towns have
developed consists of barrier beaches.
Although nineteenth-century structures are at the core of
most of the towns, a large amount of construction began after
World War II and continues to date. Present-day construction is
primarily high-rise apartments and subdivision developments.
Generally, lot sizes are larger
than those in New England; side yard and especially

oceanside setbacks have long been in force, resulting in much
less crowded communities than farther north.
In New Jersey and New England, the U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers and some municipalities have attempted to halt
the landward advance of the ocean with seawalls. Such
defenses have not been particularly effective.
In the
undeveloped coastal areas of Maryland and Delaware,
oceanside setbacks and the preservation of dunes have
generally prevented shoreline deterioration. In developed
areas, however, municipalities and the Corps of Engineers
have attempted to stem the littoral drift and erosion of the
beaches by constructing groins and jetties, and some
homeowners have built individual bulkheads.
The Middle Atlantic States coastline has historically
been subjected to numerous coastal storms severe enough to
inflict significant property damage. This region averages two
to three winter storms each year and an occasional hurricane.
The hurricane controls design along this reach of coastline. A
severe storm in 1962 caused damage along the Middle Atlantic
coast comparable to that inflicted by the February
1978
northeaster in Massachusetts.
The 1962 storm caused major damage to numerous
structures, resulting in revised building codes and
construction techniques. Because a major portion of the
structures in this area received some damage in 1962, newer
construction incorporates design and construction techniques
that can better resist storm damage. The performance of these
newer techniques in less severe recent storms has been
substantially better than in 1962. Performance has also been
improved in much of this area by restricting development
through setback regulations.
The Middle Atlantic States received a close call from
Hurricane Gloria in September 1985. Gloria had reached

winds of over 150 mph as it approached the United States from
the Caribbean; these winds had diminished only to 130 mph as
the storm skirted Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. The storm
remained offshore, missing the Maryland, Delaware, and New
Jersey coasts, finally coming ashore on Long Island. Hitting at
low tide with 100 mph winds, the storm damaged several
communities, including Fire Island, before passing into
Connecticut. For all its potential, Hurricane Gloria did only
modest damage, while providing valuable lessons in
emergency preparedness and evacuation planning.
2.3
undersea ridge that forms the Florida Keys, a chain of 97 lowlying islands. The average ground elevation in the Keys is
about 3 feet above sea level, and only a thin soil cover overlies
the limestone in most areas.
SOUTH ATLANTIC COAST
The South Atlantic coastline comprises three general

segments: the Outer Banks from the Virginia-North Carolina
border to Cape Fear, the coastline and Sea Islands from Cape
Fear to St. Johns River, and East Florida from St. Johns River
to the southern tip of Florida. The Outer Banks reach contains
numerous long, narrow barrier islands characterized by
relatively steep, broad quartz sand beaches as shown on
Figure 2-3. These islands protect large landward sound
complexes and front against a turbulent, high energy sea.
The Sea Islands comprise numerous, irregularly
shaped small barrier islands that contain wide, low-sloped
quartz sand beaches. In many areas, the difference in width of
beach between high and low tide often exceeds 300 feet.
Behind the islands are expansive tide marshes that are highly
dissected by coastal plain rivers and distributaries. The barrier
islands of the East Florida segment are long and narrow, and
generally front high-salinity lagoons. The beaches are lowlying and composed of calcareous sands. In the southern
portion of the Florida mainland, the continental shelf is narrow
and high-relief coral reefs dominate the nearshore area.
Limestone underlying the Florida mainland extends further
south in an
Figure 2-3. Representative beach profiles.
The South Atlantic region has a temperate climate that is

subject to the effects of coastal storms and occasional
hurricanes that produce high winds, above-normal tides, and
heavy rains. The most frequent storm types are winter cyclonic
storms travelling northeastward up the coast. These average
from eight to ten storms per year, many of which, according to
local residents, cause minor damage to residences and erode
appreciable amounts of beach.
Hurricanes, while less
frequent, are the major cause of damage to residential
structures and thus are the controlling factor in design. The
area is vulnerable to tidal flooding, but tides greater than +8
feet mean low water (mlw) are rare; the highest recorded tide
level was 11.2 feet mlw, in August of 1893.

The Outer Banks of North Carolina, the coast near the
South Carolina-Georgia border, and the east coast of Florida
are the areas within the South Atlantic region most likely to be
struck by a hurricane. National building codes present their
highest coastal design wind speeds for the Outer Banks and
southern Florida.
Along this coastline, numerous resort developments
have been created within the past 15 to 20 years in areas
where there had been little or no development. Thus, an
increasing number of residences are being constructed that
are susceptible to coastal flooding damage. Hurricane Hazel
struck the North Carolina coast in 1954, prior to the era of
large-scale coastal development. During that storm, most
buildings on the barrier islands were destroyed by waves and
storm surge. In 1984, 30 years later, Hurricane Diana made
landfall on the North Carolina coast with sustained winds of
104 mph and gusts greater than 115 mph. However, only 2 to
4 percent of the existing buildings were damaged. Most
damage was minor (porches and overhangs) and only 10
buildings were judged to be total losses. Major causes were
not waves, erosion, or storm surge, but high winds (Rogers,
1985).
engineer- or architect-designed custom homes contributes to

more carefully detailed joints and closer controls during the
construction process.
The ability of local building officials to interpret and
enforce the requirements for construction has also had an
effect on quality. Some jurisdictions have upgraded the
authority and professional status of their building officials. The
more strict building departments have been able to better
ensure better structures; loosely interpreted standards allow a
lower quality of construction.
Much of Florida's recent coastal development is highdensity construction such as hotels, high-rise apartments, and
commercial facilities (see Chapter 5). However, there are
coastal subdivisions not fully developed, some land subject to
subdivision, and isolated building lots in Florida's coastal high
hazard areas. The State of Florida and local jurisdictions have
also made substantial efforts to upgrade the quality of coastal
construction and inspection. One such effort is the adoption by
Florida of a Coastal Control Line, with the State limiting
construction seaward of the line.
2.4
Most construction techniques now in use were derived

following Hurricane Hazel in 1954 and after the accelerated
development of the coastline of North Carolina and South
Carolina. Recent state and local controls are in effect and have
improved the quality of construction throughout this area.
These improvements can be attributed to two primary factors.
First, many areas are being developed as relatively exclusive
resort communities, leading to more expensive housing and
more local controls, such as architectural review boards. The
boards contribute to the control of natural vegetation, dune
protection, height and view restrictions, public access to
beaches, and a higher general quality of construction. In
addition, the fact that these residences are usually
GULF COAST
The gulf coast is routinely a target for hurricane activity,

and the area exhibits some of the highest probabilities of
tropical storm occurrence in the country. Within this region,
there are eight segments that can be characterized by their
differences in physiography. Each exhibits varying conditions
that determine susceptibility to storm-generated erosion, wave
action, and tides.
From Key West to Cape Romano the low relief coastline
is dominated by a multitude of small mangrove islands, tidal
channels, and extensive swamps.
The continental shelf is
very broad, extending over 800 miles

offshore.
Human development is minimal due to the
predominance of the Everglades. From Cape Romano to
Tarpon Springs, a transition occurs from a mangrovedominated coastline to sandy beaches and marshy bays
characteristic of the northern Gulf of Mexico. Exposed sandy
beaches with scattered mangrove stands and rocky areas are
predominant shoreline features along a series of barrier
islands protecting marshy embayments. The continental shelf
is broad and regular.
Continuing north to Lighthouse Point, the shoreline of
the Florida Big Bend is rugged and characterized by rocky
bottoms, very wide shallow areas, and extensive seagrass
beds, oyster bars, and marshes. The region surrounding the
Apalachicola Delta to Cape San BIas has an exposed
coastline partially protected by barrier islands and smooth
sandy beaches; protected bays are turbid with muddy bottoms.
From Cape San BIas to Petit Bois Pass, Alabama, the coast
comprises high energy sand beaches and an extensive system
of dunes and barrier islands. The shoreline is relatively steep
and the dunes rise sharply.
The Mississippi Delta, extending from Petit Bois Pass
west to Vermilion Bay, is characterized by an extensive and
wide marsh and barrier island system. The marshes contain
many lakes and bayous and are crossed by numerous stream
channels. From Vermilion Boy to Galveston Bay, the coast is
identified as a strandplain-chenier complex. The shoreline is
exposed without substantial barrier islands and is
characterized by a marshy plain with a series of long, low,
narrow brushy beach ridges that lie parallel to the coastline.
The Texas barrier island system extends from Galveston Bay to
the United States-Mexico border. This low-relief section is
characterized by an extensive lagoon system bordered by
long, narrow, sandy barrier islands. On the upper portion, to
Corpus Christi, marshes are common in the bays. The bays of
the southern portion have minimal freshwater inflow;
hypersaline
conditions predominate and submerged grass beds are

common.
Development along the gulf coast is quite variable.
Many areas, because of the inhospitable terrain or shoreline
protection (refuges and parks) are relatively undeveloped.
These include much of the Texas barrier island system, the
chenier plain, the Mississippi Delta, the Florida Big Bend, and
the mangrove swamps of southwest Florida. Development in
these areas usually occurs on the mainland behind the barrier
islands (e.g., Corpus Christi, Texas) or on the landward side of
extensive marsh systems (e.g., Lake Charles, Louisiana). A
notable exception is Galveston, Texas, which is built directly on
a barrier island.
On the other hand, the central Florida coast, the
panhandle of Florida, and coastal Alabama and Mississippi are
highly developed with beach communities and resorts.
Building has occurred both on the barrier islands and on the
mainland, although the bigger cities such as St. Petersburg
and Pensacola tend to be on the mainland, while resorts are
located on the barrier islands.
A wide range of housing types is found along the gulf
coast. Older structures abound on the gulf; however, a
significant amount of recent construction has taken place that
exhibits familiarity with current construction technology,
particularly with regard to elevated structures.
Two gulf coast areas can be distinctly identified as
having high hurricane probability. These are the areas around
Galveston, Texas, and Pensacola, Florida. Other areas also
appear to be prone to hurricane activity, specifically, the area
around the Florida Keys and the area south of New Orleans
near Grand Isle, Louisiana.
The Florida Panhandle has a moderate climate that is
occasionally influenced by hurricanes. There have been

nine seriously destructive hurricanes since 1879, the worst in
September 1879 and September 1926.
The area from
PensacoIa, Florida, to Pascagoula, Mississippi, has also
experienced relatively frequent hurricane damage. Millions
of dollars of property damage in the Pensacola-Panama City,
Florida, area resulted when Hurricane Eloise passed through
the area in 1975. The heaviest damage was due to erosion
(scour) and occurred primarily to residences with slab-ongrade first floors and other nonelevated structures that
depended on shallow footings for structural stability. The
beach profile, with its steeper slope and higher dune system, is
extremely susceptible to dune toe erosion and rapid dune
retreat during a short duration storm. Figure 2-4 shows a slabon-grade house on Santa Rosa Island, Florida, that was
undermined in a storm and is a total loss. Erosion has also
undermined the short post foundations supporting the porch on
the house in the foreground.
homes sited at the water's edge were damaged by waves,

erosion, and debris as well. Considerable wind damage was
reported, from loss of roofs, roof overhangs, porches, and
windows broken by flying debris.
In September of 1979, Hurricane Frederic did

extensive damage to the Gulf Shores-Mobile, Alabama, areas
(Figures 2-5 and 2-6). Maximum sustained winds on land were
estimated at over 110 mph, with highest gusts reported at 145
mph. The peak storm surge of 12 feet at Gulf Shores, Alabama,
destroyed much of the island, while an 11-foot surge at
Dauphin Island destroyed the causeway connecting the island
to the mainland. The estimated damage total of $2.3 billion
makes Frederic the second most costly U.S. hurricane in
history.
Coastal areas near the Mississippi-Alabama border
were hit again in September 1985 by Hurricane Elena. Initially
projected to come ashore near Cedar Key in Florida, Elena
stalled for several days before moving westward, finally making
landfall in the Gulfport-Biloxi, Mississippi, area. Locations east
of the landfall received the most damage, primarily from wind,
although many
Figure 2-4. Undermining of shallow supported foundations by

beach erosion.
Figure 2-5. Contrasting minor and major damage to two

adjacent houses during Hurricane Frederic.
Figure 2-6. U-shaped structure damaged by Hurricane Frederic.
The southern portion of the Texas coast has a marine

climate that is subject to major tropical storms and hurricanes.
Six hurricanes have occurred in the area since 1900; one of
these, in 1900, completely destroyed the City of Galveston.
Other damaging hurricanes have included Debra in 1959,
Carla in 1961, and Alicia in 1983. The City of Galveston, and
Galveston Island in particular, have frequently received
hurricane and storm damage. Storms causing high waves and
severe beach erosion occur almost annually on Galveston
Island. Because of exposure along both the gulf coast and
Galveston Bay, significant damage due to storm surge and
wave action has occurred in the past and could occur again.
Some protection has been provided through construction of the
Galveston reentrant
seawall by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Long term

erosion is, however, a problem in this area and is common at
both ends of the Galveston seawall.
Hurricane Alicia in August 1983 was the costliest
hurricane in U.S. history, mainly because its path included the
populated areas of Galveston and Houston on the Texas gulf
coast. Damage was estimated at as much as $3 billion; in
Galveston County, damage was estimated at $100 million.
Alicia severely damaged nearly 1,000 homes, and more than
100,000 claims for property damage were filed with insurance
companies.
Several houses on Galveston Beach were
destroyed due to inadequate pile embedment and scour and
erosion. The majority of

damage, however, was caused by inadequate wind anchoring,
with resultant loss of roofs and collapsing of walls.
Because of the continual threat of hurricanes and severe
storms along the gulf coast, builders, designers, engineers,
and building officials in this area are generally familiar with
elevated
structures
and
storm-resistant
construction
techniques. Application of such techniques is much in
evidence, particularly in new construction.
2.5
PACIFIC COAST
The Pacific coast is composed of two basic segments:

the southern California coast from the U.S.-Mexican border to
Point Conception and the coasts of California, Oregon, and
Washington from Point Conception to the U.S.-Canadian
border.
The southern segment is characterized by a fairly
smooth coastline with long stretches of sandy beaches
interspersed with rocky headlands. Both low and high cliffs
border the landward side of the beaches while a few large
islands occur offshore; nearshore algae and kelp beds are
widespread.
The northern segment has mainly rocky, high-cliffed
beaches with numerous pocket beaches. North to Cape
Mendocino, extensive algal communities and kelp beds are
present. From Cape Mendocino to the Canadian border, the
coastline is moderately dissected with numerous rocky islands,
small bays, and estuaries with mudflats and eelgrass beds.
Although not subject to the same frequency of high
storm waves from major storms and hurricanes as the Atlantic
and gulf coasts, the Pacific coast experiences occasional
tropical cyclones and tsunamis. Some of these storms originate
near Japan and grow as they track across
the Pacific. In addition, tropical cyclones that form off the

Mexican coast occasionally travel north and affect southern
California. Tsunami activity has also been recorded; the most
damaging was in 1964, at Crescent City, California.
Storm surges are of limited magnitude on the Pacific
coast because of the great ocean depths close to shore.
Numerous hurricanes form off the west coast of Mexico, but
these tend to move seaward. Only rarely does one of these
hurricanes reach the extreme southern California coast, and
those that do are weak compared to east coast hurricanes.
Their intensity is limited by the cold temperature of the
underlying water surface and other factors. The hazards
controlling design for residential buildings along the Pacific
coast are storm waves and swells, possibly originating at
distant storm centers and having full access to the shore
because of the deep water, and seismic sea waves or
tsunamis.
In January and February 1983, intense storms moved
through the eastern north Pacific and struck the southern and
central California coast with heavy rains, gale force winds, high
tides, and heavy surf. These caused widespread shoreline
damage including beach erosion, flooding of shoreline
property, and damage to structures. In southern California,
more than 1,000 homes and businesses were damaged or
destroyed as well as several State highways and four
municipal piers. In northern California, over 1,400 homes and
businesses were damaged or destroyed.
Coastal development in California relies less on
elevation for protection than the more common practice of
constructing residences behind a bulkhead or seawall.
Typically, an entire row of structures is protected by one
common bulkhead. This consists of piles driven beneath the
anticipated scour line and sheeting placed and bolted to them.
Deadmen or anchor piles are used to resist rotation of the main
piles (Figure 2-7).

Most storm damage in this area is the result of scour, or
erosion, which undermines bulkhead or seawall supports, and
exposes to flooding the properties presumably protected by
them. The California coastline has historically had a higher
rate of erosion than other U.S. coastlines. This higher erosion
rate, coupled with the fact that many California homes are built
too close to the beach, has led to the well publicized
failures that accompany winter storms. Elevated houses have
not been immune to undercutting of the supporting piers or
piles by the often deep seated erosion.
In the northern portion of the Pacific Coast region,
development pressures are generally less intense, and land
use policies often prevent new coastal development.
2.6
HAWAIIAN COAST
The Hawaiian islands are the tops of a chain of

submerged volcanic mountains.
As a result of the
mountainous terrain inland and a climate extremely
favorable to tourism, many of Hawaii's coastal areas have
been intensively developed. Hawaii has a varied coastline,
from rocky cliffs to wide sandy beaches; the more intensive
development has occurred along beach areas.
The Hawaiian coast is subject to flooding and wave
action not only from severe storms but also from tsunamis
seismic sea waves).
For example, the 100-year flood
elevations around Oahu are those generated by tsunamis.
However, considerable beach erosion and some damage to
residential structures occur annually on the north and west
coasts of Oahu from low-pressure storm centers that may
remain offshore for several days.
Severe weather is
uncommon in this area, and major
storms
and
thunderstorms are infrequent. In an average year, three storms
of tropical storm or hurricane intensity form in or propagate into
the central North Pacific. However, in the
Figure 2-7. Simple bulkhead.

and winds gusting to 100 to 120 mph, was estimated at $234
million. Most of the significant damage was confined to a 2- to
3-mile-wide coastal fringe on Kauai. Approximately 13
percent of the homes and 55 to 60 percent of the hotel units in
this area were destroyed or damaged.
Two types of flood waves impact on the Hawaiian
coastline: low-pressure-center northwest storm waves and
tsunami waves.
The low-pressure storm waves cause
significant damage to coastal construction as a result of beach
erosion by the continuous onslaught of waves during the storm.
A tsunami occurs less frequently, and only a few significant
waves impact the coast; however, the wave runup is
considerably greater during a tsunami because of the large
volume of water in each wave. This extended runup causes
severe erosion of the materials supporting structures well
inland when the wave recedes rapidly.
Figure 2-8. Typical bulkhead in Hawaii.
years since World War II, only two have hit Hawaii directly: Dot
in 1959 and Iwa in 1982. Hurricane Dot caused property
damage slightly in excess of $5.7 million, principally on the
island of Kauai. Iwo struck the islands of Niihau, Kauai, and
Oahu; damage, due mainly to high surf
Figure 2-9. Soil erosion potential.

The tsunami wave is the critical element controlling
design on all coasts of the Hawaiian Islands. Tsunamis
originating in the Alaska-Aleutian area have struck northerly
exposed sites. Primary areas affected by tsunamis from the
north are Hilo on Hawaii and Hanalei Bay on Kauai; damage
may also occur to the northern shore of Oahu, between
Kahana Bay and Kaena Point.
The 1957 tsunami did
considerable damage at Hanalei. However, the tsunami
having the greatest effect on the Hawaiian Islands was in 1946.
Other significant tsunamis in Hawaii since 1946 include:
November 1952, March 1957, May 1960, March 1964, and
November 1975.
Some tsunamis originate south of Hawaii and thus affect
southerly exposed sites. Although tsunamis originating near
Japan have not been a major problem, one such surge struck
the Kona Coast of Hawaii in 1896. There has not been any
significant damage in the State of Hawaii from tsunamis
originating near California or Mexico, but Peruvian and
Chilean earthquakes have caused considerable
tsunami
Hawaii.
damage
along
the
southeastern
coastline
of
In Hawaii, use of design and construction techniques to

resist flooding, wave action, and erosion is limited. Aesthetic
considerations and design tradition have had a significant
impact on the resistance to elevating the first floor. A few
elevated residences exist but these are exceptions rather than
the rule. Beach erosion and the subsequent exposure of
foundations are of great concern in several coastline areas.
As a result, constructing ads and other beach protection
devices is much more common than elevating structures.
Bulkheads are commonly used to protect residences on
shallow footings (Figure 2-8). Some structures on the northern
coast are constructed directly on the natural sand dune.
During low-pressure storms, the toe of the dune is eroded and
waves encroach on the oceanfront of the structures (Figure 29).
Site Design Recommendations 3-1
Chapter 3
SITE DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS
3.1 BUILDING CODE AND ZONING REQUIREMENTS
Building codes and zoning ordinances are normally
enacted by local jurisdictions, either city or county. These
regulations are intended to control various aspects of a
community's physical development, such as construction
materials and practices, land use, minimum sizes of lots,
setbacks from streets and property lines, density of
development, parking requirements, and height and size
restrictions. Such controls are not limited to the urban context
and have been applied to all development areas including
rural lands. Coastal area management through the use of
building code and zoning ordinances is as critical to the
sensitive needs of this special environment as it is to the
commercial/retail cores of cities. The ordinances are needed to
ensure public safety, community development, and the integrity
of special areas.
Unfortunately, failure to enact or adequately enforce
such necessary controls has led to uncontrolled land
development in many coastal zones, particularly in regions
where beach front property has attracted residents for several
decades. Areas where building codes and zoning laws were
not in effect prior to development exhibit a beachfront cluttered
with construction; a broad range of often substandard
construction practices; buildings with only a few feet of
separation, typical of urban and suburban neighborhoods;
destruction of the primary dune and its inherent storm
protection; and the creation of both physical and visual barriers
to public access to the natural coastline.
Residential construction is the most common land use in

coastal communities,
with
the
single-family
house
predominating. There is, however, a general trend to multi-unit
buildings due to the high cost of coastal property. Virtually all
coastal areas now fall within the authority of local zoning and
building code ordinances. Many local jurisdictions have
imposed strict regulations on new development, particularly in
popular resort and retirement communities, which have
become perhaps the most active areas of construction in the
coastal high hazard zones.
Local authority often goes beyond the normal
regulations to include such items as architectural review,
protection of dunes and dune rebuilding, preservation of
indigenous vegetation, and limits on some architectural
features. A review of current building code and zoning
requirements is a first step in preparing for a new construction
project, or for an addition to or renovation of an existing
structure. This review should determine such requirements as:
Required
construction materials and practices

Minimum lot size
Setbacks, including the space between structures
Height and size restrictions
Protection of natural features, including the primary
dune
Elevation requirements Access to the beach, both
physical and visual
Utilities protection
Sewerage facilities
The illustrations in this chapter demonstrate the building

code, zoning, and other concepts that must be applied to site
design in coastal areas. Building construction requirements
found in local building codes and

other regulations that may be imposed on coastal
construction, together with site design requirements, make up
the building permit process. Permits are issued only after
compliance with these requirements has been assured and is
properly documented. Generally, the project is subject to
inspection during construction by an authorized representative
of the local authority.
Building code and zoning requirements plus common
sense and experience have influenced site design practices
throughout the coastal areas of the nation. It should be
emphasized that building code and zoning requirements are
stated in terms of minimums.
While these minimum
requirements have often become the accepted practice in the
local construction industry, these practices should always be
considered minimum acceptable requirements. Requirements
for specific structures, based on engineering considerations,
often exceed the code minimums and should be evaluated on
a case-by-case basis.
3.2
SITE LAYOUT
Site planning for coastal buildings should follow

standard planning criteria applicable to any site work, not
merely orientation based on flood flow. In layout of the site,
typical factors such as slopes, natural grades, drainage,
vegetation, orientation, zoning, and surrounding buildings must
all be considered, as well as direction of flood flow. Particular
care should be taken to observe the setback from the mean
high water line and other coastal zone management
requirements. Access to and evacuation from the building
should be a special consideration in flood hazard zones.
Hydrodynamic impacts may severely damage roadways and
walkways, leaving the property potentially unreachable by
rescue vehicles. If flood waters approach the BFE with all
surrounding land area inundated, rescue may only be possible
by boat or helicopter.
Consideration of existing neighboring structures, such

as residences, bulkheads, trees, and berms, is often
overlooked. Adjacent structures may benefit a particular site by
offering a screening effect or diversion. But these same
structures may be damaged by storms and become floating
objects capable of severe destruction. When it is practical and
possible to do so, the elevated structure should be aligned
parallel to the flood flow with the narrower dimension facing the
beach. This simply presents a smaller surface area upon which
a storm can act. The more surface area exposed, the greater
the likelihood of damage occurring.
It must be emphasized that hazards to coastal
construction come from the sea. The hazard may be reduced
by building farther from the shoreline. Building near the back
or street side of a beach front lot reduces as much as possible
the beach erosion problem.
3.3
LANDSCAPING
A feature not commonly considered to provide physical

protection from storm hazards is landscape treatment.
Some coastal jurisdictions and private developments require
planting and protection of indigenous vegetation to obtain
permits to build. This is normally limited to plant materials like
dune grass, sea oats, and some shrubs like mangrove.
Planting and maintaining vegetation, even in areas where no
such requirements exist, can be a good way to protect the
residence. Vegetation provides a more stable soil condition,
can trap windblown sand, and can even act to deflect high
winds and waves that are pounding the area. Larger materials
like shrubbery and trees can also deflect floating debris that
might otherwise
impact
the
elevated
foundation.
Landscaping may also provide a pleasant effect of
screening and reducing the visual impact of the elevated
building.

3.4
DUNE PROTECTION
Dunes provide a natural shoreline defense against

storm wave and water level attack and are often termed a
nonstructural coastal protection method. Programs for dune
rebuilding or enrichment are being conducted in many areas
as a preferred alternative to other protection methods, and
dune preservation regulations have been enacted. Figure 3-1
shows an example of a building site behind a reconstructed
dune. Although the protection to a structure located behind it
can be substantial, a dune should not be considered
indestructible and is subject to erosion and scour in major
storms.
Existing dune fields should be maintained through

vegetation stabilization and sand fencing, which promote
additional dune growth and limit wind losses. The cutting of
roadways or paths through the dune line should be prohibited
and timber crossovers used instead, as shown on Figure 3-2.
In areas where no dunes exist and sufficient beach width is
present, dune construction using successive tiers of sand
fencing will promote further formation.
Dwellings should always be placed behind primary
dunes (Figure 3-3). Construction atop or in front of dunes is
extremely vulnerable to structural damage from storms and
should be prohibited. Figure 3-4 shows the overall constraints
on coastal structures due to zoning and setback requirements.
Beach material is usually deposited in offshore bars

during storms and returns onshore after storm passage to
begin beach rebuilding. Sand is pushed shoreward by fair
weather winds and is gradually deposited on the beach.
Onshore winds then rebuild the dunes with sand from the
beach. This rebuilding process is diminished by the presence
of man-made obstructions.
Figure 3-2. Walkway structure and fencing protect the dune.
Figure 3-1. Typical dune reconstruction

3.5
Figure 3-3. Example of use of building setback requirements to

locate structures behind the primary dune.
BULKHEADS
In a limited number of circumstances, bulkheads can be

effective in reducing storm damage and erosion if designed
properly. However, there are a number of reservations
concerning their use, including restrictions on their use in V
zones (velocity zones) to meet minimum elevation
requirements under the National Flood Insurance Program
(Section 1.2). Bulkheading on an individual lot basis should
be avoided. Because of the abrupt vertical transition in profile,
bulkheads generally promote toe scour and this can lead to
beach loss and steepening at sediment-starved beaches.
Experience has shown that erosion accelerates at adjacent
unprotected areas, possibly resulting in the flanking of
individual bulkheads as shown on Figure 3-5. Structural
solutions for coastal protection generally require multiple-site
implementation for maximum effectiveness.
Use of bulkheads in V zones should be limited to
remedial protection of existing structures where other
mitigating measures, such as elevating an existing building,
are considered infeasible. If used, they should be designed
only to withstand storm wash runup--the forward, high-velocity
remnant of a broken wave as it continues to run up on shore.
Direct wave attack is less effectively handled by bulkheading.
Only massive structures of concrete and/or stone can
adequately handle severe conditions. Use of bulkheading to
repel frequent events usually implies development too close to
the water, and the need for massive and expensive regional
erosion protection.
Figure 3-4. Zoning restrictions on coastal development.
Where bulkheading is to be used, rock riprap is

recommended as the most effective protection from waves.
Because of its sloped surface, voids, and roughness, it
dissipates wave energy effectively. Riprap is flexible from a
structural standpoint; timber or rock riprap structures can be
designed for individual sites. Figure 3-6 shows a riprap
structure at Hilton Head, South Carolina.
Figure 3-5. Erosion damage to individual bulkhead.
Figure 3-6. Rock riprap used as a bulkhead.
The following items should be considered in bulkhead

design:
Foundation conditions should be considered in terms of

compatibility with the structure, backfill loading, and passive
resistance. Flexible structures should be used for sandy
conditions, since the bulkhead wall's flexibility will lessen the
lateral force of the backfill compared to a rigid structure.
Bulkheads that require penetration for stability are not suitable
for rock bottoms. Vertical solid structures are subject to toe
erosion in sands and to a lesser extent in soft clays, and should
be protected from toe sliding effects due to bottom scour
induced by the wall itself. This scour can also cause settlement
and tipping with gravity structures. Scour problems can be
reduced by altering the geometry. A recurved wall shape
(Galveston type) as shown on Figure 3-7 directs wave runup
away from the toe of the wall and may lessen scour.
Foundation and backfill conditions

Exposure to wave action and scour
Availability and durability of materials
Cost.
Evaluation of these items will determine the structural materials
and geometry used for shore protection. The Shore Protection
Manual (USCOE, 1984) contains detailed information on this
subject.

determine the most economical design. Durable rock, readily
available and inexpensive in one area, may be too distant from
another.
Professional consultation is recommended to engineer a
functional structure properly. The Shore Protection Manual
summarizes the various analyses of coastal processes that
should be considered. Structural solutions to shore protection
should attempt to work with the existing natural forces; the
more one resists coastal dynamics, the greater is the
probability of encountering serious problems.
3.6
Figure 3-7. Concrete seawall with recurved face.
Wave action may determine the selection of structural

type and design geometry. Light structures such as timber
piles and lagging or small stone revetment are compatible with
small wave action. However, direct wave attack dictates more
massive structures, such as curved concrete seawalls
designed to dissipate wave energy by upward vertical
deflection. Calculation of wave forces, as summarized in the
Shore Protection Manual, determines the structural material
necessary to withstand the anticipated energy.
An important aspect of designing a shore protection
system is the selection of materials of adequate strength and
durability for the specific physical conditions of a site.
Consideration of initial cost plus maintenance will
USE OF EARTHFILL
Constructing residential structures on engineered fill is

one means of elevating the living areas of the house a above
a required elevation in riverine flood plains. However, in
coastal zones the scouring action of waves can erode the fill
and expose the foundation to the point of failure. Even if
proper slopes are provided for the fill and protective measures
such as riprap, vegetation, or landscaping with grass are
applied to the seaward slopes, there will remain concern
regarding its adequacy. For these reasons, the use of earthfill
to elevate structures in coastal high hazard areas (V zones) is
prohibited by NFIP.
The use of earthfill for landscaping purposes may be
appropriate for some V zone locations. However, care must be
exercised to allow for the unobstructed flow of velocity waters
and wave action. Improperly located or large size earthfills
may ramp damaging waves into the elevated portion of a
structure.
In coastal A zones, the use of earthfill for elevation
should be restricted to those areas subject to minimal velocity
water and wave action, due to the potential for scour and
erosion.
Structure Design Recommendations 4-1
Chapter 4
STRUCTURE DESIGN
RECOMMENDATIONS
This section discusses the design of residential
structures to resist the effects of coastal winds and flood waters.
It includes an examination of various forces present in the
coastal environment, their range of magnitudes, and some
recommendations and sources of additional information. Data
are also presented on various construction materials for
residential structures in coastal high hazard areas, with
discussions of corrosion and the need for wood treatment.
The major portion of this chapter presents recommended
design details from the foundation to the roof. Acceptable
alternatives are presented wherever possible. One should
consider these recommendations as minimum requirements.
Local experience or site specific information should be used to
improve the quality of design and construction.
Several cautionary statements are appropriate,
however. The information presented in this manual is based
upon values of forces and properties of materials taken from
standard engineering references and conventional building
codes. A limited range of sizes and configurations for singlefamily residences has been assumed for purposes of
establishing design criteria and tables (Appendices A and B).
Since this design manual attempts to inform
homeowners and builders in coastal regions throughout the
United
States, site-specific situations have not been
addressed, only the general cases covered by building codes.
An example is the case of wind speeds, for which a realistic
range is considered after evaluating various building code
values. Generally, conservative approaches
and values have been used to provide conformance with most

applicable building codes throughout the United States.
The flood forces considered in this work include forces
generated by wave action. Water and wave forces are
calculated to be consistent with the wave crest elevations that
would be present during the base (100 year) flood, the event
that has a 1 percent chance of being equaled or exceeded in
any given year.
4.1
ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES
Conditions found in the coastal environments

described in Chapter 2 impose stresses on construction
materials that are not imposed in the inland environment. If
special precautions are not taken, deterioration of wood and
metal building components is accelerated. Masonry and
concrete are affected to a lesser degree except where noted.
4.1.1 WIND
A major concern in the design of residential structures in
coastal regions is the magnitude and effect of high winds
during storms. In this report, the basic wind design data and
procedures follow the recommendations included in National
Standards Institute Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and
Other Structures, ANSI A58.1-1982.
A number of other
building codes are also referred to, including the Standard
Building Code, the BOCA Basic National Building Code, and
Uniform Building Code.
The wind velocities, pressures, and design coefficients
used in this report are those presented in ANSI A58.1-1982.
The recommended basic wind speed at a site should be the 50
year mean recurrence interval (Figure 4-1) times an
importance factor of 1.11 for correcting to a 100 year
Figure 4-1. Basic wind speed in miles per hour, 50-year recurrence interval.

recurrence interval in coastal areas. The design tables in
Appendix A were developed for a range of wind speeds from
80 to 140 mph, which satisfies nearly all coastal area
requirements. Because of the large forces exerted by winds
greater than 140 mph, various connections require spacial
attention. This is beyond the scope of this manual and a design
professional should be consulted.
wind pressures can slide the structure off its foundation, as

shown in Figure 4-3.
Since the wind speeds up as it flows over the roof, it
tends to suck the roof upward and off (Figure 4-4). Internal
pressures also change, especially if wind enters the building
through failed windows or doors. With an opening in the
windward wall, internal pressure increases; if an opening
The elevation above grade of the roof of the house is a

particularly important parameter in determining wind uplift
forces. As the roof height increases, there is an increased uplift
force on the rafter connections and related components down
through the foundations. The design tables include such load
increases, which can be significant on houses with a second
story or loft area and a first floor elevated 8 to 10 feet above
grade in order to be above the BFE. In some coastal areas, the
height of water plus waves may approach 20 feet; obviously,
the roof of a one-story house in this situation will be quite high.
Elevating above the base flood increases the
probability that the structure will overturn unless adequately
designed and constructed.
Therefore, the design tables
require information regarding the heights above ground level
of various parts of the structure, so that the appropriate forces
can be considered in the design.
The following discussion and illustrations on how wind
forces act on a typical one-story house will be helpful to home
builders and other users of this design manual. Sketches are
provided so that these effects may be more easily understood.
Flowing wind exerts pressure on a structure and its
component parts. The horizontal pressure on the front wall and
a horizontal suction on the rear wall cause an overturning
effect, as shown in Figure 4-2. Also, these
Figure 4-2. Wind overturning forces.
Figure 4-3. Wind sliding and bending forces.
Figure 4-4. Wind pressure on roof and eaves.
occurs in a side or leeward wall, internal pressure decreases.

Figure 4-5 shows how these forces could combine with uplift
forces to blow off the roof. Figure 4-6 shows how the
combination of built-up wind pressure inside the structure and
suction pressure on the side walls and rear wall tends to
explode the walls. A house on Dauphin
Island, Alabama, that received major damage from winds

during Hurricane Elena is shown on Figure 4-7. The home had
a large porch on the windward side that was lifted totally off the
structure, probably in part due to internal pressures. The house
also has several large sliding windows that were damaged,
and part of the roof was lost.

A common myth about hurricane resistance is that
windows should be left open to equalize internal and external
pressures. In reality, if a wind enters a windward opening, the
increased internal pressure on roof and walls is much more
likely to cause damage than if the wind is acting only
externally. The houses that best resisted Hurricane Alicia's
highest wind forces invariably had storm-shuttered windows
and doors that remained intact.
Figure 4-5. Wind pressure on roof when wall opening occurs.
The important factors in minimizing wind damage to a

building generally are use of shutters to keep the building
envelope intact, and adequate anchorage to transmit wind
forces from the roof down through the foundations. At a
minimum, buildings should have windows that are rated for the
design wind speed at the site. For further protection against
window breakage from debris impact, storm shutters are
strongly recommended.
Figure 4-6. Wind pressure on walls when wall opening occurs.

It cannot be overemphasized that attention to
connection details for rafters, joists, and stud walls (at corners
and at bottom and top plates) can reduce wind damage. When
the structure is tied together as an integral unit it can better
resist dynamic forces such as those due to wind, floodwater,
waves, and even earthquake. For this reason, there should be
a continuous series of positive connections from the roof rafters
down through the walls to the first floor joists, supporting
beams and piles, or other foundation system. Joist anchors,
well-nailed plywood sheathing, metal straps, bolts through floor
beams and piles, and similar connections all contribute to a
wind-and flood-resistant structure.
These elements are
addressed in more detail later in the chapter.
Figure 4-7. Damage from internal pressure.
Particularly high wind pressures occur at corners of a

house, at and under roof eaves, and at the peak of the roof
(Figure 4-B). This is caused by the patterns of wind flow at
these critical points. This design manual provides guidance in
the connection details necessary to resist wind forces.
High wind forces tend to stress the connections between
structural members, such as those connecting posts and piles
to beams and those connecting beams to joists and vertical
supports. Such stresses cause a progressive weakening of
these connections to the point where failure is possible. Figure
4-9 shows a house that was separated from its foundation
platform during Hurricane Alicia.
Figure 4-8. Wind pressure on corner overhangs.

cycles, rot, and insect activity in wood. Galvanizing is the most
common protective coating for steel fixtures. Bolts, nails, and
other hardware items are usually hot-dipped galvanized
following fabrication. The steel plate connectors--often referred
to in coastal areas as "hurricane clips"--described in this
manual are commonly manufactured from pregalvanized
sheet. These connectors perform well in protected locations,
such as the interior of a building, but have only a limited
lifespan in exposed areas. Heavier weight connectors that are
hot-dipped galvanized after fabrication are preferred in
exposed areas.
All metal connectors are subject to
corrosion over the life of a structure. Routine inspections
and maintenance (see Section 4.3.8) are necessary to
ensure the continuing serviceability of connections.
Figure 4-9. Removal of house from foundation piles by wind forces.
4.1.2 Salt Air, Moisture, and Wind-Driven Rain

Coastal areas have a highly corrosive atmospheric
environment resulting from inland transport of salt spray by the
wind, combined with generally higher moisture levels in the air.
These corrosive conditions can extend several miles inland,
but are most severe close to the sea. The undersides of
elevated structures are particularly vulnerable to salt spray,
because the exposed surfaces are not washed by rain and stay
damp longer due to their sheltered location.
Moisture with a high salt content is extremely corrosive
to ferrous metals and mill-finish or nonanodized aluminum. It
also tends to increase swelling and shrinking
Wind-driven rain has been a continuing problem in

coastal areas under storm conditions. Commonly available
windows, doors, and roof ventilators were designed for inland
locations and have been found to leak from the wind-driven
rain of coastal storms. This problem has been recognized;
storm-rated products are now available and should be
specified for all new and replacement applications. Careful
inspection of a coastal building should be conducted to identify
potential water pathways through the building's exterior
envelope, and sealants and caulking applied where
necessary.
The combination of high winds and moist salt-laden air
can also have a damaging effect on masonry construction by
weakening mortar bond and permitting moisture penetration.
Although concrete is less affected by the coastal environment
than other construction materials, special precautions such as
increasing the thickness of concrete cover over the
reinforcement should be taken to prevent moisture from
reaching the reinforcing steel through the hairline cracks
present in all concrete. Rusting of the steel may cause staining
and could contribute to

spalling of the concrete and exposure of the reinforcement.
Additional precautions for the coastal environment are
especially important for larger buildings (Chapter 5) due to the
extensive use of reinforced concrete in these structures.
4.1.3 Water, Waves, and Debris
Structures located in coastal environments are
subject to a number of loads and natural forces associated with
severe storms, including the 100 year flood. If the site is in the
V zone, the wave crest elevation of the 100 year flood will be a
critical design parameter that must be determined.
The water forces on the piles that elevate structures
above the ground are primarily the momentum of water
impinging on the pile and the drag force in the direction of the
velocity of the water. Similar forces act on breakaway or lattice
walls, stairways, and utilities below elevated structures. One
must therefore consider the stillwater storm tide elevation as
well as the associated wave action (wave crest elevation). In V
zones both flowing water and save action are to be considered,
while in A zones only a save height less than 3 feet is
considered in addition to flowing water.
The velocity of coastal flood waters can result in

movement of debris, which includes portions of houses, utility
poles, fences, etc., such as the debris shown adjacent to a
house in Alabama following Hurricane Elena (Figure 4-10).
These objects may collide with residential structures; the
resulting impact loads are a function of velocity of the object
(assumed equal to the velocity of the water) and the time
required to stop (decelerate) the object upon impact. The
deceleration time is in turn related to the distance over which
deceleration occurs, which is considered equal to pile
deflection upon impact. This design manual has provided for
the collision of a 300-pound object moving at surface water
velocity and decelerating over a maximum distance of 0.5 foot.
The collision is assumed to occur against one pile at the
highest elevation of the flood waters.
The home builder and/or designer should obtain the

Base Flood Elevation for his site by referring to the FIRM for the
community. Use of the water depth plus wave height as shown
on the FIRM is an important factor since the design tables rely
on water depth plus wave height to determine lateral forces
and the proper flood-resistant design.
Figure 4-10. Waterborne debris deposited against foundation piling.

Note
also that larger debris, such as that shown in Figure 4-10,

can wedge against foundation piling and bracing, increasing
water forces on the foundation system.
4.1.4 Effects of Forces on Higher and Larger Structures
This report includes design of residential structures

elevated up to 22 feet above grade to provide for the bottom of
the lowest structural beam to be above the BFE. About one
story of elevation is required in many areas. If the clear height
needed is less than about 8 feet, it is likely that the builder may
still elevate the structure to about one story to provide parking
and storage under the house.
For structures required to be elevated more than about
12 feet above grade, forces on the supporting piles increase
rapidly with increasing height. Uplift forces will be higher
because wind suction increases as roof height increases.
Also, the overturning forces against the piles will be greater
from both wind and water. Therefore, the piles must be longer,
stronger, and better braced, and will be more expensive in
terms of material and installation. For these greater heights
trussed bracing may be required. Design data for this bracing
and determination of the need for it are included later in this
manual. Due to the complexities of the design, a qualified
architect or engineer could be helpful in designing these
higher structures.
Similar considerations are necessary for building
structures larger than a two-story house. For example, the
forces on a three- or four-story motel are much larger than
those considered in this report. This is because the uplift
forces on a higher roof are larger and because the frontal area
of walls is greater and receives a larger wind force tending to
overturn the structure or move it laterally. Consultation with a
qualified professional architect or engineer is recommended.
The procedures in
Chapter 5 of this design manual demonstrate the approach to

be used. However, the details of design, including magnitude
of forces, selection of pile type and method of installation, and
size of beams and connections all require specific attention
beyond the scope of the design guidance and tables included
in this manual. This is also true when wind speeds exceed 140
mph, in which case this manual cannot be used alone and
professional help is needed.
4.2
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
Wood is the most available and most commonly used

material for one- or two-family residential structures in the
coastal environment. With proper selection and design, wood
can handle most loadings and spans. Steel and concrete
materials are used on a limited basis. Since most steels
corrode severely when placed near the ocean, the use of steel
requires caution and a thorough understanding of its
characteristics. Certain alloy steels are available, but their use
is advised only with the assistance of a qualified professional.
Likewise, concrete can be used as a construction material,
but the cost of forming and the special nature of connections
must be considered. Precast concrete may be suitable for
beams and other structural members. Residences elevated
more than 15 feet above ground may be built
more
economically with precast concrete piles and beams because
wood piles need to be longer (embedded deeper) and require
a substantial bracing system.
4.2.1 Wood
4.2.1.1 Piling. The properties desirable in piles include
sufficient strength and straightness to carry the weight of the
structure, withstand pile-driving forces at installation, and resist
the bending stresses of wind and waves. Southern

yellow pine, Douglas-fir, and oak are among the principal
species used for piling, but western red cedar and numerous
other species also are used.
Decay resistance and ease of penetration by
preservatives are particularly important. Pilings that support
the foundations of buildings should be pressure treated with
wood preservative to a retention suitable for ground contact.
4.2.1.2 Main Supporting Members (Beams). The main
supporting beams attached to piling, posts, masonry piers, or
walls in turn carry the floor joists and subflooring. These
members are either solid timbers, such as 4-by-10's, or are
built up using standard framing lumber such as two, three, or
four 2-by-10's spiked or bolted together. Where beams are
built up using a good grade of lumber for the laminated
members, the strength of the built-up beam may equal that of a
solid member. All members of the built-up beam should be
continuous between supports, as splices materially reduce
strength. Built-up members should include only one splice at
any one location. The ends and tops of built-up members
should not be directly exposed to the weather. Lumber that
has been pressure treated for exposure but not for ground
contact is recommended for beams and decks.
4.2.1.3 Other Wood Construction Members. Floor joists,
studs, bridging, blocking, soles, sills, and plates are not
required to be preservative treated, although such treatment
may be helpful in regions of highest decay and insect
infestation.
4.2.1.4 Wood Preservatives. Any wood members used for
pilings and floor beams, whether exposed or enclosed, solid or
built-up, must be treated with chemicals or preservatives to
resist insect infestation, dry rot, decay fungi, and the effects of
exposure to salt air and water. It
is important to remember that this environment has as great a

tendency to harm concealed beams as those left exposed.
Enclosed beams may in fact be in more danger, since they lack
the ventilation that would allow collected moisture to evaporate
and are not exposed to rain water to wash away precipitated
salt compounds.
Good wood preservatives, thoroughly applied with
standard retentions and with the wood satisfactorily penetrated,
substantially increase the life of wood structures. On this basis,
the annual cost of treated wood in service is substantially
below that of similar wood without treatment.
Wood
preservatives fall into two general classes: oils, such as
creosote and petroleum solutions of pentachlorophenol; and
waterborne salts, such as chromated copper arsenate (CCA).
The degree of protection obtained depends on the kind
of preservative used and the thoroughness of application.
Some preservatives are more effective than others and some
are more adaptable to certain use requirements. Furthermore,
the wood is well protected only when the preservative
substantially penetrates it. Some methods of treatment assure
better penetration of various species of wood, particularly of the
heartwood, which generally resists preservative treatment
more than sapwood.
Generally, the type of preservative used and the need
for substantial penetration of the wood is of crucial importance
only in applications where the wood is directly exposed to
saltwater, such as wood used for piers or bulkheads. House
foundations are somewhat more protected and should be
inundated only rarely, so the marine borer problem is less
relevant. Pressure treatment suitable for ground contact is
appropriate for pilings supporting residential structures, and
pressure treatment of wood suitable for uses lacking ground
contact is appropriate for all elevated members.

4.2.2 Masonry Materials and Concrete
In general, masonry materials and concrete perform well
in the coastal environment. Adequate reinforcing must be
provided to withstand stresses and, as mentioned earlier,
coverage of reinforcement must be sufficient to reduce the
danger of salt water reaching the steel and consequent rusting
and staining. Special care should be taken in the quality of
concrete and masonry units and of mortar used to reduce voids
in surfaces and between joints in masonry work.
4.2.3 Metals
4.2.3.1 Aluminum. Construction elements or assemblies such
as doors, windows, gutters, downspouts, and flashings made
from mill-finish (uncoated) aluminum sheet or extrusions
deteriorate rapidly from corrosion in the coastal environment.
The heavier anodizing finish (0.7 mil) is recommended.
Nevertheless, moving parts, hardware, hinges, sliding doors
and windows, and jalousie operators require additional
maintenance. A heavy vinyl finish on these components offers
protection approximately equal to the anodizing finish.
4.2.3.2 Steel. Exposed structural steel shapes, beams, pipes,
channels, and angles undergo very rapid corrosion and their
use should be avoided in the coastal environment. Small
connecting devices such as bolts, angles, bars, and straps
should be hot-dipped galvanized after fabrication and coated
with a protective paint after installation. Heavy, hot-dipped
galvanizing can last 20 to 30 years in the coastal environment.
Standard galvanized sheet metal joist hangers and other
connecting devices deteriorate more rapidly despite their
galvanized coating and require additional protective coatings
and more frequent replacement. Small anchoring devices,
nails, spikes, bolts, and lag screws should, whenever possible,
be hot-dipped
galvanized. Where sheet metal clips and hangers are used,

the special nails should also be galvanized.
Regular inspection, maintenance, and replacement of
corroded metal parts are necessary when steel is used in the
coastal environment. When selecting new or replacement
hardware, consideration should be given to use of 304 or 316
stainless steel, Monel, or other more corrosion-resistant
materials. As noted by Rogers (1985b), the higher initial cost of
these materials may well be offset by lower future maintenance
costs.
4.2.3.3 Dissimilar Metals. When two different metals are in
contact in the corrosive coastal air, rapid corrosion of one of the
metals can occur. Cathodic protection systems use this
principle to advantage by attaching bars of zinc or other
sacrificial material to the steel structure to be protected.
Usually, however, the corrosion between dissimilar metals
occurs when they are inadvertently placed in contact by the
builder or owner. For example, the use of brass screws (which
are suitable for fastening steel) to attach an aluminum frame
will result in rapid corrosion of the aluminum. Whenever
possible, the use of dissimilar metals together should be
avoided unless the safety of the combination ion has been
researched. Aluminum screws would have been preferred in
the example. Stainless steel reacts less with aluminum than
brass and would have been an acceptable alternative. Monel
should not be used with either aluminum or galvanized steel.
4.3
DESIGN DETAILS
4.3.1 Foundations
Several types of foundations are suitable for supporting
elevated residential structures in coastal high hazard areas.
Tapered cylindrical or square wood piles are the most common
foundation. Another popular but

structurally weak method of elevation uses wood posts resting
on a spread footing. A variation of this is reinforced masonry
piers resting on spread footings or concrete grade beams
under a concrete slab. In some locations shear walls of
reinforced masonry or concrete at right angles to the beach
(and thus parallel to the likely flow of flood waters) have been
used. In some instances concrete piles or steel piles have
been used, particularly for structures larger than a two-story
residence. Various foundation types are discussed below in
more detail, together with the role of soil conditions in
foundation selection and design.
4.3.1.1
Soil Conditions.
An important parameter for
foundation design that must be established early in the layout
and design of a structure is the depth and quality of the soil or
rock at the building site. Sand is the dominant soil deposit in
most coastal areas. However, in some areas clay underlies a
thin (several foot) layer of sand.
The mechanism and
distribution of strength for supporting piles in clay differ from
those in sand. Generally, clay soils provide greater capacity
with less penetration than sandy soils. Some builders use a
water jet to insert piles into sand; this technique alone is not
sufficient to allow piles to penetrate clay, which normally
requires an auger or pile driver. The design tables in Appendix
A include pile capacity for each of four types of soil: medium
dense sand, loose sand, medium stiff clay, and soft clay.
Clay also performs differently from sand under wave
action and is affected little by scour. The depth of scour of
sandy soils under wave action is difficult to predict accurately,
but can be several feet from severe storms. It is important that
piles supporting residences on sandy shorelines penetrate a
minimum distance into the ground to provide resistance to wind
and water loads even after extensive scour from a storm has
occurred.
Pile penetration depths in sand should allow for scour of

both loose and dense sand from around the pile foundation as
well as temporary liquefaction of some of the sand near the
surface during storm conditions. Figure 4-11 shows a house
that settled nearly intact when the piles lost their support
through scour or liquefaction.
There are other rules of thumb that can assist in the
evaluation of soil conditions at a building site. Loose sand is
penetrated with a 1/2-inch reinforcing rod pushed by hand.
Medium dense sand is easily penetrated with a 1/2-inch
reinforcing rod driven with a 5-pound hammer. Although
denser sands may exist at a site, under storm wave action it is
expected that loosening of the sand and scour will occur; the
design tables in the appendices reflect this. If clay is
Figure 4-11. Nearly intact settling of a house when piles lost capacity.

present at a site, a sample should be obtained. It is classified
as soft clay if it is easily molded by the fingers and medium stiff
clay if molding by the fingers requires strong pressure.
If soil boring data are available, classification into the
soil categories listed above is possible from the standard
penetration test. This involves driving a 2-inch-diameter, thickwalled tube sampler by a 140-pound weight dropping 30
inches onto the drill rod. The number of blows per foot to drive
the sampler is counted and is a rough indicator of soil
consistency. In sands, 10 blows per foot (bpf) or fewer indicate
a loose sand. Higher blow counts indicate medium dense
sand for purposes of this design manual. Soft clays are those
with 4 or fewer bpf, so higher blow counts would indicate
medium stiff clays. Boring data from adjacent or nearby sites
may be useful in establishing the general soil conditions
underlying a site. For example, soils on barrier islands are
often more uniform than at inland locations. Adjacent sites the
same distance from shore would likely have similar subsurface
conditions. When interpreted with care, data from nearby sites
can be quite useful.
Rock is encountered at or near the ground surface along
some portions of coastline, and specific local foundation
practices have evolved to provide the required lateral and uplift
resistance in V zones. In the Florida Keys, for example, it is
common to install foundation systems socketed into the
relatively soft limestone by augering or drilling several feet into
the rock, then filling the socket with concrete. Reinforcing steel
in the socket extends into the piers above. Where harder rock
is encountered, such as in New England, steel dowels are
grouted into holes drilled in the rock and used to anchor
conventional piers.
Figure 4-12. Elevating with wood piles.
4.3.1.2 Piles
Pile Selection. Wood piles are probably the most widely
used foundation for elevated residential structures (Figure 412). In some locations, square timbers are preferred over
round piles because of cost, availability, and ease of framing
and connecting the structural beams to the piles. The most
popular sizes are 10-inch and 8-inch square, rough-sawn
members. The latter size is the minimum size generally
approved for use in coastal high hazard areas. In regions
where the design wind speed is greater than 100 miles per
hour, the row of residences fronting on the beach should have
10-by-10 piles if square timbers are used. These

provide greater resistance against uplift and lateral forces than
8-by-8's. Current practice in some locales already requires the
larger piles.
Tapered timber piles with a circular cross section are
frequently used in coastal areas.
Generally, these are
available in longer lengths than square timbers, and for lengths
greater than about 25 feet it may be necessary to use tapered
piles. When longer piles are required, many builders prefer the
round piles because they can provide greater cross section
area, peripheral area, and stiffness than square sections,
particularly the B-by-B timbers. A minimum tip diameter of
about 8 inches is recommended for tapered piles.
Figure 4-13. Effect of scour--wind and water forces on piles.
Availability may be the controlling factor in selecting a

member; locally available products, stocked by local material
dealers, are usually the most cost-effective materials. If both
square and round shapes are equally available, the square
provides some advantages; it is easier to frame beams into, is
easier to plumb while driving, and is usually straighter and
more uniform in appearance. The additional cost of the
dressed square pilings may be overshadowed by their
increased workability and availability at most lumber dealers.
Round piles are, however, available in larger sections and
longer lengths.
Concrete piles are commonly used in coastal areas
when higher capacity or longer length is required. Their
application is mainly on mid- to high-rise structures, although
circumstances may occasionally warrant their use on smaller
residential structures. Concrete piles are precast offsite, with
either conventional or prestressed reinforcement, and are
available in a variety of sizes and lengths.
Pile Embedment. Piles must resist downward loads
due to the weight of the structure, its contents, and its
occupants. The piles must also resist upward loads due to
wind uplift. Wind and water impose lateral (horizontal) forces,
which piles resist by bearing against the soil. Therefore, piles
should be well seated in fairly dense soil. Figure 4-13 shows
piles with inadequate embedment; the piles rotated but did not
break at ground level. Inadequate embedment was likely the
cause of the leaning shown in Figure 4-14. The figures and
tables provided in this design manual recommend depths of
pile penetration into various types of soil as dictated by the
wind and flood water conditions anticipated, the size of the
building being constructed, and the number, spacing, and
arrangement of piles used.

Determining an appropriate embedment depth
requires
consideration of several factors (see Figure 4-15), such as:
Pile depth necessary to resist vertical, uplift, and

horizontal loads
Anticipated scour depth or elevation at the site
Existing ground elevation
Base flood elevation
Figure 4-14. Effect of storm forces on foundation system with

inadequate pile embedment.
The depth of potential scour during the design storm will

vary for each coastal location. It is critical that piles be
embedded well below the scour depth to provide adequate
foundation support during a storm. Historical data on local
scour may be helpful in determining the embedment depth, as
described in Chapter 3. Standard construction practice for
pile embedment depth is inadequate in many coastal areas.
Rules of thumb, such as "piles should be embedded as much
below ground as above ground" generally underestimate the
required pile embedment and have not taken scour into
consideration.
Figure 4-15. Pile embedment.

To provide minimum embedment criteria for coastal
construction, it is recommended that piles in the V zone
penetrate sand to at least a tip elevation of -5 msl (5 feet below
mean sea level) if the Base Flood Elevation is +10 msl or less.
If the house must be elevated above +10 msl (expected height
of water plus waves) then the pile tips should penetrate at least
to -10 msl. Many communities have adopted the rule of thumb
that piles should be embedded to -10 msl, which may be
inadequate, depending on location. This standard should be
considered as one criterion only, and the tables provided in
this manual should be consulted to determine if deeper
embedment is necessary.
The soil surrounding the embedded piles provides the
principal resistance at the ground line to lateral
displacement resulting from horizontal wind and water loads.
Additional resistance can be achieved by using horizontal
bracing (grade beams) as discussed in Section 4.3.3.2.
Pile Installation.
A major consideration in the
effectiveness of pile foundations is the method for inserting
the pile into the ground. This can determine the amount of
resistance to load the piles will have. The best procedure for
insertion is the use of a pile driver, which uses leads to hold the
pile in position while a single- or double-acting hammer
(delivering between 5,000 and 15,000 foot-pounds of energy)
drives the pile into the ground.
The pile driver method, while cost-effective for a
development with a number of houses being constructed at
one time, can be expensive for a single residence. A drop
hammer (Figure 4-16 is a modest alternative to the pile driver.
The drop hammer consists of a heavy weight (several hundred
pounds) that is raised by a cable attached to a power-driven
winch. The weight is then dropped 5 to
Figure 4-16. Pile installation using a drop hammer.
15 feet onto the end of the pile. The advantage of driving the
pile compared to other methods that will be mentioned is that
the driving operation forces soil outward from around the pile,
densifying the soil and causing increased friction along the
sides of the pile, which provides greater pile load resistance.

layers. Large buried material such as logs, gravel bars, and
abandoned foundations can result in pile installation
difficulties, whatever method is used. It is prudent to inquire
about subsurface conditions at the site of a proposed structure
prior to committing to the type of pile or the installation method.
A much less desirable but frequently used method of
inserting piles into sandy soil is "jetting." Jetting involves
forcing a high pressure stream of water through a pipe
advanced alongside the pile. The water blows a hole in the
sand into which the pile is continuously pushed or dropped
until the required depth is reached. Many contractors then tamp
sand into the cavity around the pile and pound on the and of
the pile with the heaviest sledge hammer or other weight
available. Unfortunately, jetting loosens not only the soil
around the pile but also the soil below the tip. Therefore, only a
low load capacity is attained, and the piles must be inserted
deeper into the ground than if they were driven. If piles are
jetted into position at a site considered to have medium dense
sand present, pile lengths and embedment depth should be
calculated assuming that loose sand is present.
Figure 4-17. Square piles set in preaugered holes.
A disadvantage of pile driving, particularly with light

equipment, is that final pile locations and orientation can vary,
depending on the driving conditions.
This can complicate
subsequent construction of floor beams and bracing, though it
is not usually a significant problem in coastal areas underlain
by relatively uniform sand and clay
If the soil is sufficiently clayey or silty, a hole may be

excavated by an auger or other means. The hole will stay
open long enough to drop in a pile (Figure 4-17). Even some
sands have enough clay or silt to permit the digging or drilling
of a hole. Sand or pea gravel may then be poured and tamped
into the cavity around the pile. Final driving is performed with a
sledge hammer or large weight. Again, this does not provide
as good load resistance as driving the pile into the ground.
If precast concrete piles or steel piles are used for
foundation support and elevation, only a regular pile driver with
leads and single- or double-acting hammer should be used.
The hammer should deliver at least 15,000 foot-pounds of
energy. Steel piles are less desirable because of

corrosion problems. Concrete piles can be practical when
combined with either precast concrete floor beams or with
wood floor beams as shown in Figure 4-18. Such a structural
system can be efficient, economical, and weather and storm
resistant. Proper connections between piles and floor beams
and between floor joists and floor beams are necessary.
4.3.1.3 Posts. Wood posts are not recommended in coastal
high hazard areas (V zones) or coastal A zones subject to
wave forces and/or scour and erosion. This is because wood
posts have low resistance to lateral forces, and there is
potential for undermining of the foundation or footing
supporting the post.
Wood posts can be used in locations where the
anticipated wind and flood water forces are low enough to be
resisted by a simpler substructure system. The bottoms of the
posts should be bolted to metal straps or angles that are firmly
attached to the foundation. The foundation may consist of
reinforced concrete spread footings, usually with a reinforced
concrete slab, or it may be a concrete pile or pier cast in place
in the ground with adequate penetration to resist the applied
loads. If the posts have good knee bracing or are otherwise
laterally supported, they can resist the lateral forces of slowmoving flood waters (not waves) as well as winds of
moderately high velocity.
Figure 4-18. Sketch of foundation for house near Malibu Beach, California.
4.3.1.4 Piers. In some areas it is common to use reinforced

masonry piers to elevate residential structures. If used in V
zones or coastal A zones, piers must be properly reinforced
and adequately anchored to a foundation that extends to
sufficient depth to resist scour and lateral forces. Generally, a
likely place for pier construction is back from the beach, or in
other areas where flood waters move in and out with low
velocity, such as small bays.
Figure 4-19. Sketch of concrete masonry unit pier.
Figure 4-20. Concrete masonry unit piers supporting concrete

framing platform.
One region where piers are commonly used in V zones

is the Florida Keys. Foundations there are socketed several
feet into holes augered in the limestone, and then either
concrete or reinforced masonry piers are used to elevate the
first floor.
Footings should be at least 3 feet square and embedded at

least 2 feet below grade. The grade beams should be at least
12 inches deep below the base slab all around the perimeter of
the house, with similar beams under the slab running at right
angles to the beach and parallel to the direction of potential
water flow. The grade beams should be at least 18 inches wide
and have at least two 5/8-inch-diameter bars top and bottom. If
clay occurs within 2 feet of the footing or grade beam, a
professional should design the foundations to provide
adequate vertical and lateral resistance.
The required
reinforcement for various pier sizes under ranges of wind and
associated water loads is provided in Appendix A. The slab on
grade should be concrete with suitable steel mesh
reinforcement.
At locations protected from scour and erosion, piers may

be founded on conventional spread footings, grade beams, or
slabs on grade. The pier acts as a beam cantilevered from the
base slab, and grade beams or footings resist horizontal
bending caused by wind and water forces (Figure 4-19).
Therefore, a substantial spread footing or grade beam with
reinforcing steel dowels extending into the pier to resist tensile
stresses is required.

beams, floor joists, wall studs and plates, roof (ceiling) joist,
and wall and floor sheathing.
4.3.2.1 Framing Methods. The most common framing method
presently in use is platform construction. This method is
suitable for all the foundation systems previously discussed
and is in widespread use throughout the country for residential
construction. Platform construction in the beach environment
primarily means bringing the elevating
Figure 4-21. Floor beams bolted to wood metal straps tying floor
joists to floor beams.
Wherever piers are used in coastal areas, there should

be a positive connection at the top of the pier from the concrete
in the hollow-core masonry units to the floor beams. This
connection may be reinforcing steel dowels cast into a
concrete floor beam (Figure 4-20) or it may be a well-anchored
metal strap bolted through the floor beam (Figure 4-19).
4.3.2 Framing
Once the required elevation is achieved by the methods
described in the preceding section, the next step is to frame the
floor, wall, and roof systems. The framing provides the
structural support or skeleton for the remainder of the building
and is made up of the floor
Figure 4-22. Pole construction details.

foundation, either piles or piers, up to the first-floor level (Figure
4-21). Between these supports span the floor beams, to which
the floor joist framing is connected. A diaphragm or wood floor
system ties the floor joists together to form the platform. A
platform is constructed for each floor surface. Once the platform
is built, walls, subsequent floors, and the roof are framed above
the platform and properly connected to it.
The other framing method used in residential
construction is pole construction. This system differs mainly in
that the foundation members (usually piles) are extended
above the level of the first floor to the roof framing (Figure 422). Floor and roof beams then are framed directly to these
members, securely anchoring the entire structure.
This
technique can be very effective in resisting severe storm
conditions, as it ties the structure together throughout its height
and increases the ability to resist laterally applied forces.
These systems are usually more successful using square wood
piles for the foundation m. Compared to cylindrical piles,
square shapes make framing easier and better accommodate
interior partitioning.
Pole framing can provide an unusual structure and
architecturally stimulating spaces both inside and outside.
Pole frame houses have the disadvantage that errors or
Difficulties in pile installation can result in pile spacings and
orientations that make subsequent framing and finishing of
the house difficult.
However, careful measurement and
other precautions during pile installation can generally prevent
such problems. The best pole framing designs are those that
have ample tolerance for pile installation error.
4.3.2.2 Beams. The primary floor beams spanning between
supports should preferably span in the direction parallel to he
flow of potential flood water and wave action. This orientation
(normally at right angles to the beachfront
Figure 4-23. Typical pile, floor beam, floor joist arrangement,

showing bolted beam/pile connection and hurricane clip
connections to floor joists.
allows the lowest transverse member perpendicular to flow to

be the floor joist. Thus, in an extreme flood the beams would
not be subjected to the full force of the storm water along their
more exposed surfaces. This also reduces the potential for
floating debris to overturn the structure and places the lowest
obstacle to flow above the floor beam.
Typically these beams are either built-up members
(Figure 4-23) made from two "two-by" pieces of lumber (i.e., two
2-by-10's or two 2-by-12's) or are solid members such as 4-by10's or 4-by-12's. Solid beam members often are more difficult
to obtain and are not always available at local lumber outlets.
Solid beams do, however, offer higher fiber stress ratings in
relation to built-up beams of a similar nominal size. Therefore,
a solid member is capable of larger load than a member built
up to the same dimensions. In many areas, "glulam" (gluedlaminated)

webs simplify the installation of wiring and plumbing the webs.
Depths of the beams typically range from 8 to 20 inches (in 2inch increments), with flange widths up to about 2-1/2 inches.
Typically available lengths range up to 36 feet. Web stiffeners
may be required at bearing points.
The individual
manufacturer's recommendations should be followed with
regard to handling, web stiffening, and selection of size for a
required span.
In the velocity zone, cross bridging of all floor joists is
recommended due to the additional load factors related to the
structure's elevation.
The elevation makes the floors
(particularly the first floor) more accessible to uplift wind forces,
as well as to the forces of moving water, wave impact, and
floating debris.
Figure 4-24. Laminated beam connected to round timber pile using
1/2-inch steel plate, hot-dipped galvanized after fabrication.
members, pressure treated, are available and suitable for use

in place of solid members (Figure 4-24).
Residential structures in coastal high hazard areas
typically range from 20 to 40 feet in the dimension parallel to
flood flow. Since floor beams in those lengths are difficult to
find and hard to handle, it is common to use splices (Figure 423). Splices may occur in several places and should be
located directly over supports. Figure 4-23 also shows metal
joist anchors tying floor joists to the floor beam.
4.3.2.3 Joists and Rafters. A type of joist coming into
increasing use is the wooden I-beam, manufactured with
structural wood flanges and a structural plywood web (Figure
4-25). I-beam joists are lighter and can be produced in longer
lengths than standard lumber; the thin
Cross bridging methods are included here because

local building codes may not require this desirable practice.
The following are cross bridging recommendations:
Nominal 1-by-3's at 8-foot-on-center maximum

Solid bridging same depth as joist at 8-foot-on-center
maximum.
4.3.2.4 Subflooring. Presently, two common methods are in
use for subfloor construction. These are the use of nominal 1by-4 or 1-by-6 boards placed diagonally over the floor joist
(either tongue-and-groove or square-edge with expansion
space between boards) and the use of plywood subflooring to
create a floor diaphragm. When a plywood subfloor is
planned, guidelines for thickness and methods of attachment in
relation to joist spacing can be obtained from the "Plywood
Construction Guide" of the American Plywood Association.
Due to the high-moisture environment, plywood used as
subflooring material must incorporate exterior glue as the
adhesive between each layer. Information describing

the glue system can be found in the grade stamp on each
sheet of plywood.
Subflooring is typically nailed directly to the floor joists.
In coastal high hazard areas, nailing with annular ring nails or
deformed shank nails is recommended. These nails provide
extra strength against pulling out when the floor system is
exposed to loads other than gravity. Their holding ability is
substantially greater than common or galvanized nails when
stressed by wind, velocity flooding, or wave impact.
A system of nailing and adhesive application of plywood
with tongue-and-groove joints along the long edges of the
sheet avoids the need for blocking along these edges. This
system produces a more level floor and offers a stronger
diaphragm action to resist horizontal wave forces.
4.3.2.5 Studs. Most commonly used are 2-by-4 wood studs,
16 inches on center. Recently, in areas where cold weather is
anticipated, 2-by-6 studs have been used to permit 50 percent
thicker wall insulation. Metal studs have been used for some
time on larger structures and are now becoming common on
low-rise, multifamily structures and, to a lesser extent, on
single-family residences. The general configurations of metal
stud walls are similar to the equivalent wood stud wall.
4.3.2.6 Wall Sheathing. Plywood is the most typical sheathing
in use for exterior walls. The major advantages of plywood are
that it braces the wall framing to resist racking stresses and
forms a continuous tie from floor beam to top plate when
properly installed (Figure 4-26).
Plywood used for sheathing structures elevated not
more than 10 feet should be exterior grade and not less than
15/32 inch thick. Nailing should be with 6d nails, spaced 6
inches along the edges of the panel and 12 inches on
intermediate studs.
Figure 4-25. Wooden I-beam.
Structures elevated more than 10 feet should be

sheathed with 3/4-inch exterior grade plywood, nailed with 8d
nails, spaced 6 inches on edges and 12 inches on
intermediate studs. Deformed shank or annular ring nails and
plywood with exterior glue are recommended, as described
above in the subflooring section.

4.3.2.7 Wall Bracing. Wood frame walls must be braced to
resist wind forces, which can cause racking. Bracing of vertical
walls is typically a building industry standard, with several
methods in common use. Wind forces present in the coastal
high hazard environment lend more significance to this bracing
than in other areas. Additional wind loadings and lateral forces
of both moving water and wave action add to the total loads on
a building and are particularly significant factors in bracing
vertical walls.
Typical wall bracing methods are a let-in diagonal wood
brace, diagonal boards, and plywood (Figure 4-27). One
method similar to the let-in diagonal brace in common use
today is a light gauge, galvanized steel strap nailed diagonally
to each stud at the outside corners of framed walls. Plywood
sheathing is the recommended method for wall bracing, and
placement of plywood sheets and nailing should follow
recommendations of the American Plywood Association, using
annular ring nails. Plywood sheathing should cover the bottom
plate and floor joist and the top plate of the wall, as shown on
Figure 4-27. If the height from joist to top plate is greater than
8 feet, panels of approximately equal size should be cut to
span the height, rather than using one 8-foot panel with a fill-in
of a few inches. Plywood sheathing should be used at all
corners and should extend at least 4 feet in each direction from
each corner.
Figure 4-26. Wall sheathing tie from roof to foundation.
4.3.2.8 Roof Details. Roof trusses are nearly universally used

today for roof framing, and can be purchased in either stock or
custom sizes and shapes. They are typically made from 2-by4's and 2-by-6's, with the larger members used for longer
spans. Older homes and some remodeling projects have used
the traditional construction with individual rafters cut from 2-by6's or 2-by-8's. Trusses and rafters are spaced at either 16
inches or 24 inches, and sheathed with plywood. Heavier
plywood is generally used for the 24-inch truss or rafter
spacing. Trusses or rafters generally extend 1 or 2 feet over
the exterior walls at both the eaves
Figure 4-28. Gable/overhang failure.
and gable ends. Gable end extensions often use a hanging

rafter that is essentially supported by the roof sheathing and
trim.
The shape and structural details of a roof are important
due to the significant wind forces affecting this part of the
structure. Loss of all or part of a roof will result in significant
damage to the building and contents, and can result in the total
failure or collapse of the entire superstructure. Even among
those remaining intact, some roof types have been shown to
provide less obstruction to wind, exhibit better structural
integrity, and be less prone to shingle loss and water leaks
than others.
Figure 4-27. Corner wood bracing.
Of the traditional sloping roof designs, hip roofs appear

to perform best, as they do not present any flat

faces to the wind regardless of wind direction. These sloping
faces also add to the performance of the roofing material.
Gable roofs are the most common roof design and
generally perform well, provided the gable ends of the roof are
constructed properly. Gable ends are vulnerable to damage
due to the significant wind uplift forces at the roof peak,
compounded by structurally weak gable vent devices that often
blow out in storms. Figure 4-2B shows a structure damaged
by Hurricane Elena when the gable area failed.
Additional rigidity and stability of a gable roof framing
system can be provided by installing 2-by-4 blocking on 2-foot
centers between the roof rafters or
trusses for about 8 feet at each end of the house. This will not
only strengthen the roof but will provide additional nailing
surface for roof sheathing materials. Using construction
adhesives in addition to nails when installing roof sheathing
will also improve uplift resistance.
Older flat roofs have not performed well in severe
storms. Heavy rainfall causes ponding on the roofs, often
resulting in water infiltration and interior water damage.
Additionally, flat roofs are susceptible to uplift suction forces
from high winds, causing loss of roofing material.
Less commonly used designs have often not performed
well, due to overlooked areas of weakness. Gambrel or "barn"
roofs, for example, have a mid-roof slope change at which
plywood decking cannot be lapped to strengthen the
Figure 4-29. Porch overhang damaged by wind uplift.

4-30. Performance of braced piles at left vs. unbraced piles at right.
Figure 4-31. Performance of braced piles in foreground vs.

unbraced piles in background.
Figure 4-32. Effect of Hurricane Frederic's wind and water forces

pile system.
joint. One gambrel roof observed by Rogers (1985) was well

joined at the wall connection around the exterior but failed at
the slope change and at the peak.
reported (Rogers, 1985), and damage to porches surveyed in

the same study was extensive. Figure 4-29 shows a large
porch overhang that was damaged by wind uplift forces.
Roof overhangs and porches are common in coastal

construction and require careful detailing when used.
Overhangs on the water side of a structure provide a shaded
seating area and an unencumbered view of the water. Ceiling
and roof framing members are extended to provide structural
support for the overhang. If column supports are used, they
are commonly only lightly attached. Design of overhangs and
porches is particularly important due to the large wind uplift
forces on overhangs. Failures of overhangs 2 feet or less in
width have been
4.3.3 Foundation Bracing

Bracing of the foundation piles that elevate coastal zone
residences can be very effective in minimizing storm damage.
As mentioned throughout this manual, connections of structural
elements are critical. Bolting--not nailing--is necessary at all
joints. The size of bracing members is important. Bracing
members should be considered as critical to the structural
resistance of a foundation system as are the piles and the floor
beams. The sizing of bracing
Figure 4-33. Knee braces.
Figure 4-34. Wood grade beam in both directions.
members and connections is discussed in more detail in

Appendix B.
It must be emphasized that bracing members alone do

not make an elevated residence storm resistant. Properly
sized piles, adequate pile embedment, and good connections
from the floor beams to the roof are all essential to making a
building damage resistant. No weak links can be permitted in
coastal construction, or storm resistance is reduced or
eliminated.
Figure 4-30 shows two adjacent elevated buildings. The

nearer light-colored building had bracing, which can be seen
more clearly in Figure 4-31. Note that wave action during
Hurricane Frederic has scoured about 4 feet of sand from
under these buildings, as can be seen by examining paint lines
and discoloration on the piles. The light-colored building's
foundation piles remain essentially vertical. However, its
neighbor did not have bracing, so the piles lean backward from
the beach as is visible in Figure 4-31 and shown more clearly
from the east end of the building in Figure 4-32.
It is also
possible that the piles of the building in Figure 4-32 were
inadequately embedded.
It also should be noted that the use of bracing or grade

beams below the BFE is questioned by some designers,
because these members obstruct flow and have a potential for
increasing erosion.
Alternative methods for providing
resistance to the lateral forces of wind and water are available.
One such alternative is the use of battered piles around the
perimeter of the structure; batter piles

are more difficult to install but have greater lateral resistance
than vertical piles. Another alternative, where a deck is to be
constructed, is to utilize the lateral resistance of the piles
supporting the deck to supplement the piles supporting the
house itself. Strong structural connections are required to
provide this support, however.
Figure 4-33, can be effective in supporting the piles against

lateral forces, providing the brace is substantial with good
connections. Suggested types and sizes of bracing members
and connections are included in Appendix B.
4.3.3.1 Knee Braces. For residences elevated to about 8 or

10 feet, diagonal bracing or knee braces can be effective in
supporting the pile against the lateral forces of wind and water.
Tables in the appendices of this manual can assist in
determining when bracing is required.
But even when
calculations may permit the omission of bracing, it is good
practice to strengthen the foundation system with some
bracing. Knee braces, shown in
4.3.3.2 Grade Beams. An important part of bracing piles is

providing some support at the ground line. This may come from
tying the piles together in both directions with wood grade
beams, such as 8-by-8's firmly attached to the piles (Figure 434). Reinforced concrete grade beams, as part of a slab on
grade, are also suitable. Figures 4-35 and 4-36 show slabs
that were undermined by scour but remain in place to support
the piles against lateral forces. It would be better to have the
slab thickened at the edge and also extending out and around
the exterior piles, as shown in Figure 4-37.
Figure 4-35. Slab undermined by storm scour.
Figure 4-36. Perimeter grade beam provided additional stability.
Double level truss bracing system.
Figure 4-37. Slab on grade with thickened edge perimeter grade beam.
Figure 4-38.
Some designers believe an underhouse concrete slab

should not be tied to piles or grade beams but purposely
allowed to settle with changes in ground elevation without
affecting the piling. This idea has some validity, particularly if
erosion is expected. There is also a difference of opinion
among designers regarding the use of grade beams. Their use
may improve the lateral resistance of pile foundations;
however, they may increase the wave forces on the foundation
and the scour around the foundation.
This manual
recommends the use of grade beams because they function to
strengthen the piling during the worst part of severe storms.
Disadvantages of
potentially increased scour are normally more than offset by

the stiffer foundation system.
4.3.3.3 Truss Bracing. When a house must be elevated
about 10 feet or more above grade, and particularly when the
design wind speed is 100 mph or greater, more substantial
bracing may be necessary and it must be designed
carefully. Figure 4-38 shows a double-level truss system
constructed perpendicular to the beach to resist water waves
and wind on structures elevated 12 feet or more above grade.
Figure 4-39 shows a single-level truss bracing system that can
be used when a house is elevated to about 12 feet above
grade.

Some details of truss member forces, size of members,
and connection details are included in Appendix B. It is
obvious that houses elevated to greater heights require more
bracing and this increases the costs of the foundation
supporting system. Details of the member connection plates
and number and size of bolts are also presented in Appendix
B.
4.3.3.4 Shear Walls. Another kind of structure for resisting
lateral forces is shear wall construction. A shear wall is
generally made of reinforced concrete or reinforced concrete
masonry. It acts as a deep beam in resisting forces in the
plane of the wall. This type of construction is quite substantial
and can be expensive relative to the types mentioned
previously. If there is need to resist winds on the order of 100
mph or more, and if water waves will act on the structure, there
is probably a need for a deep foundation. The shear walls
must be firmly attached through grade beams to the piles. This
becomes expensive for single-family residences. However, for
motels and apartment or commercial buildings the design
professional may provide an economical combination of shear
walls and piles, possibly of concrete.
(live load), and modest loads imposed by wind. Under normal

conditions and with typical methods of attachment (toe nailing
and anchor bolts), these loads acting downward through
gravity hold the building's structural framework together.
However, these loads represent only a portion of the
loads imposed on any structural system in the high hazard
coastal zones. Additional forces are applied to these structures
by wind, velocity flooding, wave impact, and floating debris.
The structural systems must be capable of withstanding these
loads and still support the structure and its occupants. Building
codes and common sense guide the and/or builder to firmly
connect the roof to the walls, the walls to the floor joists, the
floor joists to the floor beams, and the floor beams to the
foundation.
Shear wall concepts are described in Chapter 5;

however, the details of such designs require an engineer and
are not included in this manual.
4.3.4 Connections
One of the most critical aspects of building in a coastal
high hazard area is the method of connecting the structural
members.
A substantial difference exists between
conventional connections in typical construction and those
required to withstand coastal forces and environmental
conditions. Construction in noncoastal areas must support
loads imposed by the weight of the building materials (dead
load), weight of people and objects
Figure 4-39. Single level truss bracing system.

fasteners, and several other items that, when properly
designed for coastal conditions, meet performance criteria.
Each of the previously discussed means of achieving
elevation allows several successful methods for tying the main
floor beams to the foundation. Some methods are unique to a
particular foundation system, while others apply to several
types of elevated foundations with little or no modification. An
anchorage system should meet the following criteria:
Withstands all anticipated forces without structural

failure.
Continues to perform satisfactorily when materials

Figure 4-40. Floor joists insufficiently attached to floor beams by
end nailing alone.
A vital feature of any acceptable anchorage system is

that it be continuous from foundation through floor framing,
walls, and even roof framing in order that all portions of the
structural framework are mechanically tied together.
In the coastal area, anchorage devices are exposed not
only to additional loads but also to a corrosive and destructive
environment that can rapidly deteriorate and destroy
improperly protected materials. Extra precautions must be
taken to ensure these devices will continue to perform over an
extended time period. Though extra precautions in design,
detailing, and workmanship are necessary, most appropriate
anchorage methods are common to the carpentry trade.
Basically, they include the use of bolts, metal straps, tie rods,
mechanical
are wet, as well as under wetting and drying

conditions.
Is protected to withstand corrosive conditions without

loss of strength for many years, preferably for the
lifetime of the building.
Is readily available and requires only normal

carpentry for installation.
This section of the design manual presents some of the
recommended details for connections. Methods of anchoring
the foundation to the floor, floor to walls, and walls to roof are
discussed. Design tables in Appendix A include the average
uplift forces per foot of wall at various locations throughout the
structure. With this information the designer/builder is able to
determine the need for and type of connectors that provide
adequate resistance to wind and water forces.
It is emphasized that simple nailing, especially toe
nailing, is not acceptable for wood construction in the coastal
high hazard areas. Figure 4-40 shows floor joist and floor
beam connections that failed during Hurricane

Frederic. Generally, galvanized metal straps or other metal
joist anchors (with nails) or specially designed wood-to-wood
connectors are used. In joining wood members subject to
dynamic loads from wind, waves, or earthquake, it is important
to have strong connections. Bolts, lag bolts, or nails at right
angles to the direction of force (not toe or end nailing) are used
to provide the greatest resistance and reserve, or factor of
safety. Sketches of various connections are included here for
locations of special concern.
4.3.4.1 Roof to Wall. Probably the most critical structural
connections are those between the roof and walls. The roof
connections are critical because at that level there can be
relatively large wind uplift forces combined with the dead load
of the roof itself. Also, these connections of roof structure to
stud walls are limited in number; at most they can occur at
every roof rafter or truss. At lower levels in the house one can
use nailed plywood sheathing in addition to strap connections
on the stud walls to resist uplift forces.
It is most important that toe nailing alone not be used for
connecting roof rafters to the top plate of the walls. This is
because the pull out resistance of toe nails is low, partially due
to the tendency to split the wood in the toe-nailed member. A
number of galvanized metal connectors, such as those shown
in Figures 4-41 and 4-42, have been developed that place the
nails in a preferred orientation to best resist uplift and lateral
forces. Manufacturers provide brochures with the necessary
design information. The local design professional, builder, or
building supplier can provide information regarding the
capacity of various connectors when properly used.
The capacity of these connections directly depends on
the number of nails and their individual capacity to resist loads
transverse to their axis. Pull out resistance along the axis is not
used; rather, the nails are placed at
Figure 4-41. Metal strap roof anchor.

right angles (perpendicular) to the wood members. The
capacity of various size nails and other connectors to resist the
forces in such connections is given in Appendix A. The number
of nails counted in figuring the total connection capacity of a
given joint is the lower number, which may occur on either side
of the joint. For example, in the connection of a roof rafter to
the top plate of a wall, if five nails are driven in the roof rafter
and four in the top plate, the capacity of the connection is
limited by the four nails on the lower side of the joint, into the
plate.
Tables in Appendix A present the uplift forces that must
be resisted at the roof-to-wall connection as a function of
design wind speed and the width and length of the house. The
data are given as the average force per foot of wall. If the roof
rafters or roof trusses are spaced at more than 1 2 inches on
center (a common spacing is 16 inches on center), the uplift
forces are calculated by the following formula:
rafter spacing in inches
forces = (force per foot) x
12 inches
This provides the uplift force to be resisted by the connection of

roof rafter to top plate of the wall. For example, with 16-inch
rafter spacing, the force per foot of wall would be multiplied
(increased) by the ratio of 16/12, or 1.33.
Figure 4-42. Metal plate roof anchor.
The uplift forces and required connections at the exterior

ends of the roof rafters or trusses described above and given in
the referenced design tables are based on only the exterior
walls resisting uplift forces and no interior walls being tied to
the roof by straps or other metal connectors. To supplement
the exterior connections, it is also effective to have a positive
connection from the ridge line of the roof down through interior
stud walls to the

floor system and subsequently the foundation.
particularly helpful in higher winds.
This is
For the higher design wind speeds the uplift forces are
great and may require special connections or, at the least,
several of the standard connectors at each rafter. Also, roof
rafters or trusses should be spaced not more than 16 inches on
center unless special connections are provided. It is likely that
a design professional, an engineer or architect, will be needed
to design against these higher wind speeds.
Recommendations in this design manual are not
sufficiently specific nor all-inclusive to cover fully all design of
connections or other structural elements for design wind
speeds higher than 140 mph. However, such high wind
speeds are limited to a small portion of the U.S. coastline.
Moreover, the information in this publication can be of
assistance to the design professional even in this most severe
wind environment.
4.3.4.2 Wall to Floor Joists. Exterior walls are used as

tension members to transfer wind uplift forces at the roof down
to the resistance provided by the foundation of piles or spread
footings. The plywood sheathing should be well nailed into the
top plate of the stud wall and at the bottom into the floor joists
and band beams. It is not adequate merely to nail the plywood
sheathing to the bottom plate of the stud wall because the
bottom plate nails to the floor joists may pull out. If the
sheathing does not extend to the bottom of the floor joists, it is
necessary to use galvanized metal strap connections from the
exterior wall studs to the floor joists. The capacity of these
connections depends on the number of nails used. As
mentioned above, manufacturers' brochures are used by
designers and builders to ascertain the connectors' capacity
and thus the spacing required.
4.3.4.3 Floor Joist to Floor Beam. Below the first-floor level, a

positive connection to resist wind uplift forces is required
between the floor joists and the floor beams. The necessity for
positive connections at this and other levels of a coastal
structure was shown in Figure 4-21. Hurricane wind uplift
forces raised the structure slightly, stretching the metal straps,
which then bulged as shown when the winds subsided. Metal
connectors have been developed by manufacturers that
provide efficient nail arrangements to resist the uplift forces
(Figure 4-43).
A good wood connection detail has also been
developed (Figure 4-44). The advantage of this detail over
other methods for anchoring these members together is in the
use of wood rather than corrosion-susceptible steel as the
connecting unit. Further details on wood joist anchors are
available in a pamphlet from University of North Carolina, Sea
Grant Publications (1984). Properly treated wood blocking,
with annual maintenance and preservative applied to cut ends,
will perform as designed for a substantially longer time than
steel connectors. As mentioned earlier, the number and size of
nails into the floor joist or floor beam governs the uplift capacity
of the connection.
4.3.4.4 Floor Beam to Pile, Post, or Pier. A major connection
is made between the floor beam and its support. In many
locations, this support is a pile embedded some distance into
the ground and extending far enough above the ground to
elevate the bottom of the floor beam above the BFE. The piles,
as described previously in this chapter, are frequently tapered
round wood members with a top diameter (at the floor beam
level) of about 11 inches or more. Many builders prefer to use
square, rough-sawn piles, either 10 by 10 or 8 by 8 inches in
size. Where the lateral forces and potential for erosion due to
flood waters are less severe than near the ocean beach, wood
posts or reinforced concrete masonry unit piers may be used.

Appendix A presents the uplift capacity of various size
bolts used to connect through floor beams to piles or posts.
Note that washers should be used under all nuts and bolt
heads bearing directly on wood. Figures 4-43 through 4-52
show typical connections, including metal straps on the sides
of floor beams and piles and floor beams notched into the
sides of piles. Care must be taken in designing and
constructing these connections.
For the steel plate connection illustrated in Figure 452, a 1/4-inch-thick steel plate is inserted into the top of the
pile. The plate may be predrilled for the bolts and galvanized
after drilling for maximum corrosion protection. A built-up
beam is then bolted through the plate at each pile as indicated.
This connection provides a much stiffer joint and reduces the
"pull out" potential as compared to a bolt through wood only.
This detail would be particularly effective in areas where uplift
forces from extremely high winds are likely. An as-built
example of a steel plate connector is shown in Figure 4-24.
The 1/2-inch-thick connector was hot-dipped galvanized
after fabrication.
Figure 4-53 shows a double-notched pile at a house
under construction. Only 25 percent of the pile area remains;
with water impact, the pile likely would fail at the base of the
stub. Generally, the pile should be notched only enough to
provide a shelf for supporting the beam, and total notching
should not exceed 50 percent of the pile cross section.
Figure 5-54 shows weak connections between piles and floor
beams that failed during a storm. Figure 4-55 shows a steel
reinforcing bar that was used unsuccessfully to tie floor beam
to pile. Connections of floor beams to masonry piers are
illustrated in Figures 4-56 through 4-59.
Other methods not shown here are not necessarily
excluded, but the advice of a qualified professional should be
sought before their use.
Figure 4-43. Metal hurricane clips.
Figure 4-44. Wood joist anchors.
Figure 4-45. Wood joint anchor installation.
Figure 4-46. Double notched spaced

beam to pile connection.
Figure 4-47. Connection for built-up beam.
Figure 4-48. Connection at single notched pile.
Figure 4-49. Spiked grid connection.
Figure 4-51. Notched pile with gusset.
Figure 4-50. Mortised gusset connection.
Figure 4-52. Steel plate insert.
Figure 4-53. Over notched wood pile.
Figure 4-55. Steel reinforcing bar inadequate

to attach floor beam to this pile.
Figure 4-54. Failure of pile connections at floor beam

and at knee brace.
Figure 4-56. Masonry pier - strap anchor

connection.
Figure 4-57. Masonry pier - bolt through

beam connection.
Figure 4-58. Masonry pier - beam seat

connection.
Figure 4-59. Concrete masonry unit piers connected by galvanized

clips to floor beams.

4.3.5 Breakaway Walls
Elevation of a structure on a properly designed
foundation reduces the potential for water damage from
flooding. When the space below the lowest elevated floor is
maintained free of solid obstructions as well, the potential for
damage from waves or debris is further reduced. In recognition
of the desirability of using the sheltered space beneath
elevated structures, NFIP regulations permit certain limited
uses of enclosed space below the BFE. Uses such as parking
of vehicles, building access, or storage are permitted, as long
as the walls of any enclosures are designed as "breakaway."
A breakaway wall is a wall that is not part of the structural
support of the building, intended through its design and
construction to collapse under specific lateral (wind and
water) loading conditions without causing collapse,
displacement, or other structural damage to the elevated
portion of the building or supporting foundation system.
To ensure that breakaway walls withstand forces from
wind and everyday use, yet collapse under storm conditions,
current NFIP regulations require that a breakaway wall shall
have a design safe loading resistance of not less than 10 and
no more than 20 pounds per square foot. The regulations
allow walls with a greater loading resistance under certain
conditions, and when the design is certified by a registered
professional engineer or architect. The need for greater
loading resistance could be a result of design requirements or
required by local or State codes. In either case, the designer
must certify both of the following:
Breakaway wall collapse shall result from a water

load less than that which would occur during the
base flood.
The elevated portion of the building and
supporting foundation system shall not be subject
to collapse, displacement, or other
structural damage due to the effects of wind and

water loads acting simultaneously on all building
components
(structural
and
nonstructural).
Maximum wind and water loading values to be used
in this determination shall each have a I percent
chance of being equaled or exceeded in any given
year (100 year mean recurrence interval).
The uses that owners make of the sheltered space
beneath elevated homes has historically led to a wide range of
enclosure designs, from
insect screening to heavy
conventional walls.
Screening and lattice work are the lowest strength
enclosures and when properly constructed can serve their
intended function with little effect on the structural loadings on
the house.
These walls provide partial protection and
security for items stored under an elevated structure. Lattice
work is often used for architectural purposes, as shown by
Figure 4-60, to visually tie the house to its surroundings.
While screening and lattice provide some protection for
vehicles and stored items from salt spray and other
environmental conditions, full protection from the elements can
only be provided by a solid wall.
Walls providing this
protection from the elements can be designed to withstand
certain wind and water loads and to break away or fail when
design loads are exceeded.
Construction of walls stronger than the structural frame
of the building was designed to withstand will jeopardize the
integrity of the structure under storm conditions.
This
strengthening of the walls (i.e., by using extra fasteners) so that
they do not break away before damaging the structure may
occur during initial construction or as a result of later
modifications by the

4.3.5.1 Breakaway Wall Designs
Screening. One means for partially or fully enclosing
the area below the BFE is installation of metal or synthetic
screening to provide insect protection and minimal security.
Screening is fastened to pilings by nails, staples, or nailed
moldings, and will fail under small loads imposed by wind,
velocity water, or moving debris. Replacement costs are very
low.
Figure 4-60. Lattice enclosure under elevated structure.
Lattice.
Lattice work can be used for minimal
enclosures beneath an elevated structure. If fabricated using
light materials and properly connected to the foundation,
lattice will break away under small water loads. No portion of
the lattice wall should overlap the piles supporting the elevated
structure. The wall should be butt-connected to the piles.
owner.
Strong walls would allow excessive scour and
damaging wave runup during severe storms, while weaker
walls will break away before these effects become significant.
In accordance with the current NFIP regulations, which
provide the specific guidance stated above, this manual
recommends that only screening, lattice work, or light
breakaway walls be constructed below residential structures,
unless specifically designed by a registered professional
engineer or architect. As Figure 4-61 (of storm damage during
Hurricane Alicia) shows, structures can survive major storms
relatively intact when ground-level enclosure walls break
away.
Figure 4-61. Storm damage during Hurricane Alicia.

Figure 4-62 shows a lattice wall design using light
crisscross lattice that is available premade and sold in 4-by-8foot sheets. As shown in the figure, a 2-by-4 top plate is
permanently nailed into the floor beam and a 2-by-4 bottom
plate is permanently attached to the grade beam. Wall studs (2
by 4's) are toe-nailed into the top and bottom plate using two
8d nails. The premade lattice (1/4 by 1-1/2 inches) is nailed to
the frame using galvanized nails. This wall will have a
working strength of approximately 10 psf and will fail as a
result of material failure in the lattice.
Lattice walls that use larger (i.e., 1-by-4 to 1-by-8)
boards have greater inherent strength than crisscross lattice,
even when the open/solid space ratio is the same. While the
light lattice wall will fail in the lattice material even if the frame
is overbuilt, the stronger lattice wall likely will fail at the
connections under a much higher loading. Because of the
difficulty in accurately predicting the material strength of
heavier lattice walls, it is recommended that the wall be
designed to fail at the connections. The wall attachment
concept and nailing systems for these heavier lattice walls are
the same as described below for wood stud walls.
Wood Stud Walls. Most solid breakaway walls under
elevated single-family residences are of wood stud
construction. A wood stud breakaway wall design is shown in
Figure 4-63. Permanent top and bottom plates (2 by 4) are
respectively nailed to the floor beam and grade beam with
permanent high strength fasteners or nails. A 2-by-4
breakaway frame that consists of studs (toe-nailed with two 10d
nails) and top and bottom nailer plates is attached to the
permanent top and bottom plates with nails sized and spaced
to give the required lateral capacity. Care should be taken that
the 10d nails do not penetrate into the permanent top and
bottom plates. The frame is then covered with plywood or other
sheathing that is either
Figure 4-62. Lattice wall.

butted to the piles or allows for a small clearance. The
sheathing must not overlap the permanent plates or the
piles.
It is planned that the walls would be placed as a unit and
then nailed as prescribed at the top and bottom to permanent
nailer plates already securely attached to the floor system and
grade beam or slab. The permanent nailer plate is an essential
component of the wall system and provides a predictable point
of attachment for the wall. The wall is designed to fail at the
nailed connections to the permanent nailer plate. Various
sizes and spacings of the nails could be used to achieve the
desired resistance to lateral load. The capacities of 8d through
16d common nails in shear are shown on Table A-11. Table A12 provides a nailing schedule for normal combinations of
breakaway wall height and pile spacing to result in a wall with
a design safe loading resistance between 10 and 20 psf.
Metal Stud Walls. Metal studs, which have been
commonly used on larger structures, are now being used more
frequently on low-rise multifamily structures and to a lesser
extent on single-family residences.
Unless properly
galvanized, metal studs will corrode rapidly in the coastal
environment.
Figure 4-63. Wood stud breakaway wall.
Figure 4-64 shows a light-gauge metal stud wall design.

The wall attachment concept and nailing system is the same as
the wood stud wall design discussed above.
Fastener
capacities for the self-tapping screws commonly used to attach
the metal stud wall to the more firmly secured wood nailer also
are shown on Table A-11, and a fastener schedule for common
wall height/pile spacings is shown on Table A-12. Note that
the failure capacity of metal stud wall systems can be more
accurately determined than for wood systems and a lower
safety factor can be used.

Masonry Walls. Full masonry walls for enclosures
under structures are common in larger buildings, though in
south Florida they are used in all types of structures. Masonry
walls can be constructed either unreinforced or reinforced.
Figure 4-65 shows a wall that can be constructed with or
without reinforcement. The pins at the top of the wall are to
maintain the stability of the wall under design wind loadings.
The sides and top of the wall must not have bonded contact to
the structure. If unreinforced, the wall will likely fail in shear in
the mortar prior to shearing the retaining pins.
An
unreinforced masonry wall with mortared joints, constructed as
shown in Figure 4-65, will have a design safe loading
resistance of about 20 psf (assuming an 8-foot-high wall and
1,800 psi Type S mortar), and would meet NFIP criteria for
breakaway walls.
If reinforced, the wall is restrained by dowel pins at the
top and reinforcing bars at the bottom. The placement of dowel
pins and reinforcing bars permits a more accurate
determination of the strength of the wall before failure occurs.
Failure will begin with the pins shot into the main structure
rather than with the mortar in the wall. This is due to the
reinforcing. Once the pins fail, the wall will cantilever with the
reinforcing bars at the bottom of the wall, providing additional
resistance to failure until the wall's capacity is reached. The
lateral capacity of the reinforced masonry wall will vary
depending on the size and spacing of the reinforcing bars.
Because the loading resistance of a reinforced masonry wall
exceeds NFIP criteria, such walls should be used only when
designed by a registered professional engineer or architect.
Figure 4-64. Light gauge metal stud breakaway wall.
4.3.5.2 Design Considerations for Breakaway Walls. A

number of design considerations are required when a solid
enclosure wall, or even a partially open wall, is placed

beneath the BFE. Governing the design process are the
following primary concerns:
Enclosure walls must be constructed to withstand

loading forces from moderately high winds, with a
normal factor of safety. At a minimum, this load
capacity would be the design wind load required by
the local building code. If the code-required design
load is greater than the 20 psf allowed by NFIP
regulations, the code should prevail.
At high wind speeds and/or under water loading, the

wall must fail without causing damage to the
foundation or superstructure, either from lateral
loading or wave runup/ramping into the rest of the
structure. This is the failure load or ultimate load
capacity of the wall.
For small enclosures or relatively close pile

spacings, it can be assumed that all piles within the
enclosed area resist wind and water loads against
walls below the BFE. For larger enclosures or wider
pile spacing, only a limited number of piles can be
brought into action to resist lateral loading. Additional
bracing will be required for front row piles supporting
the wall receiving water loading.
Solid enclosure walls below the BFE increase

potential for wave scour at grade beams and piles,
particularly for stronger walls.
Figure 4-65. Masonry breakaway wall.
Wind Forces.
Design for breakaway walls must
consider wind forces on the house superstructure, which are
transmitted to and resisted by the foundation system, as well as
wind forces on the breakaway wall, which are also transmitted
to the house frame and foundations until the lateral resistance
of the wall or its fasteners is exceeded.

The wind load on a breakaway wall is considered to be applied
as a uniform load per square foot of vertical wall, which can be
resolved into a resultant load applied along the fastened
edge(s) of the wall.
Wind direction during storm events is often from
offshore. However, in design of houses and breakaway walls,
the wind should be assumed to blow potentially from any
lateral direction relative to the house.
Water Forces. In addition to wind loads on the entire
house, water loads on the portions of the structure below the
BFE must be considered. These water loads include both
simple hydrostatic pressure from a slow rise in stillwater depth
and the forces of waves against the structure. The BFE for a
given area is the maximum height of stillwater plus waves
above which a structure must be elevated, as illustrated in
Figure 4-66a. When the area below the BFE is obstructed by a
wall, wave runup occurs on the wall. In this case, illustrated in
Figure 4-66b, water reaches the BFE on the wall when the
stillwater plus unobstructed waves remain well below the BFE.
To prevent water damage to floor beams and suspended
utilities, breakaway walls should be designed to fail when or
before wave runup reaches the BFE.
Structural Considerations.
Designing for ultimate
capacity requires that the breakaway wall strength at failure be
predetermined, and that sizes and spacings of components be
selected to assure failure at the desired location and loading. It
is not sufficient for enclosure walls to merely break away; they
must do so predictably.
The best enclosure wall designs use simple construction
techniques, materials, and connections.
Recommended
breakaway wall concepts that meet these requirements were
described in the previous section.
Figure 4-66 a&b. Effect of enclosure walls on waves.

Connections. Breakaway walls should be constructed
such that they are fastened to the structural frame on two
opposite ends only, either top-and-bottom fastening or
fastening on each side. Under lateral loading they will then
bend in one plane only, stressing the connections
approximately equally.
Top-and-bottom connections are
preferred and are recommended in this report for three
reasons. First, while wind forces are essentially uniform over a
flat wall, water forces will be concentrated at the bottom of the
wall as the water rises. It is appropriate structurally to have
the lower edge remain firmly connected at lower water levels
and its connections reach their ultimate capacity uniformly
across the bottom as the water rises. Second, stud walls are
generally installed with the studs vertical, and should be flexed
along the length of the studs. Third, and most importantly,
loads on breakaway walls need to be directed into the floor
system of the first elevated floor, in order to assure distribution
of the loads to adjacent piles. Side fastening would direct too
great a portion of the total load into the piles on the loaded
wall.
Included in the above considerations is the basic
premise that, unless designed by a registered professional,
breakaway walls should be proportioned such that wall
strength is governed by the wall's connections to the pile
foundation/grade beam system and to the bottom of the
elevated floor system. Experience has shown that it is more
reliable--and much easier--to design connections to fail at a
specified level of force rather than have the wall material fail
internally.
Working/Ultimate Strength of Fasteners. The safety
factor that is used in design depends on the materials used
and the accuracy with which one knows the design loads and
material properties. To compensate for these uncertainties,
working (or safe) load capacities of materials and connections
are generally taken
conservatively. The "design safe loading resistance" referred

to in the NFIP regulations corresponds to a working capacity.
The collapse or ultimate resistance of a wall would be higher,
corresponding to the factor of safety appropriate to the wall
materials and fasteners used. Table A-10 provides working
and ultimate strength values for fasteners that could be used
for breakaway wall connections.
It is important to note the effect of the different of safety
on the overall safe and ultimate capacities breakaway walls.
That is, walls of different construction, designed to the same
standard for safe capacity, will have different ultimate
capacities because of their differing factors of safety.
Distribution of Wall Loads. For breakaway walls, wind
and water loads cannot be distributed equally among the piles
under a structure. Compared to the upper superstructure, the
floor beams and joists are an insufficiently stiff system for
transfer of lateral loads over any distance.
It is therefore
reasonable to limit load distribution to among those piles in the
enclosed area, and to further limit distribution if piles are widely
spaced. A breakaway wall connected to a well-constructed
floor system and to a grade beam system can transfer water or
wind loads on the wall laterally for about 8 feet maximum.
Therefore, only piles that are within an enclosed area, and
within 8 feet of the outside walls of such enclosed space, may
share the lateral loads equally with other piles within the
enclosed space.
For wider pile spacing perpendicular to the direction of
loading, only those piles supporting the loaded breakaway
wall, plus those piles attached to the breakaway walls parallel
to the direction of flow, carry the lateral forces. This provides
some extra margin of safety if the floor system does resist the
pile deflection and distributes the

forces to other piles, which are not directly subjected to the
water loads. The application of these recommendations to
three example pile configurations is shown in Figure 4-67.
It must further be noted that, in general, water loadings
can be assumed to act in a direction perpendicular to the
shoreline, but considerable variation can occur. Wind can
occur from any direction. Therefore, the determination of the
number of piles that would resist lateral loads from wind or
waves
should
include consideration of loading both
perpendicular and parallel to the shoreline. This would be
true particularly for structures that are not aligned normal to
the general orientation of the shoreline.
Bracing Considerations for Breakaway Walls. For any
house with enclosure walls below the BFE, there is an
advantage of having floor beams span in the direction of the
water flow. This is because the floor beams can assist the
frontmost piles, laterally loaded by water against a wall, to
transfer the load back to the tops of piles several rows back
from the breakaway wall. If the floor beams run transverse to
the direction of water flow, as shown in Figure 4-68, a
compression strut (an 8-by-8 or three 2-by-12's, for example)
should be placed between the tops of all piles assumed to
carry the water loads.
A similar approach should be taken for grade beams.
Typical practice is to construct grade beams around the
building perimeter only.
Grade beams should also be
installed on the interior of a building in both directions for all
piles considered to carry the breakaway wall load. For the
example
structure
shown
in
Figure
4-68,
this
recommendation would require installation of four interior
grade beams. These beams will also serve to provide proper
support for attachment of the interior breakaway walls.
EXAMPLE A
12 ' SPACING OF PILES
EXAMPLE B
EXAMPLE C
Figure 4-67. Pile spacing effect on distribution of wall loads.
PREFERRED DIRECTION
FOR FLOOR BEAMS
Compression struts as shown
are required when floor
beams
are
parallel
to
shoreline
Knee braces have the desirable characteristic of

strengthening both the individual piles to which they are
attached and the structure in general. The overall need for
knee braces or other bracing is determined using Table A-4.
The strengthening effect of knee braces on individual piles
would be especially important for front row piles supporting
breakaway walls subject to water loading, and would assist the
piles in resisting shear forces. The front row piles should be
considered separately from the overall structure's need for
bracing, and knee braces in the direction parallel to expected
water forces are a minimum requirement for front row piles that
support breakaway walls. Where knee braces or other bracing
is used in the same plane with breakaway walls, care should
be taken that the bracing does not impede the breakaway
capability of the walls.
4.3.6 Utilities
Structures in the coastal high hazard areas are
commonly served by combinations of electricity, water supply,
sanitary sewerage, gas (natural or bottled), and telephone.
Typical installations for these utilities expose them to potential
damage from flooding and wave impact. In the case of an
elevated first floor, the connection from an underground utility
line to the floor above further exposes the line to possible
damage and/or contamination by flooding and wave action.
Underground services are also susceptible to damage when
scour and erosion of the protective soil cover leave them
exposed during flooding.
Figure 4-68. Bracing consideration.
Disruption of these utility services can leave a structure

uninhabitable following a storm. Damage to these systems can
create many dangerous conditions, such as contamination of
drinking water, discharge of effluent from sewer lines, rupture
of gas lines, and fires and/or shock from damaged electrical
systems or frozen electrical meters.

Recommendations for the protection of these systems are
based on the following criteria:
Major utilities and mechanical equipment should

be protected from inundation by the base flood.
Utility connections and underground services must

be capable of withstanding forces imparted by a
velocity flood condition, without damage or
contamination of other resources.
The structure should remain habitable following

flooding, with necessary systems for habitation
(water, sanitary sewer, and electric power) operating
properly.
The most vulnerable section of any utility line is the

portion between the incoming underground service and the
entrance to the elevated first floor. This section is exposed for
the full height of elevation and thus is susceptible to damage.
A minimum amount of protection can be obtained by
locating these utility risers on the sides of interior piles or piers
away from the ocean front. This will minimize damage from
wave impact or floating debris. A more secure method is to
place all vertical utility lines within a protective, floodproof
enclosure attached to the side of interior piles or piers away
from the beach. This enclosure should be securely fastened to
the pile and should not be more than 2 feet wide unless
designed by a professional engineer or architect. Such an
enclosure will impart additional loads to the pile to which it is
attached.
For an enclosure larger than 2 feet, the supporting pile

or piles must be designed to withstand the additional loads
beyond the maximum design loads for which the pile system is
designed, requiring either increased pile size or bracing. In
addition, potentially damaging effects of wave runup on the
floor beams adjoining the enclosure at maximum wave
elevation must be considered. Scour around the base of a
larger permanent enclosure will also be increased and may
require deeper pile embedment.
The incoming power service should be firmly secured to
the structure, but fastened in such a manner that if the wires are
pulled from the house, the building's protective envelope is not
damaged. Several cases have been observed where the
downed wires have removed sheathing, allowing rain entry.
The entry cable should then be connected through the utility
company's meter system, above the BFE. However, this
requirement is often in direct conflict with the power company's
policy regarding the reading of meters and their location. If
elevated connections are not possible, the utility line should be
connected within a waterproof enclosure. All distribution
panels or other major electrical equipment should also be
located above the BFE. Branch circuit wiring should be fed
from the first-floor ceiling downward to keep wiring out of the
first floor and above expected flood water heights.
All mechanical equipment (furnaces, hot water
heaters, air-conditioning, water softeners) should
be
elevated above the BFE. Figure 4-69 shows an elevated air
conditioning unit. Where possible, heating/cooling units on the
exterior of a structure should be located on the landward side,
where they would be sheltered from salt spray but exposed to
rainfall that will rinse accumulated salt. Heating and/or cooling
systems using ductwork to carry tempered air should be
provided with emergency openings at the lowest elevations
and a minimum slope on

horizontal duct runs, allowing the system to drain should it
become submerged.
Elevation of utilities to protect them from water damage
is becoming an established practice. Elevated utilities such as
exterior heat exchangers and roof-mounted solar heating
equipment are also particularly vulnerable to wind damage.
Many standard units have mounting fasteners that are
inadequate for coastal areas.
Straps, tie-bolts, or other
auxiliary hold-downs should be installed if in doubt.
4.3.7 Wind and Storm Protection of Interior
It is estimated that loss of window glass caused a large
portion of the wind and wind-driven rain damage from
Hurricanes Alicia, Gloria, and Elena. Even moderate storms or
routine high winds can cause large losses of glass in buildings
along the coast. Many beach residences have large openings
with glass facing the beach that are susceptible to such
damage. Broken glass or other unprotected openings may
allow rainwater, seawater, and high winds to enter the
structure, all of which can increase losses. Water damage may
ruin furniture and carpets and eventually damage finishes and
structural members.
Wind allowed into an elevated structure increases the
uplift load on the structure as it applies pressure to the ceiling
and wall surfaces. Many structural failures such as that shown
in Figure 4-7 have resulted from window and door failures and
subsequent loss of the roof and interior walls from wind
pressure. Therefore, openings in a building should have
special protective coverings available that can be quickly and
easily used when storms approach and when the building is
not occupied during the off-season.
Figure 4-69. Heating/cooling unit elevated to above the BFE.
Several features may be incorporated into an elevated

structure's design that offer protection from wind, moving water,
and debris during a storm. Most of these features involve ideas
that are simple to execute, are normally associated with beach
houses anyway, and add relatively little, if anything, to the cost.
These also can offer tighter security during the off-season for
residences not occupied on a year-round basis.
4.3.7.1 Window Selection. Coastal structures are commonly
constructed with large window areas on the water side to
maximize the view from the interior of the structure. Doubleand multiple-section sliding glass doors often extend across
the entire front of a house. These arrangements have been
found to leak excessively in the

wind-driven rain of coastal storms and are vulnerable to
damage from windborne debris. Improved window designs
now available greatly reduce water infiltration, and highly rated
windows should be specified for all new construction or
window replacements. Generally, for both strength and water
resistance, multiple-panel sliding glass windows should be
avoided, and individual panel widths should be limited to 3
feet. Door and window openings limited to no more than 30
percent of a wall's area are recommended.
4.3.7.2 Operable Shutters. Exterior shutters over window
openings protect against wave and wind action while
simultaneously providing vandalism protection during the offseason. Shutters may take several forms.
Figure 4-71. Plywood sheets used for window protection.
For small openings the traditional wood louvered shutter

will offer some protection. Additional protection may be
realized by using 1/2-inch plywood attached to the back of the
shutter, which will take the direct forces from the storm (Figure
4-70). These shutters, when secured from inside, offer security
as well. This method allows coverage of fairly large areas of
continuous glass and of sliding glass doors.
Some form of protection of glassed openings is strongly
recommended for all coastal structures. Precut plywood
panels can be fabricated and stored onsite. There is generally
sufficient warning of impending storms to allow the 1 or 2 hours
required to install protective panels. Figure 4-71 shows
plywood panels being removed from a house with
Figure 4-70. Shutters for window protection.

a large glassed area following a hurricane. As an alternative,
manufacturers now offer permanent roll-up protective panels
that can be manually or electrically deployed. Some are even
offered with sensors for automatic deployment.
Manual
overrides should be provided for any system, however, for use
in the event of a power failure. Also, panels of any kind should
not block emergency egress from the structure.
4.3.8 Maintenance
4.3.7.3 Gable and Eave Vents. Attic ventilation is important to

both a house and its occupants, to remove trapped heat and
humidity. Gable vents have been found to be leak-prone
because standard designs that provide adequate protection
inland are vulnerable to wind-driven rain in coastal locations.
Similarly, inexpensive wind-turbine attic vents have failed
during storms, leaving large holes in the roof. Selection of attic
ventilators should be performed carefully, checking both the
wind rating and the overall quality of construction and
connections.
The best defense against deterioration is to use quality

methods and materials during initial construction. Rot-resistant
or pressure-treated lumber should be used at all directly
exposed locations, and conventional lumber should be field
coated with stain or other preservative.
All exposed steel
should be hot-dipped galvanized, preferably after fabrication.
Stainless steel should be substituted where possible. Weatherresistant fixtures should be used if available. If possible, all
underside beams and floor joists of an elevated house should
be protected by sheathing.
Customized units should be prepared where necessary.

One owner reported by Rogers (1985) custom built louvered
vents with a louver width twice what is available as standard;
even so, he was able to reduce rain infiltration substantially but
not eliminate it. Eave vents provide ventilation of under-roof
space while being less vulnerable to wind and wind-driven
rain than vents installed on flat vertical surfaces. These vents
are typically made from aluminum mesh, backed by aluminum
screen. Heavy gauge or coated metal or plastic vents are
preferred.
Regular, at least yearly, inspections should be made of

any coastal structure, with particular attention to structural
connections. Items that should be inspected include, but are
not limited to, the following:
4.3.7.4 Roofing Materials. Experience has shown that

although loss of roofing material in high winds (as shown in
Figure 4-72) may cause little direct structural damage,
subsequent water damage to the house may be substantial.
Use of quality materials, such as self-sealing, heavyweight
shingles, is a prudent investment.
All structures exposed to the elements deteriorate with

time; this process is greatly accelerated in the coastal
environment. Deterioration of structural members, fasteners,
vents, utilities, and other components may go unnoticed until
failure occurs during a storm.
Pilings. Inspect each piling from top to bottom for

evidence of rot or damage.
Select a few
representative piles and dig down 1 to 2 feet to
observe the soundness of the piles. Check all knee
braces and other bracing.
Pile-Floor and Beam-Floor Joist Connections. Check

tightness of representative pile-beam bolts, and
inspect all other exposed
metal fasteners or
connectors for corrosion. Replace or supplement
any that show deep-seated corrosion. Typical
maximum life of fabricated metal connectors under
exposed conditions is 5 to 10 years.
Figure 4-72. Loss of roofing in Hurricane Elena.
Operable Shutters, Lift-Up Decks, and Other

Protective Devices. A "dry run" of all devices that
must be manually activated to provide protection
should be conducted at least once each season. If a
structure is to be unattended for an extended period,
all protective devices should be in place before
leaving. Operate all shutters and lift-up devices, and
lubricate joints and locks if appropriate.
Attic Vents, Attic Fans, Chimney Covers . Check for

loosening, corrosion, or structural cracking that could
fail under high winds, giving water a pathway to the
house interior.
Heating/Air Conditioning Units .
Units should be
periodically hosed with freshwater to remove salt
accumulation. When not used for extended periods,
they should be rinsed, allowed
Figure 4-73. Corrosion of cast iron sewer trap in coastal environment.
to thoroughly dry, coated with a light aerosol oil, and

covered with plastic sheeting or other watertight
cover.
Metal Chimneys. Use of insulated metal chimneys

for fireplaces and stoves is widespread, and most
chimneys have galvanized exteriors, internal
spacers, and caps. Although most chimneys are
boxed in with wood sheathing, salt spray and winddriven rain can enter through the top cap area.
Inspection of the chimney should be performed at
least annually in conjunction with chimney cleaning.
Utilities. Inspect all tie-downs, supports, and hangers

and the general condition of all exposed wiring and
piping. Figure 4-73 shows a sewer trap that should
be replaced before a leak develops.
Larger Structures 5-1
Chapter 5
LARGER STRUCTURES
In the first edition of this manual, emphasis was placed
on the design of light, single-family residential structures. In
updating and expanding this second edition, it is felt that a brief
discussion of larger, more substantial buildings would be of
interest and benefit to design professionals, potential buyers of
condominium units, building officials, and others interested in
the design and construction of larger mid- to high-rise
structures located in coastal high hazard areas.
This
discussion will deal generally with more substantial buildings
in excess of two stories in height. Those considered will
include the mid-rise structures from three to seven stories and
high-rise structures of eight stories or more. Buildings of this
nature designed for construction in coastal high hazard zones
are subject to the same devastating forces of nature--both wind
and water--as the smaller structures discussed at greater
length in this manual.
5.1
GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Most coastal area design criteria apply equally to both

low-rise and mid- to high-rise structures. The intention of
regulatory criteria is to promote safe construction at reasonable
cost, while protecting the shoreline area to the maximum
practical extent. General siting criteria discussed in Chapter 3,
such as setback and dune preservation regulations, apply to
mid- and high-rise structures.
Ground level obstructions to flow are also subject to
restriction. Enclosures for habitation at grade are prohibited
beneath mid- and high-rise structures in coastal
high hazard areas, and nonessential enclosures such as

entrances, lobbies, parking areas, and storage areas must
have breakaway walls. Below-grade construction (as for
parking) is prohibited because of the flooding potential.
In addition to regulatory criteria, many features of coastal
area design and construction have evolved through
experience and should be considered when developing plans
for a coastal property. For example, thicker concrete cover
over reinforcing steel is commonly used in coastal areas to
provide added corrosion protection to the steel. Salt air has
been found to defeat the "weathering" feature of special steel
that can be left exposed in inland areas, by causing excessive
weathering and flaking of the weathered surface. Additionally,
the likelihood during their useful lives of inundation and/or
wave damage to decks, bulkheads, swimming pools, and
other ground level construction should be anticipated.
Design of mid- and high-rise structures in coastal
regions must consider forces from wind or water that produce
very large lateral loads, due to the large surface areas of these
structures. These loads tend to dictate the most appropriate
structural systems. The foundation and framing systems must
be able to cost-effectively resist the lateral forces from wind and
water as well as the vertical forces from dead and live loads.
In high-rise structures, lateral forces created by wind are
generally far greater than those generated by water. Wind
pressures therefore provide the governing design parameters
for larger structures. Even broken or breaking waves do not
govern the design of the primary structural frame of a high-rise
building when compared to those forces created by hurricane
force winds on large surface

areas. These are somewhat different conditions from those
governing the design of low-rise structures, where water forces
on the parts of the structure below the BFE can be a significant
portion of total lateral loads.
In a mid-rise structure greater than about four stories,
wind is again a controlling factor in the design of the structural
frame, but water may play a significant role in the design of the
lower walls of the building.
In structures of three or four
stories, the effects of breaking or broken waves will be a major
consideration, in addition to the requirements imposed by high
winds.
5.2
FOUNDATIONS
Foundation systems for mid- and high-rise structures are

typically pile foundations that are embedded deeply below
existing ground elevations to provide a safety margin against
scour, as well as the required greater pile carrying capacity.
Large load capacity is necessary because of the much higher
gravity loads, as well as the large lateral loads on high- or midrise structures.
High-rise buildings produce column loads far greater
than those of even the most sophisticated low-rise buildings.
Therefore, support must be provided by high-capacity, deeply
embedded foundations, usually piles. A 12-story residential
building commonly has column loads of 250 to 300 tons at the
foundation; loads of such magnitude generally require pile
groups for adequate support. These pile groups are formed
into a single element by a pile cap of reinforced concrete upon
which a building column is supported. Figure 5-1 shows a
typical pile group and pile cap, and the connections of the
reinforcement to the column and grade beam. A partially
completed pile cap for a three-pile group is shown in Figure 52.
Figure 5-1. Typical pile/pile cap/column/grade beam connection.
The most common types of piling used for the support of

mid- to high-rise structures are precast/prestressed concrete,
cast-in-place concrete, steel, and timber. Precast concrete or
steel piles are usually driven with a large power (diesel or
steam) hammer to safe capacities of 50 to 100 tons. Timber is
used at much lower capacities (maximum 25 tons per pile),
primarily in smaller mid-rise structures.
In zones of reduced velocity and wave action, strip
foundations or combined footings and mat foundations are
occasionally used. These foundations must be buried to an
adequate depth to protect against scour. If strip foundations are used, they should be oriented perpendicular to the shoreline
(i.e., parallel to the expected flow of flood waters and waves).

5.3
SLABS AT GRADE
Floor slabs placed at ground level fall into two basic

categories for mid- to high-rise structures. Slabs that provide
for parking areas or light traffic usage are typically supported
only by the ground and are thin (4-inch) concrete slabs with
minimal reinforcing in the form of welded wire mesh. The slabs
are supported directly on the soil present at the site (usually a
compacted sand), and in the event of a storm they are
expected to be undermined and lost. The other category
includes slabs that are essential to the safe functioning of the
structure, and must resist storm forces and erosion. These are
slabs in storage areas, stairwells, mechanical rooms, etc.,
whose necessary or useful functions are deemed desirable to
have as a permanent element of the building. In this case they
are
Figure 5-3. Skeleton framed building under construction.
Figure 5-4. Typical plan of high-rise building.

Figure 5-2. Pile to pile cap connection for high-rise foundations.
(Note: Cap reinforcement not yet placed)

structurally designed, reinforced slabs, supported directly on
pilings or indirectly on grade beams that are in turn supported
on pilings.
Grade beams such as the one shown in Figure 5-1are
used not only to support structural ground floor slabs and walls
but also to tie together individual piles or two-pile groups,
which would otherwise be structurally unstable in at least one
direction. They are also used to increase lateral resistance of a
pile foundation system. In addition, grade beams (sometimes
called "strap beams") may be used to tie together columns that
form a part of a moment-resisting wind frame.
5.4
SUPERSTRUCTURE
The superstructure in most high-rise and some mid-rise

buildings is generally of the type of construction known as a
skeleton frame. This framework of columns, beams, and slabs
forms the skeleton of the building, which is then infilled with
walls and partitions. The building under construction in Figure
5-3 has a skeleton frame. The most common framing material
for high-rise construction in coastal areas is reinforced
monolithic or poured-in-place concrete. Structural steel framed
buildings are occasionally used.
NOTE:
FOR CLARITY, HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL

REINFORCING IN THE SHEAR WALL
IS NOT SHOWN. (SEE FIGURE 5-6)
Figure 5-5. Typical high-rise shear wall.
Figures 5-4 through 5-7 illustrate the key features of

high-rise construction. A typical skeleton high-rise is shown in
plan in Figure 5-4. This building might be constructed as
follows:
Precast concrete piles are formed into pile caps, as
shown in Figure 5-5. These pile caps support reinforced
concrete columns, which in turn support a two-way
reinforced concrete slab (flat plate as shown in Figure 57). Shear walls would be placed at strategic locations
within the building, generally

replacing two or more columns. Figure 5-6 shows the
heavy reinforcement required for shear walls. The stair
and elevator cores might be framed with beams and
columns designed to carry both gravity and lateral loads.
High-rise buildings of more than seven stories generally
incorporate shear walls to provide for the transfer to the
foundation system of the lateral forces resulting from wind and
water loads.
The shear walls are generally reinforced
concrete walls 8, 10, or 12 inches in thickness, and are
positioned in the building such that wind loads are equally
divided among the walls. Wind loads are transferred to the
shear walls by means of the floor diaphragm systems, which
act as deep beams. The shear walls then act as cantilever
beams fixed at their base to carry loads down to the
foundations. These shear walls are subjected to a variable
shear that is greatest at the base, a
Figure 5-7. Typical high-rise floor slab section.
bending moment that causes tension at the loaded edge and

compression at the far edge, and an axial compression due to
ordinary gravity loading of the building.
In addition to shear walls, reinforced beam and column
frames may take a portion of the wind load so that the shear
walls do not have to do all of the work. Indeed, the floors
themselves and their supporting columns interact with the
shear walls to provide resistance to the lateral forces. This
interaction is the basis for modern efficient high-rise design.
For mid-rise buildings that do not utilize bearing walls, the
lateral forces are frequently taken by a combination of the slabs
and columns, and/or the beam and column moment-resisting
frames.
Figure 5-6. Shear wall reinforcement.
Bearing wall construction is very common for low- to

mid-rise structures, although among the taller mid-rise

forces over a range of angles to the shoreline. A section
through the structure is shown on Figure 5-9, and illustrates
the reinforcement and connections between the foundations,
bearing walls, and first elevated floor. A system of bearing
walls typically consists of reinforced masonry or poured
concrete; the building illustrated in Figure 5-9 is reinforced
masonry.
Figure 5-8. Typical plan of low- to mid-rise structure.
structures there are probably as many skeleton framed

buildings as bearing wall buildings. Bearing walls can be a
very efficient means of construction in coastal regions. Bearing
walls provide not only for transferring gravity loads to the
foundation but also for very efficient lateral-force-resisting
elements to transfer wind and/or water loads to the
foundations.
A typical low- to mid-rise bearing wall building is shown
in plan in Figure 5-8. The bearing walls are aligned in the
direction of the primary water forces, although the building is
designed for wind from any direction and water
Figure 5-9. Typical section through low- to mid-rise bearing wall building.

a portion of the floor is precast and a portion poured in place.
The reinforced concrete floors typically used in
conjunction with bearing walls are one-way, in which the
primary reinforcing is in one direction and supported by the
bearing walls. In skeleton construction, the floor slabs are
typically two-way reinforced (flat plate) slabs, in which there are
no supports other than the columns and occasionally spandrel
(perimeter) beams. Figure 5-12 shows a two-way slab in a
skeleton framed building. Note the masonry infill wall under
construction on the upper floor.
Figure 5-10. Mid-rise residential structure with bearing walls.
The first elevated living floor in some mid-rise buildings

may consist of a series of beams supported by the foundation
piles. These beams (shown in Figure 5-9) are monolithic with
the reinforced concrete slab, providing a heavy diaphragm
through which the lateral forces are
Figure 5-10 shows a typical mid-rise condominium or

apartment structure with grade level parking. Note that in this
example the habitable floors are constructed using bearing
walls, while the elevated platform is supported on reinforced
concrete columns and beams. Figure 5-lI shows a taller
structure under construction that utilizes bearing walls; in this
case the walls are poured concrete. Wood is a less frequently
used structural material in mid-rise construction and is
seldom found in structures over four stories high. Even heavy
timber is generally inefficient for these larger structures.
5.5
ELEVATED FLOORS
Typical floor systems consist of poured-in-place, reinforced concrete or composite precast concrete, in which
Figure 5-11. High-rise structure with poured concrete bearing walls

under construction.
Figure 5-12. Two-way slab in skeleton framed building.
Figure 5-13. Elevated first floor on high-rise structure, partially enclosed by

lattice.
transmitted to the piles. This system ties all of the piles together
through this first-level diaphragm. The bottom of such a floor
system should be considered to be exposed to weather, which
would require greater concrete cover in accordance with the
American Concrete Institute (ACI) Code. It is also essential to
securely connect the beams to the foundation piles.
stucco or composite material, of which there are several brands

on today's market. These walls must be designed to resist the
lateral forces imposed by hurricane winds. Most of the
governing codes provide adequate requirements for the
anchoring of masonry walls.
5.6 EXTERIOR WALL SYSTEMS

The exterior wall systems used on the larger structures may be
masonry or metal stud with a finish of either
In utilizing metal studs, normal design criteria using

code-specified loads will provide an adequate design;
however, care must be taken in selecting proper techniques for
fastening metal studs to a structural frame. Too often selection
of the fastening is left to the installer, and this can lead to poorly
designed walls that will fail under hurricane or severe wind
loads.

For exterior walls below the first living floor, the
breakaway wall design described elsewhere in this manual
should be followed, as illustrated by lattice enclosures in
Figure 5-13. Exceptions include walls enclosing elevators,
stairwells, and other essential areas, which should be
designed to resist the anticipated lateral loads.
Interior walls are frequently stud partitions, metal or
wood, although metal is used almost exclusively in mid- and
high-rise structures. These partitions should be installed
according to governing codes.
5.7 RECOMMENDATIONS
Figure 5-14. Coastal construction with setback requirements.
More test data are required on the use of some of the

fastening methods for exterior walls, such as powder-activated
drive pins, into various substrates. The effect of the length of
the pin, its diameter, the power of the shot, etc., all affect the
capacity of the fastener. It is necessary, in the absence of
adequate test data, that manufacturers' recommended
standards and a safety factor of 10 be applied to all powderactivated fasteners into concrete. The use of expansion bolts or
other such devices also must be looked at carefully by the
designer, not left up to the installer. Here again, adequate
safety factors, as recommended by the manufacturer (typically
4), should be followed closely.
It is essential when designing a mid-rise or high-rise

structure, particularly in a coastal area, that an experienced
design professional be in charge of the design of such a
building. Particularly for high-rise buildings, the design team
often includes a geotechnical engineer and a coastal engineer.
In addition to structural aspects discussed above,
consideration must be given to subsurface conditions, erosion
potential, and other site-specific conditions affecting design.
There also should be a requirement that a capable individual
be responsible for observing the construction of the building.
It is also important, as with smaller structures, that
setback and dune protection provisions of local codes be
observed, as illustrated in Figure 5-13. Although in compliance
with minimum setback requirements, mid- and high-rise
structures such as those shown in Figure 5-14 are vulnerable
to major storms.
Design Procedures and Examples 6-1
Chapter 6
DESIGN PROCEDURES
AND EXAMPLES
This chapter presents three design examples that detail
the step-by-step procedures for using the data and design
tables in the appendices of this manual.
The residential
structure chosen for these examples is a one-story house 24
feet wide and 40 feet long, with a wood pile foundation system.
The general site layout and tentative house plans are shown in
Figures 6-1 through 6-5.
The initial example is a one-story residential structure for
which a foundation system is designed to be substantial
enough not to require bracing. The second example is the
same house with a lighter foundation system, which requires
bracing. The third example considers the effects on the
foundation system of a breakaway wall installed below the
BFE.
Procedures follow those outlined on the design
worksheets presented in Appendix C, and follow the design
recommendations discussed in Chapter 4.
Sample
worksheets illustrating these design examples appear with the
descriptions of the design procedures.
6.1
EXAMPLE 1--ELEVATION ON WOOD PILINGS
The owner or builder must determine the governing

zoning and building code requirements, property line
clearances, easements, and site restrictions. The next step is to
obtain the best available information on the severity of the flood
hazard, specifically the design wind speed and the Base Flood
Elevation for the building site. In this example, the design wind
speed is 110 mph and the BFE requires a clearance above
grade of 7 feet (that is, the BFE
Figure 6-1. Site Plan
Figure 6-2. View from beach.
Figure 6-3. Main level plan.

minus the site elevation equals 7). Soil conditions should be
investigated to determine proper pile lengths. Local building
officials are usually aware of general site and soil conditions;
soil borings will provide the most reliable information. For this
design example the soil is assumed to be medium dense sand,
and piles will be driven rather than jetted into place. (If piles
were to be jetted, loose sand conditions should be used in the
calculations.)
Entering all the data mentioned above on the Pile
Design Worksheet (Figure 6-6) enables step-by-step use of the
information in Appendix A. From Figure A-1, the possible
combinations of numbers of piles in each direction are
determined. In the 24-foot width, parallel to the beach, either
three piles at 12-foot spacing or four piles at 8-foot spacing can
be used, so this is entered onto the worksheet. The design
tables are based upon equal spacing of piles, with 8-foot
spacing the minimum and 12 feet the maximum spacing. For
the length of 40 feet, either five piles at 10-foot spacing or six
piles at 8-foot spacing may be considered, and this is entered
onto the form. The total number of piles could thus be 15, 18,
20, or 24. The reason for considering several pile
arrangements is that the pile embedment and bracing
requirements are reduced when more piles are used. A final
decision is best made after looking at several pile
arrangements.
From Table A-1, the downward load per pile can be
determined for a one-story house for the various numbers of
piles to be considered. For example, for the configuration
three piles wide by six piles long, 18 piles total, the downward
force on each pile is 5,598 pounds. The values for the various
pile arrangements are entered on the checklist.
Figure 6-4. Framing plan.

The pile embedment depth is next determined using
Table A-3. The data are presented for three types of piles:
square 10-by-10 or 8-by-8-inch piles, or round piles with a tip
diameter of 8 inches. Interpolating in Table A-3 shows that for
the 18-pile group and 5,598-pound downward load, the
required pile penetration is 10.9 feet for an 8-by-8, 10.0 feet for
a 10-by-10, and 12.8 feet for the round pile. Since this is a
beachfront house, 8-by-8 piles should not be used, and only
10-by-10 or round piles are appropriate. (The 8-by-8 data will
be carried forward, however, to demonstrate use of the tables.)
Remember that, to accommodate scour, the pile tip must be at
least at -5 msl if the BFE (including wave height) is less than
+10 msl, and the tip must be at least down to -10 msl if the BFE
is +10 msl or higher. Note that recommendations in this
manual should be considered minimum requirements;
deeper embedment is most beneficial.
The horizontal wind load per pile is obtained from Table
A-2. For the 18-pile case the load per pile is 915 pounds.
Again, the values for the various pile arrangements are entered
on the design worksheet form.
Figure 6-5. Ground level plan.
Next, one must check that the pile is capable of resisting

horizontal forces without bracing. A grade beam between all
piles is required. This may be wood or reinforced concrete,
securely connected to the piles. Table A-4 presents data on
maximum unbraced height of piles above grade for the design
wind speed considered (with associated water and debris
forces), so that allowable shear and bending stress in the pile
is not exceeded. For example, to resist a horizontal wind force
of 915 pounds, the 8-by-8 pile can extend 6.0 feet above grade
without bracing, the 10-by-10 about 8.6 feet, and the round pile
about 8.0 feet. Since the clear elevation of the bottom of floor
beams is 7 feet above grade, the pile combinations requiring
bracing are all four of those using 8-by-8 square piles.
FIGURE 6-6
DESIGN EXAMPLE 1
1 of 4
General Building Information
Width
Length
Number of Stories
Type of Soil
Clearance Above Grade
Design Wind Speed
24
feet
40
feet
1
MED DENSE SAND
7
feet
110
miles per hour
Number of Piles Required (Figure A-1)

Along Width
Along Length
Combination (Width/Length)
Total Number (Width x Length)
3
5
3/5
15
or
or
or
or
4
6
3/6
18
or
or
4/5
20
or
or
4/6
24
Downward Load Per Pile (Table A-1)
6717
or
5598
or
5038
or
4198
pounds
Pile Embedment Depth (Table A-3)

(No enclosure below BFE)
8x8 Square Pile
10x10 Square Pile
8-inch Tip Round Pile
12.4
10.0
14.6
or
or
or
10.9
10.0
12.8
or
or
or
10.1
10.0
11.8
or
or
or
10.0
10.0
10.4
feet
feet
feet
Horizontal Wind Load Per Pile (Table A-2)
1098
or
915
or
823
or
686
pounds

FIGURE 6-6 (continued)
DESIGN EXAMPLE 1
PILE DESIGN WORKSHEET (CONTINUED)
2 of 4
Maximum Unbraced Height of Pile (Table A-4)
8x8 Square Pile
10x10 Square Pile
6.0
8.6
8.0
or
or
or
6.4
9.0
8.1
or
or
or
6.6
9.0
8.2
or
or
or
6.9
9.3
8.4
feet
feet
feet
Is Bracing Required? (Does clearance above grade exceed maximum unbraced pile height?)
8x8 Square Pile
10x10 Square Pile
Information on Enclosure Below BFE
Width x Length
Piles/Spacing Along Width
Piles/Spacing Along Length
No. of Piles in Enclosure
No. of Piles Carrying Load
Regulatory Breakaway Wall
Pressure
Wall Height
YES
NO
NO
YES
NO
NO
YES
NO
NO
YES
NO
NO
NO ENCLOSURE
__x__ or
__/__ or
__/__ or
____
____
10 to 20 psf
____ feet
__x__
__/__
__/__
____
____
or __x__
or __/__
or __/__
____
____
or
or
or
__x__
__/__
__/__
____
____
feet

DESIGN EXAMPLE 1
3 of 4
Load Resistance of Breakaway Walls
NO BREAKAWAY WALLS
Selected Fastener Size
No. Fasteners per Loaded Panel
____ or
____
(Table A-11)
Ultimate Capacity per Fastener
____ pounds
(Table A-10)
Panel Ultimate Capacity
____ or
____
(No. fasteners x ultimate capacity each)
Total Breakaway Wall Capacity
____ or
____
(Panel Ultimate Capacity No. Loaded Panels)
or
____
or
____
or
____
or
____
pounds
or
____
or
____
pounds
Horizontal Load per Pile at Breakaway N/A

____
Wall Collapse
(Total Wall Capacity No. of Piles Carrying Load)
or
____
or
____
or
____
pounds
Horizontal Load on Top Fasteners

(Horizontal Load 2)
____
or
____
or
____
or
____
pounds
____
or
____
or
____
or
____
pounds
or
or
or
____
____
____
or
or
or
____
____
____
or
or
or
____
____
____
feet
feet
feet
Combined Horizontal Load per Pile

(Wind + Top Fastener Loads)
N/A
N/A
Maximum Unbraced Height of Pile (Table A - 4.1)

(Enclosure below BFE)
8x8 Square Pile
10x10 Square Pile
N/A
____
____
____

DESIGN EXAMPLE 1
4 of 4
Is Bracing Required? (Does clearance above grade exceed maximum unbraced pile height?) NO BRACING
(Enclosure Below BFE)
8x8 Square Pile
10x10 Square Pile
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
Summary Information on Piles to be Used for Building

Number of Piles Selected
Along Width
Along Length
3
6
18
Size of Pile
Pile Embedment Depth
Is Bracing Required?
10x10
10.0 feet
NO
(if yes, see 'Bracing Design Worksheet')

FIGURE 6-7
DESIGN EXAMPLE 1
1 of 2
General House Information
Width
Length
Number of Stories
Design Wind Speed
24
40
1
110
feet
feet
Connections Between Floors

Uplift Loads per Foot of Wall (Table A-5)
Roof Connection
Second Floor Connection
First Floor Connection
322
N/A
300
pounds per foot

pounds per foot
pounds per foot
miles per hour
Connectors Selected Based on Manufacturers' Data (see Chapter 4.3.5)

Type
TECO ANCHORS
Spacing
16
inches

DESIGN EXAMPLE 1
CONNECTION DESIGN WORKSHEET (CONTINUED)
2 of 2
Floor Beam Connection

Downward Load per Pile (Table A-1)
100% of Load
50% of Load
Uplift Load per Pile (Table A-6)
Capacity per Bolt of Selected Floor Beam
Connection (Table A-7)
Type of Connection
3/5
or
3/6
or
4/5
or
4/6
6717
3359
3039
or
or
or
5598
2799
2591
or
or
or
5038
2519
2280
or
or
or
4198
2099
1943
1450
pounds
STRAP
Beam
Bolt Diameter
Number of Bolts
3/4
2
inches
Bolt Diameter
Number of Bolts
3/4
1
inches
Pile
pounds
pounds
pounds

At this point in the design, for this house without
enclosures below the BFE, it is possible to select the pile
arrangement that is preferred and economical. However, the
connections of the floor beams to the piles may influence the
decision. Therefore, let us determine the forces on some of the
connections that must be designed (see Connection Design
Worksheet, Figure 6-7).
Table A-5 presents the net uplift forces that must be
resisted by connections at the various levels of a house: roof,
second floor, and first floor. The data are presented as uplift
load per foot so that one can decide on the type of connector.
For our example the upward force at the roof line is 322
pounds per foot along two walls, so the roof members must be
connected to the top of the stud wall to resist this load.
Similarly, the upward force at the first floor is 300 pounds per
foot; wall anchor straps and joist anchors to floor beams are
required to resist this force.
One must also provide a positive connection of floor
beam to pile to resist upward wind loads. Table A-6 gives the
uplift force per pile that must be provided for in the design of
the connection. For the 18 piles of the design example, the
uplift force is 2,591 pounds; suitable bolts are needed. Table
A-7 gives the capacities of various connections of floor beams
to piles. Figures in Chapter 4 illustrate the various connections
listed in Table A-7. A reasonable connection to select for the
loads to be resisted in the 18-pile case would be a strap with
two bolts of 3/4 inch at the beam and one 3/4-inch bolt at the
pile. This would not be adequate for the 15-pile case, and thus
may influence the selection of an appropriate pile system for
the house.
One can finalize the pile selection, based upon the
several arrangements that will work, by choosing that which is
considered the most suitable in terms of cost and aesthetics.
For example, a reasonable selection would be
18 of the 10-by-10 piles, with three piles widthwise and six

lengthwise. The piles would be embedded to at least 10.0 feet
below grade, with an overall pile length of 17 feet.
6.2 EXAMPLE 2--BRACING REQUIRED
This example will consider the same house and pile
configurations evaluated in Example 1. However, in this case
the BFE will be assumed higher and clearance above grade
will be assumed as 11 feet, in order to illustrate use of the
Bracing Design Worksheet in Appendix C.
The Pile Design Worksheet is completed as in Example
1, except this time the clearance above grade is 11 feet (Figure
6-8). Pile configurations, downward load per pile, and pile
embedment depth are the same as Example 1. Horizontal
wind loads per pile are increased by a factor of 1.07 for the
increased building height above grade, as noted in Table A-2.
Maximum unbraced height of piles resisting the input wind load
and associated water load is again obtained from Table A-4. In
this example, clearance above grade exceeds maximum
unbraced height, and bracing is required for all pile systems
being considered.
Proceeding to the Bracing Design Worksheet (Figure 69), house information and maximum unbraced pile heights are
repeated for ease of reference. If clearance above grade (pile
height) exceeds maximum unbraced height by 4 feet or less,
knee braces can be used. For purposes of this example, it will
be assumed that 8-by-8 square is the only readily available
pile type in the area. (In reality, as noted in Chapter 4, larger
piles are generally recommended for the first row of houses
from shore.) Since pile height exceeds maximum unbraced
height for all configurations of the 8-by-8 piles, bracing will be
required.

FIGURE 6-8
DESIGN EXAMPLE 2
1 of 4
Width
Length
Number of Stories
Type of Soil
Design Wind Speed
24
feet
40
feet
1
MED DENSE SAND
11
feet
110
miles per hour

Along Width
Along Length
3
5
3/5
15
or
or
or
or
4
6
3/6
18
or
or
4/5
20
or
or
4/6
24
6717
or
5598
or
5038
or
4198
pounds
12.4
10.0
14.6
or
or
or
10.9
10.0
12.8
or
or
or
10.1
10.0
11.8
or
or
or
10.0
10.0
10.4
feet
feet
feet
1175
or
979
or
881
or
734
pounds

8x8 Square Pile
10x10 Square Pile

DESIGN EXAMPLE 2
2 of 4
8x8 Square Pile
10x10 Square Pile
5.8
8.5
7.8
or
or
or
6.2
8.8
8.0
or
or
or
6.5
9.0
8.1
or
or
or
6.8
9.2
8.3
feet
feet
feet
8x8 Square Pile
10x10 Square Pile
Width x Length
Pressure
Wall Height
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
NO ENCLOSURE
__x__ or
__/__ or
__/__ or
____
____
10 to 20 psf
____ feet
__x__
__/__
__/__
____
____
or __x__
or __/__
or __/__
____
____
or
or
or
__x__
__/__
__/__
____
____
feet

DESIGN EXAMPLE 2
3 of 4
NO BREAKAWAY WALLS
____ or
____
(Table A-11)
____ pounds
(Table A-10)
____ or
____
____ or
____
or
____
or
____
or
____
or
____
pounds
or
____
or
____
pounds
Horizontal Load per Pile at Breakaway N/A

____
Wall Collapse
or
____
or
____
or
____
pounds
____
or
____
or
____
or
____
pounds
____
or
____
or
____
or
____
pounds
Maximum Unbraced Height of Pile (Table A - 4.1) N/A

8x8 Square Pile
____
10x10 Square Pile
____
____
or
or
or
____
____
____
or
or
or
____
____
____
or
or
or
____
____
____
feet
feet
feet
N/A
(Horizontal Load 2)
N/A

DESIGN EXAMPLE 2
4 of 4
Is Bracing Required? (Does clearance above grade exceed maximum unbraced pile height?) NO BRACING
8x8 Square Pile
10x10 Square Pile
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____

Along Width
Along Length
3
6
18
Size of Pile
8x8
10.9
YES
feet

FIGURE 6-9
DESIGN EXAMPLE 2
1 of 3
Width
Length
Number of Stories
Design Wind Speed

24
40
1
11
110
feet
feet
feet
miles per hour
3/5
or
3/6
or
4/5
or
5.8
8.5
7.8
or
or
or
6.2
8.8
8.0
or
or
or
6.5
9.0
8.1
or
or
or
4/6

8x8 Square Pile
10x10 Square Pile
6.8
9.2
8.3
Can Knee Braces Be Used? (Is clearance above grade minus maximum unbraced height 4 feet or less?)
8x8 Square Pile
10x10 Square Pile
NO
YES
YES
or
or
or
If Knee Bracing Cannot Be Used, Continue on for Truss Bracing
NO
YES
YES
or
or
or
NO
YES
YES
or
or
or
NO
YES
YES
feet
feet
feet

DESIGN EXAMPLE 2
BRACING DESIGN WORKSHEET (CONTINUED)
2 of 3
Horizontal Water Loads per Pile (Table B-1)
2738
____
____
pounds
pounds
pounds
1175
or
979
or
881
or
734
pounds
____
____
or
or
or
3717
____
____
or
or
or
3619
____
____
or
or
or
3472
____
____
pounds
pounds
pounds
Truss Width = B = Pile Spacing Along Length
10
or
or
10
or
feet
A/B Ratio for Diagonal Members (Figure B-I)
1.1
or
1.4
or
1.1
or
1.4
feet
5870
____
____
or
or
or
5576
____
____
or
or
or
5429
____
____
or
or
or
5208
____
____
pounds
pounds
pounds
8726
____
____
or
or
or
9592
____
____
or
or
or
8070
____
____
or
or
or
8960
____
____
pounds
pounds
pounds
8x8 Square Pile

10x 10 Square Pile
Horizontal Wind Loads per Pile (Table A-2)
Combined Horizontal Loads per Pile (Wind + Water)

8x8 Square Pile
3913
10x10 Square Pile
Loads on Transverse Members (Table B-2)

Struts
8x8 Square Pile
10x10 Square Pile
Diagonals
8x8 Square Pile
10x10 Square Pile

DESIGN EXAMPLE 2
3 of 3
Information on Bracing to be Used for Selected Pile Combination
Strut Size (Table B-5)
Diagonals (Tables B-3 and B-4)
Single or Double
Size
"A" Bolt (yes/no)
4x8
Double
2x8
YES

Horizontal water loads per pile are obtained from Table
B-1 and combined with horizontal water loads from Table A-2.
This is the input load for Table B-2. For the A/B ratio for this
table, A is the pile height and B is the pile spacing, as indicated
by Figure B-1. A single level of truss bracing can be used for
pile heights up to about 12 feet, above which a double level
should be used. Loads on the struts and diagonals are then
interpolated from Table B-2 for the given combined loads and
A/B ratios.
Based on these loads in the truss members, the size of
members can be selected from Tables B-3, B-4, and B-5. For
this example, the strut should be at least 4-by-8 or equivalent
(Table B-5). For the 18-pile case, the diagonal load of 9,592
pounds exceeds the capacity of a single 3-by-8 with one "A"
bolt (9,000-pound capacity, Table B-4). The diagonal load
could be carried by a double 2-by-8 with one "A" bolt;
alternatively, the designer could consider one of the other pile
configurations, which do not require doubling the beams. To
complete the Pile Design Worksheet, if the 18-pile combination
is chosen, it is recorded as the selected combination of 8-by-8
piles, with pile embedment depth of at least 10.9 feet.
Connection design is then checked as in Example 1.
6.3 EXAMPLE 3--BREAKAWAY WALLS
In this example, the same one-story house from
Example 1 is to have part of the space below the BFE enclosed
by breakaway walls. These walls are to be designed to break
away before the storm forces applied to the walls become large
enough to damage the house foundation system.
The Pile Design Worksheet (Figure 6-10) is filled out
similarly to Example 1, up through the determination of whether
above-grade bracing is required without
breakaway walls. For the pile combinations being considered

for the house, several breakaway enclosure areas can be
considered as illustrated on the worksheet. The number of
piles attached to or enclosed by the walls is then recorded.
The number of piles carrying the load of the breakaway walls is
considered to be those piles attached to or within 8 feet of the
wall.
Regulatory breakaway wall pressure is the range of
working load within which breakaway walls must be designed,
presently specified by NFIP as between 10 and 20 psf, unless
the walls and the effects of the walls on the overall structure are
designed by a registered engineer or architect. Wall height is
the height of each panel (7 feet in this example).
Load resistance of each breakaway wall panel is
considered to be the total capacity of the fasteners, which are
installed along the top and bottom of the panel. Table A-11
gives the range of total number of fasteners per panel that will
result in a wall with a design safe loading resistance between
10 and 20 psf; these numbers are developed for several
common wall sizes directly from the fastener capacities in
Table A-10.
If 10d nails are considered for this example, the number
required per panel is selected from Table A-11 and noted on
the worksheet. (Choosing the minimum number of nails
minimizes the load applied to the piles before breakaway wall
collapse.) The pile spacing is that along the wall directly
loaded by the storm forces.
The total load resisted by the breakaway wall before
collapse equals the ultimate capacity of all the fasteners on all
the directly loaded panels. Ultimate capacity per fastener is
given in Table A-10. This value times the number of fasteners
per panel times the number of loaded panels gives total
breakaway wall capacity. Dividing by

FIGURE 6-10
DESIGN EXAMPLE 3
1 of 4
Width
Length
Number of Stories
Type of Soil
Design Wind Speed
24
feet
40
feet
1
MED DENSE SAND
7
feet
110
miles per hour
Number of Piles Required (Figure A-I)

Along Width
Along Length
3
5
3/5
15
or
or
or
or
4
6
3/6
18
or
or
4/5
20
or
or
4/6
24
6717
or
5598
or
5038
or
4198
pounds
12.4
10.0
14.6
or
or
or
10.9
10.0
12.8
or
or
or
10.1
10.0
11.8
or
or
or
10.0
10.0
10.4
feet
feet
feet
1098
or
915
or
823
or
686
pounds

8x8 Square Pile
10x10 Square Pile

DESIGN EXAMPLE 3
2 of 4
8x8 Square Pile
10x10 Square Pile
6.0
8.6
8.0
or
or
or
6.4
8.0
9.1
or
or
or
6.6
9.0
8.2
or
or
or
6.9
9.3
8.4
feet
feet
feet
8x8 Square Pile
10x10 Square Pile
YES
NO
NO
YES
NO
NO
YES
NO
NO
YES
NO
NO

Width x Length
Pressure
Wall Height
24 x20 or
12 x32
3/12 or
2/12
3/10 or
5/8
9
10
7
10
10 to 20 psf
7.0
feet
or 16 x30
or 3/8
or 4/10
12
12
or
or
or
16 x32
3/8
5/8
15
15
feet

DESIGN EXAMPLE 3
3 of 4
10d
10
or
10
(Table A-11)
425 pounds
(Table A-10)
4250 or
4250
8500 or
4250
or
or
or
2550
or
2550
pounds
or
5100
or
5100
pounds
1214
Horizontal Load per Pile at Breakaway
Wall Collapse
or
425
or
425
or
340
pounds

(Horizontal Load 2)
607
or
213
or
213
or
170
pounds

1705
or
1128
or
1036
or
856
pounds
7.2
14.1
10.2
or
or
or
10.9
21.3
14.3
or
or
or
11.9
23.2
15.1
or
or
or
14.5
28.3
17.3
feet
feet
feet

8x8 Square Pile
10x10 Square Pile

DESIGN EXAMPLE 3
4 of 4
8x8 Square Pile
10x10 Square Pile
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO

Along Width
Along Length
3
6
18
Size of Pile
10x10
10.0 feet
NO

the number of piles carrying the load (previously determined)
gives the maximum load per pile at the moment of collapse.
In order to evaluate whether the foundation system can

withstand the forces applied to the enclosure walls before they
break away, the combined horizontal loads which produce
moment about the pile base must be considered. This
combined load consists of the half of the breakaway wall load
applied at the top of the pile (the other half is applied at the
bottom, producing no moment), plus the wind load on the
superstructure. For this combined load, Table A-4.l gives the
maximum height a pile can extend above grade without
bracing. If house clearance above grade exceeds this height,
bracing is required.
In this example, none of the configurations of pile types

and enclosure areas considered are found to require bracing
against the breakaway wall loads. Therefore a foundation
system of 10-by-10 piles such as that selected in Example 1
will withstand the loads transmitted to the piles before
breakaway wall collapse. As in Example 1, connections
should be checked and may influence the foundation
configuration selected.
For all breakaway walls, whether or not bracing is
indicated by these calculations, knee braces should be
installed on the front row piles attached to the wall directly
loaded by the storm forces, to assist in load distribution. In
addition, if floor beams do not run in the direction of the
expected water loading, compression struts should be installed
in the direction of loading between the tops of all piles
assumed to carry the water load.
Design Tables A-1
Appendix A
DESIGN TABLES
FIGURE A-1
NUMBER OF PILES REQUIRED

This figure permits one to read off the
number of piles that will be required for each
dimension of a house. It is assumed that piles are
equally spaced, with a minimum spacing of 8 feet
and a maximum spacing of 12 feet. For example,
if the length of a side is 32 feet, one can use four
piles at about 10-foot-8-inch spacing or five piles
at 8-foot spacing.
In this appendix are presented tables for use in

designing residential structures in coastal high hazard areas.
Their use is explained and demonstrated in Chapter 6, and
many of the concepts on which they are based are discussed
in Chapter 4. The computer programs that generate the tables
are presented in Appendix E.
The data in these tables represent a range of typical
house dimensions, 20 to 40 feet in width (parallel to beach) or
length (perpendicular to beach), and one or two stories in
height. Each story is assumed to be 9 feet high. The roof is
assumed to be sloped 3 horizontal to 1 vertical, with ridge
parallel to the wind, and with 2-foot eaves all around. Unless
provided for otherwise, the clearance from ground to lowest
structural member of the house frame is assumed to be 8 feet.
Input design wind speeds are intended to be those specified by
the local building code or those given by ANSI for a 100 year
mean recurrence interval.
Figure A-1. Number of piles required.
A-2 Coastal Construction Manual

TABLE A-1
DOWNWARD LOADS PER PILE
TABLE A-6
This table presents the design loads from

the house that each pile must support and
leads to the selection of pile embedment
depth.
TABLE A-2
HORIZONTAL WIND LOADS PER PILE
This table presents the design loads due

to wind that the floor beam to pile connection
must resist in order to keep the house on the
piles.
TABLE A-7
This table presents the design loads from

wind that each pile must withstand and leads
to a determination of the type of bracing the
piles may need.
ABLE A-3
MINIMUM EMBEDMENT DEPTH OF PILES
TABLE A-8
TABLE A-4.1 MAXIMUM UNBRACED HEIGHT OF PILES

SUPPORTING BREAKAWAY WALLS.
TABLE A-5
UPLIFT LOADS PER FOOT OF WALL

This table presents the design wind loads
applied to the connectors between floors.
CONCRETE MASONRY UNIT PIERS

This table presents the reinforcing steel
requirements for these piers. Since wind from
a hurricane can occur in most directions,
square piers with the same reinforcements in
all four faces should be used.
Matching
vertical steel dowels should be anchored in
the footing or grade beam.
MAXIMUM UNBRACED HEIGHT OF PILES

This table presents the maximum height
above grade a pile can be used without
horizontal bracing being necessary.
CAPACITY PER BOLT OF FLOOR BEAM

CONNECTIONS
This table presents design loads for
various sizes of bolts and various types of floor
beam connections.
This table presents the minimum depths

to which piles must be placed in order to
support the indicated loads.
TABLE A-4
UPLIFT LOADS PER PILE
TABLE A-9
CONCRETE PIERS
This table presents the reinforcing steel
requirements for these piers. Since wind can
occur in most directions from a hurricane,
square piers with the same reinforcements in
all four faces should be used.
Matching
vertical steel dowels should be anchored in
the footing or grade beam.
Design Tables A-3

FIGURE A-2
CONCRETE PIER CROSS SECTION

This graphic illustrates and provides
supplementary information to Table A-9.
FIGURE A-3
GRADE BEAMS AND SLABS

Nominal reinforcement is required in
grade beams and slabs, as shown in this
diagram.
Grade beams should be firmly
anchored to piers or piles, whether concrete or
wood.
TABLE A-10
FASTENER CAPACITIES IN SHEAR

Working and ultimate capacities (in
pounds) are provided for No. 6, S-I2 screws
and for nail sizes 8d through 16d, both lateral
and toe nailed. Capacity for the common size
dowel pin used in masonry walls is also
provided.
TABLE A-11
FASTENER SCHEDULE FOR

BREAKAWAY WALLS
The ranges of total numbers of fasteners
needed to achieve a design safe loading
resistance between 10 and 20 pounds per
square foot are provided for combinations of
wall height and pile spacing. The tables cover
nail sizes from 8d to 16d (for wood stud walls)
and No. 6, S-12 screws (for metal stud walls).

TABLE A-1
DOWNWARD LOADS PER PILE (POUNDS)
FOR ONE-STORY HOUSES
WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
NUMBER
(FEET)
OF PILES
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
4971
5872
4404
5079
5754
6430
4603
5144
5684
4736
5872
6936
5202
6001
6800
7598
5440
6078
6717
5598
4404
5202
3902
4501
5100
5699
4080
4559
5038
4198
5079
6001
4501
5192
5884
6575
4707
5260
5813
4844
5754
6800
5100
5884
6668
7452
5334
5961
6588
5490
6430
7598
5699
6575
7452
8328
5961
6662
7364
6136
4603
5440
4080
4707
5334
5961
4267
4769
5271
4392
5144
6078
4559
5260
5961
6662
4769
5330
5891
4909
5684
6717
5038
5813
6588
7364
5271
5891
6511
5426
4736
5598
4198
4844
5490
6136
4392
4909
5426
4521
FOR TWO-STORY HOUSES

WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
NUMBER
(FEET)
OF PILES
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
6682
7925
5944
6876
7808
8740
6246
6992
7737
6448
7925
9400
7050
8157
9264
10370
7411
8296
9181
7651
5944
7050
5288
6118
6948
7778
5558
6222
6886
5738
6876
8157
6118
7079
8040
9001
6432
7200
7969
6641
7808
9264
6948
8040
9132
10224
7305
8179
9052
7544
8740
10370
7778
9001
10224
11447
8179
9157
10136
8446
6246
7411
5558
6432
7305
8179
5844
6543
7242
6035
6992
8296
6222
7200
8179
9157
6543
7326
8108
6757
7737
9181
6886
7969
9052
10136
7242
8108
8975
7479
6448
7651
5738
6641
7544
8446
6035
6757
7479
6232
NOTE: SEE APPENDIX INTRODUCTION FOR ASSUMED HOUSE DIMENSIONS.
Design Tables A-5

TABLE A-2
HORIZONTAL WIND LOADS PER PILE (POUNDS) IN 80 MPH WINDS
WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
NUMBER
(FEET)
OF PILES
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
967
967
726
726
726
726
580
580
580
484
726
726
544
544
544
544
435
435
435
363
873
873
655
655
655
655
524
524
524
436
781
781
586
586
586
586
469
469
469
391
32
4
1028
1028
771
771
771
771
617
617
617
514
36
4
1190
1190
892
892
892
892
714
714
714
595
32
36
40
40
822
822
617
617
617
617
493
493
493
411
952
952
714
714
714
714
571
571
571
476
1088
1088
816
816
816
816
653
653
653
544
906
906
680
680
680
680
544
544
544
453

WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
NUMBER
(FEET)
OF PILES
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
1477
1477
1108
1108
1108
1108
886
886
886
739
1804
1804
1353
1353
1353
1353
1082
1082
1082
902
1353
1353
1015
1015
1015
1015
812
812
812
677
1606
1606
1205
1205
1205
1205
964
964
964
803
2136
2136
1602
1602
1602
1602
1282
1282
1282
1068
1494
1494
1120
1120
1120
1120
896
896
896
747
1709
1709
1282
1282
1282
1282
1025
1025
1025
854
1930
1930
1448
1448
1448
1448
1158
1158
1158
965
1608
1608
1206
1206
1206
1206
965
965
965
804
1867
1867
1400
1400
1400
1400
1120
1120
1120
934
NOTES: 1. THESE VALUES APPLY FOR CLEARANCE ABOVE EXISTING GRADE OF 8 FEET OR LESS. FOR CLEARANCES
GREATER THAN 8 FEET, LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO 14 FEET, MULTIPLY THESE VALUES BY 1.07. FOR
CLEARANCES GREATER THAN 14 FEET, LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO 22 FEET, MULTIPLY THESE VALUES BY 1.13.
2. SEE APPENDIX INTRODUCTION FOR ASSUMED HOUSE DIMENSIONS.

TABLE A-2 CONTINUED
WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
NUMBER
(FEET)
OF PILES
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
1506
1506
1130
1130
1130
1130
904
904
904
753
1041
1041
780
780
780
780
624
624
624
520
1205
1205
904
904
904
904
723
723
723
602
1377
1377
1033
1033
1033
1033
826
826
826
688
1147
1147
860
860
860
860
688
688
688
574
989
989
742
742
742
742
593
593
593
494
1225
1225
918
918
918
918
735
735
735
612
918
918
689
689
689
689
551
551
551
459
1105
1105
829
829
829
829
663
663
663
552
1301
1301
975
975
975
975
780
780
780
650

WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
NUMBER
(FEET)
OF PILES
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
1870
1870
1402
1402
1402
1402
1122
1122
1122
935
2284
2284
1713
1713
1713
1713
1370
1370
1370
1142
1713
1713
1285
1285
1285
1285
1028
1028
1028
856
2033
2033
1525
1525
1525
1525
1220
1220
1220
1017
2704
2704
2028
2028
2028
2028
1622
1622
1622
1352
1891
1891
1418
1418
1418
1418
1134
1134
1134
945
2163
2163
1622
1622
1622
1622
1298
1298
1298
1081
2443
2443
1832
1832
1832
1832
1466
1466
1466
1222
2036
2036
1527
1527
1527
1527
1222
1222
1222
1018
2363
2363
1773
1773
1773
1773
1418
1418
1418
1182
Design Tables A-7

TABLE A-2 CONTINUED
HORIZONTAL WIND LOADS PER PILE (POUNDS) IN 100 MPH WINDS FOR
ONE-STORY HOUSES
WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
NUMBER
(FEET)
OF PILES
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
1221
1221
915
915
915
915
732
732
732
610
1512
1512
1134
1134
1134
1134
907
907
907
756
1134
1134
850
850
850
850
680
680
680
567
1364
1364
1023
1023
1023
1023
818
818
818
682
1859
1859
1394
1394
1394
1394
1115
1115
1115
930
1284
1284
963
963
963
963
771
771
771
642
1487
1487
1115
1115
1115
1115
892
892
892
744
1700
1700
1275
1275
1275
1275
1020
1020
1020
850
1416
1416
1062
1062
1062
1062
850
850
850
708
1606
1606
1204
1204
1204
1204
963
963
963
803

WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
NUMBER
(FEET)
OF PILES
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
2308
2308
1731
1731
1731
1731
1385
1385
1385
1154
2819
2819
2114
2114
2114
2114
1691
1691
1691
1409
2114
2114
1586
1586
1586
1586
1269
1269
1269
1057
2510
2510
1882
1882
1882
1882
1506
1506
1506
1255
3338
3338
2503
2503
2503
2503
2003
2003
2003
1669
2334
2334
1750
1750
1750
1750
1400
1400
1400
1167
2670
2670
2003
2003
2003
2003
1602
1602
1602
1335
3016
3016
2262
2262
2262
2262
1810
1810
1810
1508
2513
2513
1885
1885
1885
1885
1508
1508
1508
1257
2917
2917
2188
2188
2188
2188
1750
1750
1750
1459

TABLE A-2 CONTINUED
WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
NUMBER
(FEET)
OF PILES
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
1477
1477
1108
1108
1108
1108
886
886
886
739
1829
1829
1372
1372
1372
1372
1098
1098
1098
915
1372
1372
1029
1029
1029
1029
823
823
823
686
1650
1650
1238
1238
1238
1238
990
990
990
825
2250
2250
1687
1687
1687
1687
1350
1350
1350
1125
1554
1554
1166
1166
1166
1166
933
933
933
777
1800
1800
1350
1350
1350
1350
1080
1080
1080
900
2057
2057
1542
1542
1542
1542
1234
1234
1234
1028
1714
1714
1285
1285
1285
1285
1028
1028
1028
857
1943
1943
1457
1457
1457
1457
1166
1166
1166
971

WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
NUMBER
(FEET)
OF PILES
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
2793
2793
2095
2095
2095
2095
1676
1676
1676
1397
3411
3411
2559
2559
2559
2559
2047
2047
2047
1706
2559
2559
1919
1919
1919
1919
1535
1535
1535
1279
3037
3037
2278
2278
2278
2278
1822
1822
1822
1519
4039
4039
3029
3029
3029
3029
2423
2423
2423
2019
2824
2824
2118
2118
2118
2118
1695
1695
1695
1412
3231
3231
2423
2423
2423
2423
1939
1939
1939
1616
3650
3650
2737
2737
2737
2737
2190
2190
2190
1825
3041
3041
2281
2281
2281
2281
1825
1825
1825
1521
3531
3531
2648
2648
2648
2648
2118
2118
2118
1765
2.
SEE APPENDIX INTRODUCTION FOR ASSUMED HOUSE DIMENSIONS.
Design Tables A-9

TABLE A-2 CONTINUED
WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
NUMBER
(FEET)
OF PILES
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
1758
1758
1318
1318
1318
1318
1055
1055
1055
879
2177
2177
1633
1633
1633
1633
1306
1306
1306
1089
1633
1633
1225
1225
1225
1225
980
980
980
816
1964
1964
1473
1473
1473
1473
1178
1178
1178
982
2677
2677
2008
2008
2008
2008
1606
1606
1606
1339
1850
1850
1387
1387
1387
1387
1110
1110
1110
925
2142
2142
1606
1606
1606
1606
1285
1285
1285
1071
2448
2448
1836
1836
1836
1836
1469
1469
1469
1224
2040
2040
1530
1530
1530
1530
1224
1224
1224
1020
2312
2312
1734
1734
1734
1734
1387
1387
1387
1156

WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
NUMBER
(FEET)
OF PILES
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3324
3324
2493
2493
2493
2493
1994
1994
1994
1662
4060
4060
3045
3045
3045
3045
2436
2436
2436
2030
3045
3045
2284
2284
2284
2284
1827
1827
1827
1522
3614
3614
2711
2711
2711
2711
2169
2169
2169
1807
4806
4806
3605
3605
3605
3605
2884
2884
2884
2403
3361
3361
2521
2521
2521
2521
2017
2017
2017
1681
3845
3845
2884
2884
2884
2884
2307
2307
2307
1923
4343
4343
3257
3257
3257
3257
2606
2606
2606
2172
3619
3619
2715
2715
2715
2715
2172
2172
2172
1810
4201
4201
3151
3151
3151
3151
2521
2521
2521
2101
GREATER THAN 8 FEET, LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO 14 FEET. MULTIPLY THESE VALUES BY 1.07. FOR

TABLE A-2 CONTINUED
WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
NUMBER
(FEET)
OF PILES
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
2063
2063
1547
1547
1547
1547
1238
1238
1238
1032
2555
2555
1916
1916
1916
1916
1533
1533
1533
1278
1916
1916
1437
1437
1437
1437
1150
1150
1150
958
2305
2305
1729
1729
1729
1729
1383
1383
1383
1153
3142
3142
2357
2357
2357
2357
1885
1885
1885
1571
2171
2171
1628
1628
1628
1628
1303
1303
1303
1086
2514
2514
1885
1885
1885
1885
1508
1508
1508
1257
2873
2873
2155
2155
2155
2155
1724
1724
1724
1438
2394
2394
1795
1795
1795
1795
1436
1436
1436
1197
2714
2714
2035
2035
2035
2035
1628
1628
1628
1357

WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
NUMBER
(FEET)
OF PILES
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3901
3901
2926
2926
2926
2926
2341
2341
2341
1951
4765
4765
3574
3574
3574
3574
2859
2859
2859
2382
3574
3574
2680
2680
2680
2680
2144
2144
2144
1787
4242
4242
3182
3182
3182
3182
2545
2545
2545
2121
5641
5641
4231
4231
4231
4231
3385
3385
3385
2821
3945
3945
2959
2959
2959
2959
2367
2367
2367
1973
4513
4513
3385
3385
3385
3385
2708
2708
2708
2257
5098
5098
3823
3823
3823
3823
3059
3059
3059
2549
4248
4248
3186
3186
3186
3186
2549
2549
2549
2124
4931
4931
3699
3699
3699
3699
2959
2959
2959
2466
GREATER THAN 8 FEET, LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO 14 FEET. MULTIPLY THESE VALUES BY 1.07. FOR
Design Tables A-11

TABLE A-2 CONTINUED
WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
NUMBER
(FEET)
OF PILES
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
2393
2393
1795
1795
1795
1795
1436
1436
1436
1196
2963
2963
2223
2223
2223
2223
1778
1778
1778
1482
2223
2223
1667
1667
1667
1667
1334
1334
1334
1111
2674
2674
2005
2005
2005
2005
1604
1604
1604
1337
3644
3644
2733
2733
2733
2733
2187
2187
2187
1822
2518
2518
1888
1888
1888
1888
1511
1511
1511
1259
2916
2916
2187
2187
2187
2187
1749
1749
1749
1458
3332
3332
2499
2499
2499
2499
1999
1999
1999
1666
2776
2776
2082
2082
2082
2082
1666
1666
1666
1388
3147
3147
2361
2361
2361
2361
1888
1888
1888
1574

WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
NUMBER
(FEET)
OF PILES
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
4525
4525
3393
3393
3393
3393
2715
2715
2715
2262
5526
5526
4145
4145
4145
4145
3316
3316
3316
2763
4145
4145
3108
3108
3108
3108
2487
2487
2487
2072
4920
4920
3690
3690
3690
3690
2952
2952
2952
2460
6543
6543
4907
4907
4907
4907
3926
3926
3926
3271
4575
4575
3431
3431
3431
3431
2745
2745
2745
2288
5234
5234
3926
3926
3926
3926
3140
3140
3140
2617
5912
5912
4434
4434
4434
4434
3547
3547
3547
2956
4927
4927
3695
3695
3695
3695
2956
2956
2956
2463
5719
5719
4289
4289
4289
4289
3431
3431
3431
2860
CLEARANCES GREATER THAN 14 FEET, LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO 22 FEET. MULTIPLY THESE VALUES BY 1.13.

TABLE A-3
MINIMUM EMBEDMENT DEPTH OF PILES (FEET)
VERTICAL
LOAD
(POUNDS)
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
6000
6500
7000
7500
8000
8500
9000
9500
10000
10500
11000
11500
12000
12500
13000
MEDIUM DENSE
8x8
10x10
PILES
PILES
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.7
11.4
12.1
12.8
13.5
14.2
14.9
15.5
16.1
16.8
17.4
18.0
18.5
19.1
19.7
20.2
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.5
11.1
11.6
12.1
12.6
13.1
13.6
14.0
14.5
15.0
15.4
SAND
LOOSE SAND
MEDIUM STIFF CLAY
SOFT CLAY
8INCH 8X8
10x10 8INCH 8X8
10x10 8INCH 8X8
10X10
8INCH
TIP
PILES PILES TIP PILES
PILES TIP
PILES
PILES
TIP
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.8
11.7
12.6
13.4
14.2
15.0
15.8
16.5
17.2
17.9
18.6
19.3
19.9
20.5
21.1
21.7
22.3
22.9
13.4
15.0
16.5
17.9
19.3
20.6
21.9
23.1
24.3
25.4
26.6
27.6
28.7
29.7
30.7
31.7
32.7
33.6
34.5
35.4
36.3
10.0
11.3
12.5
13.7
14.8
15.9
17.0
18.0
19.0
20.0
21.0
21.9
22.8
23.7
24.5
25.4
26.2
27.0
27.8
28.6
29.4
15.5
17.3
18.9
20.4
21.8
23.2
24.5
25.8
27.0
28.1
29.2
30.3
31.3
32.4
33.3
34.3
35.2
36.1
37.0
37.9
38.7
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.2
11.0
11.8
12.7
13.5
14.3
15.2
16.0
16.8
17.7
18.5
19.3
20.2
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.1
10.8
11.5
12.1
12.8
13.5
14.1
14.8
15.5
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.1
10.8
11.4
12.1
12.8
13.5
14.2
14.8
15.5
16.1
16.8
17.4
10.0
10.0
10.5
12.0
13.5
15.0
16.5
18.0
19.5
21.0
22.5
24.0
25.5
27.0
28.5
30.0
31.5
33.0
34.5
38.0
37.5
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.1
11.3
12.5
13.7
14.9
16.1
17.3
18.5
19.7
20.9
22.1
23.3
24.5
25.7
26.9
28.1
29.3
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.9
12.1
13.4
14.6
15.8
16.9
18.1
19.2
20.4
21.5
22.6
23.7
24.8
25.9
26.9
28.0
29.0
30.1
NOTE: FOR PILES IN SAND, ADD ANTICIPATED SCOUR DEPTH. IF LOCAL SCOUR DATA ARE NOT AVAILABLE,
ADD SCOUR DEPTH OF 4 FEET FOR FIRST ROW HOUSES, 2 FEET FOR INLAND HOUSES.
Design Tables A-13

TABLE A-4
MAXIMUM UNBRACED HEIGHT OF PILES (FEET) IN 80 MPH WINDS
AND FLOOD FORCES
HORIZONTAL
WIND LOADS
(POUNDS)
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
8X8
PILES
10X10
PILES
8.1
7.8
7.6
7.3
7.1
6.9
6.6
6.4
6.2
6.0
5.8
5.6
5.4
5.3
5.1
4.9
4.8
4.6
4.5
4.3
4.2
10.2
10.1
9.9
9.7
9.5
9.3
9.2
9.0
8.8
8.6
8.5
8.3
8.1
8.0
7.8
7.7
7.5
7.4
7.2
7.1
6.9
8-INCH TIP PILES

WITH EMBEDMENTS OF
10 FT
20 FT
9.8
9.5
9.2
8.9
8.6
8.3
8.0
7.8
7.5
7.2
7.0
6.8
6.5
6.3
6.1
5.9
5.7
5.6
5.4
5.2
5.1
11.1
10.8
10.5
10.2
10.0
9.7
9.5
9.2
9.0
8.7
8.5
8.3
8.1
7.8
7.6
7.4
7.2
7.1
6.9
6.7
6.5
30 FT
12.2
11.9
11.7
11.5
11.2
11.0
10.8
10.6
10.3
10.1
9.9
9.7
9.5
9.3
9.1
8.9
8.7
8.5
8.3
8.2
8.0
NOTES: 1. WATER AND DEBRIS LOADS ASSOCIATED WITH THE INPUT WIND LOADS ARE INCLUDED IN THE CALCULATION OF
UNBRACED HEIGHTS.
2. PILE HEIGHT ABOVE GRADE IS ASSUMED EQUAL TO DESIGN WATER HEIGHT. IF TOP OF PILE IS ABOVE BFE, USE THIS
TABLE OR CALCULATE HIGHER ALLOWABLE UNBRACED HEIGHT BY PROCEDURE IN APPENDIX D.

TABLE A-4 CONTINUED
AND FLOOD FORCES
HORIZONTAL
WIND LOADS
(POUNDS)
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
2800
2900
3000
3100
8X8
PILES
10X10
PILES
7.8
7.5
7.3
7.0
8.8
6.6
6.4
6.2
5.9
5.8
5.8
5.4
5.2
5.0
4.9
4.7
4.6
4.4
4.3
4.2
4.1
4.0
3.8
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.5
10.0
9.8
9.8
9.5
9.3
9.1
8.9
8.8
8.6
8.4
8.3
8.1
7.9
7.8
7.6
7.5
7.3
7.2
7.0
6.9
6.8
6.6
6.5
6.4
6.2
6.1
6.0
8-INCH TIP PILES

WITH EMBEDMENTS OF
10 FT
20 FT
9.4
9.1
8.8
8.5
8.2
8.0
7.7
7.4
7.2
6.9
6.7
6.5
6.3
6.1
5.9
5.7
5.5
5.3
5.2
5.0
4.9
4.8
4.6
4.5
4.4
4.3
4.1
10.7
10.4
10.2
9.9
9.7
9.4
9.2
8.9
8.7
8.5
8.2
8.0
7.8
7.6
7.4
7.2
7.0
6.8
6.7
6.5
6.3
6.2
6.0
5.9
5.7
5.6
5.5
30 FT
11.9
11.8
11.4
11.2
11.0
10.7
10.5
10.3
10.1
9.9
9.7
9.4
9.2
9.1
8.9
8.7
8.5
8.3
8.1
8.0
7.8
7.6
7.5
7.3
7.2
7.0
6.9
UNBRACED HEIGHTS.
Design Tables A-15
HORIZONTAL
WIND LOADS
(POUNDS)
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
2800
2900
3000
3100
3200
3300
3400
3500
3600
3700
3800
TABLE A-4 CONTINUED

AND FLOOD FORCES
8-INCH TIP PILES
8X8
10X10
WITH EMBEDMENTS OF
PILES
PILES
10 FT
20 FT
7.3
9.7
8.9
10.2
7.1
9.5
8.6
10.0
6.9
9.3
8.3
9.7
6.6
9.1
8.0
9.5
6.4
9.0
7.8
9.2
6.2
8.8
7.5
9.0
6.0
8.6
7.3
8.7
5.8
8.4
7.0
8.5
5.6
8.3
6.8
8.3
5.4
8.1
6.6
8.1
5.3
8.0
6.3
7.9
5.1
7.8
6.1
7.6
4.9
7.6
5.9
7.4
4.8
7.5
5.8
7.3
4.6
7.3
5.6
7.1
4.5
7.2
5.4
6.9
4.4
7.1
5.2
6.7
4.2
6.9
5.1
6.5
4.1
6.8
4.9
6.4
4.0
6.6
4.8
6.2
3.9
6.5
4.7
6.1
3.8
6.4
4.5
5.9
3.7
6.3
4.4
5.8
3.6
6.1
4.3
5.6
3.5
6.0
4.2
5.5
3.4
5.9
4.1
5.4
3.3
5.8
4.0
5.3
3.2
5.7
3.9
5.1
3.2
5.6
3.8
5.0
3.1
5.5
3.7
4.9
3.0
5.4
3.6
4.8
2.9
5.3
3.5
4.7
2.9
5.2
3.4
4.6
30 FT
11.5
11.2
11.0
10.8
10.6
10.3
10.1
9.9
9.7
9.5
9.3
9.1
8.9
8.7
8.5
8.3
8.2
8.0
7.8
7.7
7.5
7.3
7.2
7.0
6.9
6.8
6.6
6.5
6.4
6.2
6.1
6.0
5.9
UNBRACED HEIGHTS.

TABLE A-4 CONTINUED
AND FLOOD FORCES
HORIZONTAL
8-INCH TIP PILES
WIND LOADS
8x8
10x10
WITH EMBEDMENTS OF
(POUNDS)
PILES
PILES
10 FT
20 FT
30 FT
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
2800
2900
3000
3100
3200
3300
3400
3500
3600
3700
3800
3900
4000
4100
4200
4300
4400
4500
4600
4700
4800
6.3
6.1
5.9
5.7
5.5
5.3
5.2
5.0
4.8
4.7
4.5
4.4
4.3
4.2
4.0
3.9
3.8
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.4
3.4
3.3
3.2
3.1
3.0
3.0
2.9
2.8
2.8
2.7
2.7
2.6
2.6
2.5
2.5
2.4
2.4
2.3
2.3
8.8
8.6
8.5
8.3
8.1
8.0
7.8
7.7
7.5
7.4
7.2
7.1
6.9
6.8
6.7
6.5
6.4
6.3
6.2
6.1
5.9
5.8
5.7
5.6
5.5
5.4
5.3
5.2
5.1
5.0
4.9
4.9
4.8
4.7
4.6
4.5
4.5
4.4
4.3
4.3
7.6
7.4
7.1
6.9
6.6
6.4
6.2
6.0
5.8
5.6
5.5
5.3
5.2
5.0
4.9
4.7
4.6
4.5
4.3
4.2
4.1
4.0
3.9
3.8
3.7
3.6
3.6
3.5
3.4
3.3
3.3
3.2
3.1
3.1
3.0
2.9
2.9
2.8
2.8
2.7
9.1
8.8
8.6
8.4
8.1
7.9
7.7
7.5
7.3
7.1
6.9
6.8
6.6
6.4
6.3
6.1
6.0
5.8
5.7
5.6
5.4
5.3
5.2
5.1
5.0
4.9
4.7
4.6
4.6
4.5
4.4
4.3
4.2
4.1
4.0
4.0
3.9
3.8
3.8
3.7
10.4
10.2
10.0
9.8
9.5
9.3
9.2
9.0
8.8
8.6
8.4
8.2
8.0
7.9
7.7
7.6
7.4
7.2
7.1
7.0
6.8
6.7
6.5
6.4
6.3
6.2
6.1
5.9
5.8
5.7
5.6
5.5
5.4
5.3
5.2
5.1
5.1
5.0
4.9
4.8
4900
5000
5100
5200
5300
5400
5500
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.0
4.2
4.1
4.1
4.0
3.9
3.9
3.8
2.7
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.5
2.5
2.4
3.6
3.6
3.5
3.5
3.4
3.3
3.3
4.7
4.7
4.6
4.5
4.4
4.4
4.3
NOTES: 1. WATER AND DEBRIS LOADS ASSOCIATED WITH THE INPUT WIND LOADS
ARE INCLUDED IN THE CALCULATION OF UNBRACED HEIGHTS.
2. PILE HEIGHT ABOVE GRADE IS ASSUMED EQUAL TO DESIGN WATER
HEIGHT. IF TOP OF PILE IS ABOVE BFE, USE THIS TABLE OR CALCULATE
HIGHER ALLOWABLE UNBRACED HEIGHT BY PROCEDURE IN APPENDIX
D.
Design Tables A-17

TABLE A-4 CONTINUED
AND FLOOD FORCES
HORIZONTAL
8-INCH TIP PILES
WIND LOADS
8x8
10x10
WITH EMBEDMENTS OF
(POUNDS)
PILES
PILES
10 FT
20 FT
30 FT
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
2800
2900
3000
3100
3200
3300
3400
3500
3600
3700
3800
3900
4000
4100
4200
4300
4400
4500
4600
6.9
6.7
6.5
6.2
6.0
5.8
5.7
5.5
5.3
5.1
5.0
4.8
4.7
4.5
4.4
4.3
4.1
4.0
3.9
3.8
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.4
3.3
3.3
3.2
3.1
3.0
3.0
2.9
2.8
2.8
2.7
2.7
2.6
2.6
2.5
2.5
2.4
9.3
9.1
9.0
8.8
8.6
8.5
8.3
8.1
8.0
7.8
7.7
7.5
7.4
7.2
7.1
6.9
6.8
6.7
6.5
6.4
6.3
6.2
6.0
5.9
5.8
5.7
5.6
5.5
5.4
5.3
5.2
5.1
5.0
4.9
4.8
4.8
4.7
4.6
4.5
4.5
8.4
8.1
7.8
7.6
7.3
7.1
6.8
6.6
6.4
6.2
6.0
5.8
5.6
5.4
5.3
5.1
5.0
4.8
4.7
4.6
4.4
4.3
4.2
4.1
4.0
3.9
3.8
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.5
3.4
3.3
3.2
3.2
3.1
3.1
3.0
2.9
2.9
9.8
9.5
9.3
9.0
8.8
8.6
8.3
8.1
7.9
7.7
7.5
7.3
7.1
6.9
6.7
6.6
6.4
6.2
6.1
5.9
5.8
5.7
5.5
5.4
5.3
5.2
5.0
4.9
4.8
4.7
4.6
4.5
4.4
4.4
4.3
4.2
4.1
4.0
4.0
3.9
11.0
10.8
10.6
10.4
10.2
9.9
9.7
9.5
9.3
9.1
8.9
8.7
8.6
8.4
8.2
8.0
7.9
7.7
7.5
7.4
7.2
7.1
6.9
6.8
6.7
6.5
6.4
6.3
6.2
6.0
5.9
5.8
5.7
5.6
5.5
5.4
5.3
5.2
5.1
5.0
HEIGHT. IF TOP OF PILE IS ABOVE BFE. USE THIS TABLE OR
CALCULATE HIGHER ALLOWABLE UNBRACED HEIGHT BY PROCEDURE
IN APPENDIX D.

TABLE A-4 CONTINUED
AND FLOOD FORCES
HORIZONTAL
WIND LOADS
(POUNDS)
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
2800
2900
3000
3100
3200
3300
3400
3500
3600
3700
3800
3900
4000
4100
4200
4300
4400
4500
4600
8x8
PILES
10x10
PILES
5.9
5.7
5.5
5.3
5.2
5.0
4.8
4.7
4.6
4.4
4.3
4.2
4.1
3.9
3.8
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.4
3.4
3.3
3.2
3.1
3.1
3.0
2.9
2.9
2.8
2.7
2.7
2.6
2.6
2.5
2.5
2.4
2.4
2.3
8.5
8.3
8.1
8.0
7.8
7.7
7.5
7.4
7.2
7.1
6.9
6.8
6.7
6.5
6.4
6.3
6.2
6.1
5.9
5.8
5.7
5.6
5.5
5.4
5.3
5.2
5.1
5.0
4.9
4.9
4.8
4.7
4.6
4.5
4.5
4.4
4.3
8-INCH TIP PILES

WITH EMBEDMENTS OF
10 FT
20 FT
30 FT
7.1
6.9
6.7
6.4
6.2
6.0
5.9
5.7
5.5
5.3
5.2
5.0
4.9
4.7
4.6
4.5
4.4
4.2
4.1
4.0
3.9
3.8
3.7
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.4
3.3
3.3
3.2
3.1
3.1
3.0
3.0
2.9
2.8
2.8
8.6
8.4
8.2
7.9
7.7
7.5
7.3
7.1
7.0
6.8
6.6
6.4
6.3
6.1
6.0
5.8
5.7
5.6
5.4
5.3
5.2
5.1
5.0
4.9
4.8
4.7
4.6
4.5
4.4
4.3
4.2
4.1
4.1
4.0
3.9
3.8
3.8
10.0
9.8
9.5
9.3
9.2
9.0
8.8
8.6
8.4
8.2
8.1
7.9
7.7
7.6
7.4
7.3
7.1
7.0
6.8
6.7
6.6
6.4
6.3
6.2
6.1
5.9
5.8
5.7
5.6
5.5
5.4
5.3
5.2
5.1
5.1
5.0
4.9
4700
4800
4900
5000
5100
5200
5300
5400
5500
5600
5700
5800
5900
6000
6100
6200
6300
2.3
2.3
2.2
2.2
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.8
1.8
1.8
4.3
4.2
4.1
4.1
4.0
3.9
3.9
3.8
3.8
3.7
3.7
3.6
3.6
3.5
3.5
3.4
3.4
2.7
2.7
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.5
2.5
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.1
3.7
3.6
3.6
3.5
3.5
3.4
3.4
3.3
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.1
3.1
3.0
3.0
2.9
2.9
4.8
4.7
4.7
4.6
4.5
4.4
4.4
4.3
4.3
4.2
4.1
4.1
4.0
4.0
3.9
3.8
3.8
D.
Design Tables A-19

TABLE A-4 CONTINUED
AND FLOOD FORCES
HORIZONTAL
8-INCH TIP PILES
WIND LOADS
8x8
10x10
WITH EMBEDMENTS OF
(POUNDS)
PILES
PILES
10 FT
20 FT
30 FT
1200
5.3
8.0
6.5
7.9
9.3
1300
5.2
7.8
6.2
7.7
9.1
1400
5.0
7.6
6.0
7.5
8.9
1500
4.8
7.5
5.9
7.3
8.8
1600
4.7
7.4
5.7
7.1
8.6
1700
4.6
7.2
5.5
7.0
8.4
1800
4.4
7.1
5.3
6.8
8.2
1900
4.3
6.9
5.2
6.6
8.0
2000
4.2
6.8
5.0
6.4
7.9
2100
4.1
6.7
4.9
6.3
7.7
2200
3.9
6.5
4.7
6.1
7.6
2300
3.8
6.4
4.6
6.0
7.4
2400
3.7
6.3
4.5
5.8
7.2
2500
3.6
6.2
4.4
5.7
7.1
2600
3.5
6.1
4.3
5.6
7.0
2700
3.5
5.9
4.1
5.4
6.8
2800
3.4
5.8
4.0
5.3
6.7
2900
3.3
5.7
3.9
5.2
6.6
3000
3.2
5.6
3.8
5.1
6.4
3100
3.1
5.5
3.8
5.0
6.3
3200
3.1
5.4
3.7
4.9
6.2
3300
3.0
5.3
3.6
4.8
6.1
3400
2.9
5.2
3.5
4.7
5.9
3500
2.9
5.1
3.4
4.6
5.8
3600
2.8
5.0
3.4
4.5
5.7
3700
2.7
4.9
3.3
4.4
5.6
3800
2.7
4.9
3.2
4.3
5.5
3900
2.6
4.8
3.1
4.2
5.4
4000
2.6
4.7
3.1
4.1
5.3
4100
2.5
4.6
3.0
4.1
5.2
4200
2.5
4.5
3.0
4.0
5.2
4300
2.4
4.5
2.9
3.9
5.1
4400
2.4
4.4
2.9
3.8
5.0
4500
2.3
4.3
2.8
3.8
4.9
4600
2.3
4.3
2.7
3.7
4.8
4700
2.3
4.2
2.7
3.6
4.7
4800
2.2
4.1
2.7
3.6
4.7
4900
5000
5100
5200
5300
5400
5500
5600
5700
5800
5900
6000
6100
6200
6300
6400
6500
6600
6700
6800
6900
7000
7100
7200
7300
7400
2.2
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.5
1.5
4.1
4.0
3.9
3.9
3.8
3.8
3.7
3.7
3.6
3.6
3.5
3.5
3.4
3.4
3.3
3.3
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.0
3.0
2.9
2.9
2.6
2.6
2.5
2.5
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.8
1.8
3.5
3.5
3.4
3.4
3.3
3.3
3.2
3.2
3.1
3.1
3.0
3.0
2.9
2.9
2.9
2.8
2.8
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.5
2.5
2.5
4.6
4.5
4.5
4.4
4.3
4.3
4.2
4.1
4.1
4.0
4.0
3.9
3.8
3.8
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.6
3.6
3.5
3.5
3.4
3.4
3.3
3.3
3.3
2.PILE HEIGHT ABOVE GRADE IS ASSUMED EQUAL TO DESIGN WATER
D.

TABLE A-4.1
MAXIMUM UNBRACED HEIGHT OF PILES
SUPPORTING BREAKAWAY WALLS (FEET)
COMBINED
LOAD
PER PILE (LB)
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
2800
2900
3000
3100
3200
3300
3400
3500
3600
3700
3800
3900
4000
4100
4200
8X8
PILES
10x10
PILES
10 FT
17.6
15.4
13.7
12.3
11.2
10.2
9.5
8.8
8.2
7.7
7.2
6.8
6.5
6.1
5.9
5.6
5.3
5.1
4.9
4.7
4.6
4.4
4.2
4.1
4.0
3.8
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.4
3.3
3.2
3.2
3.1
3.0
2.9
34.3
30.0
26.7
24.0
21.8
20.0
18.5
17.2
16.0
15.0
14.1
13.3
12.6
12.0
11.4
10.9
10.4
10.0
9.6
9.2
8.9
8.6
8.3
8.0
7.7
7.5
7.3
7.1
6.9
6.7
6.5
6.3
6.2
6.0
5.9
5.7
21.0
18.3
16.3
14.7
13.3
12.2
11.3
10.5
9.8
9.2
8.6
8.2
7.7
7.3
7.0
6.7
6.4
6.1
5.9
5.6
5.4
5.2
5.1
4.9
4.7
4.6
4.4
4.3
4.2
4.1
4.0
3.9
3.8
3.7
3.6
3.5
8-INCH TIP PILES

WITH EMBEDMENTS OF
20 FT
28.8
25.2
22.4
20.1
18.3
16.8
15.5
14.4
13.4
12.6
11.8
11.2
10.6
10.1
9.6
9.1
8.8
8.4
8.1
7.7
7.5
7.2
6.9
6.7
6.5
6.3
6.1
5.9
5.8
5.6
5.4
5.3
5.2
5.0
4.9
4.8
30 FT
38.3
33.5
29.8
26.8
24.4
22.3
20.6
19.1
17.9
16.7
15.8
14.9
14.1
13.4
12.8
12.2
11.6
11.2
10.7
10.3
9.9
9.6
9.2
8.9
8.6
8.4
8.1
7.9
7.7
7.4
7.2
7.1
6.9
6.7
6.5
6.4
Design Tables A-21

TABLE A-5
UPLIFT LOADS PER FOOT OF WALL (POUNDS) IN 80 MPH WINDS
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
67
65
64
63
62
61
60
60
59
59
58
22
74
72
70
69
68
67
66
65
64
64
63
24
81
78
76
75
73
72
71
71
70
69
69
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
78
76
75
73
72
71
71
70
69
69
68
22
86
84
82
80
79
78
77
76
76
75
74
24
94
91
89
87
86
85
83
83
82
81
81
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
98
90
83
78
73
69
66
63
61
59
57
22
105
96
89
83
78
74
71
68
65
63
61
24
112
103
95
89
84
79
76
72
70
67
65
ACTING ON ROOF CONNECTIONS OF ONE-STORY HOUSES

WIDTH
(FEET)
26
28
30
32
34
88
96
104
113
122
85
93
100
108
116
83
90
97
104
112
81
88
94
101
109
80
86
92
99
106
78
84
90
97
104
77
83
89
95
102
76
82
88
94
100
75
81
87
93
99
75
80
86
91
97
74
79
85
91
96
ACTING ON ROOF CONNECTIONS OF TWO-STORY HOUSES
WIDTH
(F E E T )
26
28
30
32
34
102
111
120
130
140
99
107
116
125
134
97
104
112
121
130
94
102
110
118
126
93
100
107
115
123
91
98
105
113
120
90
97
104
111
118
89
96
102
109
116
88
95
101
108
115
87
94
100
107
114
87
93
99
106
112
ACTING ON FIRST FLOOR OF ONE-STORY HOUSES
WIDTH
(FEET)
26
28
30
32
34
119
126
133
139
146
109
115
122
128
134
101
107
113
118
124
94
100
105
111
116
89
94
99
104
109
84
89
94
99
103
80
85
89
94
99
77
81
86
90
94
74
78
82
87
91
71
76
80
84
88
69
73
77
81
85
36
131
125
120
116
113
110
108
106
105
103
102
38
141
134
128
124
120
117
115
113
111
109
108
40
152
144
137
132
128
125
122
119
117
116
114
36
151
144
139
134
131
128
126
124
122
120
119
38
162
154
148
143
139
136
133
131
129
127
126
40
174
165
158
153
148
144
141
139
137
135
133
36
153
140
130
121
114
108
103
99
95
92
89
38
160
146
136
127
119
113
108
103
99
96
92
40
167
153
141
132
124
118
112
107
103
99
96

TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
UPLIFT LOADS PER FOOT OF WALL (POUNDS) IN 80 MPH WINDS, CONTINUED
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
54
45
38
33
28
24
20
17
14
12
9
20
189
162
141
123
108
95
84
75
66
59
53
22
57
48
41
35
30
25
21
18
15
12
10
22
199
171
149
130
114
101
89
79
71
63
56
24
61
51
44
37
32
27
23
19
16
13
10
ACTING ON SECOND FLOOR OF TWO-STORY HOUSES

WIDTH
(FEET)
26
28
30
32
34
64
68
71
75
79
54
57
61
64
67
46
49
52
54
57
39
42
44
46
49
33
36
38
40
42
28
30
32
34
36
24
26
27
29
30
20
21
23
24
26
17
18
19
20
21
14
15
15
17
18
11
12
12
13
14
36
82
70
60
52
44
38
32
27
23
19
15
38
86
74
63
54
46
40
34
29
24
20
16
40
90
77
66
57
49
42
36
30
26
21
17
24
208
180
157
137
121
107
95
84
75
66
59
ACTING ON FIRST FLOOR OF TWO-STORY HOUSES

WIDTH
(FEET)
26
28
30
32
34
218
227
236
245
253
188
197
205
212
220
164
172
179
186
193
144
151
157
163
170
127
133
139
144
150
112
118
123
128
133
99
104
109
114
119
88
93
97
101
106
79
83
87
91
94
70
74
77
81
84
62
66
69
72
75
36
261
228
200
176
156
138
123
110
98
88
79
38
270
235
206
182
161
143
128
114
102
91
82
40
278
242
213
188
167
149
133
118
106
95
85
Design Tables A-23

TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
138
135
133
131
129
128
127
125
125
124
123
22
151
148
145
143
141
139
138
136
135
134
134
24
165
161
157
155
152
151
149
148
146
145
144
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
153
149
147
144
143
141
140
138
137
137
136
22
167
163
160
157
155
153
152
151
149
148
147
24
182
177
173
171
168
166
164
163
161
160
159
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
162
153
146
140
135
132
128
126
124
122
120
22
173
163
155
149
144
140
137
134
131
129
128
24
183
172
164
158
153
148
145
142
139
137
135

WIDTH
(FEET)
26
28
30
32
34
179
193
208
223
239
174
187
201
216
231
170
183
196
210
224
167
180
192
206
219
164
177
189
202
215
162
174
186
199
211
160
172
184
196
208
159
170
182
194
206
157
169
180
192
203
156
167
178
190
201
155
166
177
188
200
WIDTH
(FEET)
26
28
30
32
34
197
212
228
245
262
191
206
222
237
254
187
202
216
231
247
184
198
212
226
241
181
195
208
222
236
179
192
205
219
232
177
190
203
216
229
175
188
200
213
226
174
186
198
211
224
172
184
197
209
222
171
183
195
208
220
WIDTH
(FEET)
26
28
30
32
34
193
202
212
221
231
182
191
200
209
218
173
182
190
199
207
166
175
183
191
199
161
169
177
184
192
156
164
172
179
186
152
160
167
175
182
149
157
164
171
178
147
154
161
168
175
144
152
159
166
172
143
150
157
164
170
36
256
246
239
233
228
224
221
218
215
213
211
38
273
262
254
247
242
237
233
230
227
225
223
40
291
279
269
262
256
251
246
243
240
237
235
36
280
270
262
256
251
247
243
240
237
235
233
38
299
288
279
272
266
261
257
253
250
248
245
40
318
305
295
287
281
276
271
267
264
261
258
36
240
226
215
207
200
194
189
185
182
179
177
38
249
235
224
214
207
201
196
192
188
186
183
40
259
244
232
222
214
208
203
199
195
192
189

TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
106
97
89
83
78
74
70
67
64
62
60
22
112
102
94
88
82
78
74
71
68
65
63
24
118
107
99
92
87
82
78
74
71
68
66
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
288
257
231
210
193
178
165
154
145
137
129
22
303
270
244
222
204
188
175
163
154
145
137
24
317
283
256
233
214
198
184
172
162
153
145

WIDTH
( F E E T)
28
28
30
32
34
123
129
134
140
145
113
118
123
128
133
104
109
113
118
122
97
101
105
110
114
91
95
99
103
107
86
89
93
97
101
81
85
88
92
96
78
81
84
88
91
74
78
81
84
87
71
75
78
81
84
69
72
75
78
81
WIDTH
( F E E T)
28
28
30
32
34
330
343
356
368
380
296
308
319
331
342
267
278
289
300
310
244
254
264
274
283
224
234
243
252
261
207
216
225
234
242
193
202
210
218
226
181
189
197
204
212
170
177
185
192
199
160
168
175
182
189
152
159
166
172
179
38
151
138
127
118
111
105
99
94
90
87
84
38
156
143
132
123
118
108
103
98
94
90
87
40
162
148
136
127
119
112
106
101
97
93
90
38
392
352
320
293
270
250
234
219
206
195
185
38
403
363
330
302
279
259
241
226
213
202
192
40
415
373
339
311
287
267
249
234
220
208
198
Design Tables A-25

TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
218
214
210
207
205
202
201
199
198
196
195
22
238
233
229
225
223
220
218
216
215
213
212
24
259
253
248
244
241
238
236
234
232
230
229
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
236
231
227
224
221
219
217
215
213
212
211
22
257
252
247
243
240
238
235
234
232
230
229
24
279
273
268
264
260
257
254
252
250
249
247
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
234
224
216
210
205
201
198
196
193
192
190
22
248
237
229
223
218
213
210
207
205
204
202
24
262
250
242
235
229
225
222
219
217
215
214

WIDTH
(FEET)
26
28
30
32
34
280
301
323
346
370
273
294
315
336
359
267
287
308
328
350
263
282
302
322
342
259
278
297
317
336
256
274
293
312
331
253
271
290
308
327
251
269
287
305
323
249
267
284
302
320
247
265
282
300
317
246
263
280
297
315
WIDTH
(FEET)
26
28
30
32
34
302
325
349
373
399
295
317
339
363
387
289
310
332
354
377
284
305
326
347
369
280
300
321
342
363
277
296
317
337
358
274
293
313
333
353
271
290
310
329
349
269
288
307
326
346
267
286
305
324
343
265
284
302
321
340
WIDTH
(FEET)
26
28
30
32
34
275
288
300
313
325
263
275
287
299
311
254
266
277
289
300
247
258
269
280
291
241
252
263
274
285
237
248
258
269
279
233
244
255
265
275
230
241
251
262
272
228
239
249
259
269
226
237
247
257
267
225
235
246
256
265
36
394
381
371
363
357
351
346
342
339
336
333
38
419
405
394
385
377
371
366
361
357
354
351
40
445
429
417
406
398
391
385
380
376
372
369
36
425
411
400
392
385
379
374
369
366
362
359
38
452
436
424
415
407
400
395
390
386
382
379
40
479
462
449
438
429
422
416
410
406
402
398
36
337
322
311
302
295
289
285
281
279
277
275
38
349
334
322
312
305
299
295
291
288
286
284
40
361
345
333
323
315
309
304
300
298
295
294

TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
NOTE:
20
165
154
146
140
134
130
126
123
120
118
116
20
399
362
332
308
288
270
256
243
233
223
215
22
173
162
154
147
141
137
133
129
127
124
122
22
419
381
350
325
303
286
270
257
246
236
228
24
181
170
161
154
148
143
139
136
133
130
128

WIDTH
(FEET)
26
28
30
32
34
189
197
204
212
219
177
185
192
199
206
168
175
182
189
195
161
167
174
180
187
155
161
167
173
179
149
156
162
168
173
145
151
157
163
168
142
147
153
159
164
138
144
150
155
161
136
141
147
152
158
134
139
145
150
155
36
227
213
202
193
185
179
174
170
166
163
160
38
234
220
208
199
191
185
180
175
171
168
165
40
242
227
215
205
197
191
185
180
176
173
170
24
438
399
367
340
318
300
284
271
259
249
240

WIDTH
(FEET)
26
28
30
32
34
456
473
490
506
522
415
432
447
462
477
382
398
413
427
441
355
370
384
397
410
333
347
360
373
385
314
327
340
352
364
297
310
322
334
346
283
296
308
319
330
271
283
295
306
317
261
272
284
294
305
252
263
274
284
295
36
538
492
454
423
397
376
357
341
327
315
305
38
553
506
467
436
409
387
368
352
337
325
314
40
567
519
480
448
421
398
379
362
348
335
324
SEE APPENDIX INTRODUCTION FOR ASSUMED HOUSE DIMENSIONS.
Design Tables A-27

TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
306
300
295
291
288
285
282
280
278
277
275
22
334
327
322
317
313
310
307
304
302
300
298
24
362
355
348
343
338
335
331
329
326
324
322
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
327
321
316
311
308
305
302
300
297
296
294
22
357
350
344
339
335
331
328
325
323
321
319
24
387
379
372
366
362
358
354
351
349
346
344
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
313
302
294
287
282
278
275
273
271
269
268
22
331
320
311
304
299
295
291
289
287
286
284
24
349
336
327
320
315
310
307
305
303
301
300

WIDTH
( F E E T)
26
28
30
32
34
391
421
451
483
515
382
411
440
470
500
375
403
431
459
488
369
396
423
451
479
364
390
417
444
471
360
386
411
438
464
356
381
407
433
459
353
378
403
428
454
350
375
400
424
450
348
372
397
421
446
346
370
394
418
443
WIDTH
(F E E T)
26
28
30
32
34
418
450
482
515
550
409
439
470
502
534
401
430
460
491
522
395
423
452
481
511
389
417
445
474
503
385
412
440
468
496
381
408
435
462
490
378
404
431
458
485
375
401
427
454
481
372
398
424
450
477
370
395
421
447
473
WIDTH
(F E E T)
26
28
30
32
34
366
382
398
414
430
353
369
384
399
414
343
358
373
388
402
336
351
365
380
394
330
345
359
373
387
326
340
354
368
382
322
337
351
365
378
320
334
348
362
375
318
332
346
360
373
316
331
345
359
372
315
330
344
358
371
36
548
531
518
507
499
491
485
480
475
471
468
38
582
563
549
537
527
519
512
506
501
496
493
40
617
596
580
567
556
547
539
533
527
522
518
36
585
567
553
542
533
525
518
513
508
503
500
38
621
601
586
573
563
554
547
541
535
531
526
40
658
636
619
605
594
584
576
569
563
558
553
36
445
429
417
407
400
395
391
388
386
385
384
38
460
443
430
421
413
408
404
401
399
397
396
40
475
457
444
434
426
421
416
413
411
410
409

TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
229
218
209
202
197
192
188
185
182
180
178
20
522
479
444
416
392
373
356
342
330
319
310
22
241
229
220
212
207
202
198
194
192
189
187
22
548
503
467
438
414
393
376
361
349
338
328
24
251
239
230
222
216
211
207
204
201
198
196

WIDTH
(FEET)
26
28
30
32
34
262
272
282
292
302
249
259
269
278
287
239
249
258
267
276
232
241
250
258
267
225
234
243
251
260
220
229
237
246
254
216
225
233
241
249
212
221
229
237
245
210
218
226
234
242
207
216
224
232
239
205
214
222
230
237
36
311
296
285
275
268
262
257
253
250
247
245
38
321
305
293
284
276
270
265
260
257
254
252
40
330
314
302
292
284
277
272
268
264
262
259
24
572
526
489
459
434
413
395
380
367
355
346

WIDTH
(F E E T)
26
28
30
32
34
595
617
639
659
679
548
569
589
608
627
510
530
549
567
585
479
498
516
534
551
453
471
489
506
523
431
449
466
483
499
413
430
447
463
478
397
414
430
446
461
384
400
416
432
446
372
388
404
419
434
362
378
393
408
423
36
699
646
603
568
539
514
493
476
461
448
436
38
718
664
620
584
554
529
508
490
475
461
450
40
736
681
636
600
569
544
522
504
488
475
463
Design Tables A-29

TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
403
395
389
384
379
375
372
369
367
364
362
22
439
430
423
417
412
408
404
401
398
395
393
24
476
466
458
451
445
440
436
433
430
427
424
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
428
420
413
407
403
399
395
392
390
387
385
22
466
457
449
443
438
433
429
426
423
420
418
24
506
495
486
479
473
468
464
460
456
453
451
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
400
388
379
372
367
363
359
357
355
354
353
22
423
410
400
393
388
383
380
378
376
375
375
24
444
431
421
413
408
404
400
398
397
396
395

WIDTH
( F E E T)
26
28
30
32
34
514
552
592
832
673
502
539
577
615
655
493
529
565
602
640
485
520
556
592
628
479
513
548
583
618
474
507
541
575
610
469
502
535
569
603
465
497
530
563
597
461
493
526
558
591
458
490
522
554
587
455
487
518
550
582
WIDTH
(F E E T)
26
28
30
32
34
546
586
628
671
715
533
573
613
653
695
524
562
600
640
680
516
553
590
628
667
509
545
582
619
657
503
539
575
611
648
498
533
568
604
640
494
528
563
598
634
490
524
558
593
628
487
520
554
589
623
484
517
551
585
619
WIDTH
(F E E T)
26
28
30
32
34
465
485
505
525
544
451
471
490
509
527
441
460
479
497
515
433
452
470
488
506
427
446
464
482
499
423
441
460
477
494
420
438
456
474
491
418
436
454
472
488
416
435
453
470
487
415
434
452
469
486
415
433
452
469
486
36
716
695
679
665
654
645
637
630
625
619
615
38
759
736
718
703
691
681
672
665
658
653
648
40
804
778
758
742
728
717
707
699
692
686
681
36
760
738
721
706
695
685
677
670
663
658
653
38
806
781
762
747
734
723
714
706
699
693
688
40
853
826
805
787
773
761
751
743
735
729
723
36
563
545
532
523
516
511
507
505
504
503
503
38
581
563
549
539
532
527
523
521
520
519
519
40
600
580
566
556
548
543
539
537
535
535
535

TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
300
288
278
271
265
260
256
253
240
248
246
20
657
607
567
534
507
485
466
450
436
424
414
22
314
302
292
284
278
273
269
266
263
261
259
22
688
637
596
562
534
511
492
475
461
449
438
24
328
315
305
297
290
285
281
278
275
273
271

WIDTH
(FEET)
26
28
30
32
34
342
354
367
379
392
328
340
353
364
376
317
330
341
353
364
309
321
333
344
355
303
314
326
337
348
297
309
320
331
342
293
305
316
327
337
290
301
313
323
334
287
299
310
321
331
285
297
308
318
329
283
295
306
317
327
36
404
388
375
366
358
352
348
344
341
339
337
38
416
399
386
376
368
362
358
354
351
349
347
40
427
410
397
387
379
372
367
364
361
359
357
24
719
666
623
588
560
536
516
499
484
472
461

WIDTH
(F E E T)
26
28
30
32
34
747
775
801
826
851
693
709
744
768
792
649
674
698
721
744
614
638
661
683
705
584
608
630
652
673
560
583
605
626
646
539
562
583
604
624
522
544
565
585
605
507
528
549
569
588
494
515
536
555
574
483
504
524
544
563
36
875
814
765
726
693
666
643
623
607
593
581
38
898
836
787
746
713
685
662
642
625
611
598
40
921
858
807
766
732
703
680
660
643
628
616
Design Tables A-31

TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
508
498
490
484
478
474
469
466
463
460
457
22
553
542
533
526
520
514
510
506
502
499
496
24
600
587
577
569
562
556
550
546
542
538
535
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
537
527
519
512
506
501
497
493
490
487
484
22
585
574
564
557
550
544
539
535
531
528
525
24
634
621
610
602
594
588
582
578
573
570
566
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
495
481
471
464
458
454
451
449
448
447
446
22
522
508
497
490
484
480
477
475
474
473
473
24
548
533
523
515
509
505
502
500
499
498
498

WIDTH
( F E E T)
26
28
30
32
34
647
695
744
794
846
633
679
726
774
823
621
666
712
758
805
612
655
700
745
791
604
647
690
734
778
597
639
682
725
768
591
633
675
717
759
586
627
668
710
752
582
622
663
704
745
578
618
658
699
740
575
614
654
694
735
WIDTH
(F E E T)
26
28
30
32
34
684
735
787
840
894
669
718
768
819
871
657
705
753
802
852
647
693
740
788
836
639
684
730
776
823
632
676
721
767
813
626
669
714
758
803
620
664
707
751
795
616
658
701
745
789
612
654
696
739
782
608
650
692
734
777
WIDTH
(F E E T)
26
28
30
32
34
573
598
622
645
668
558
582
605
628
650
547
570
593
615
537
539
562
584
606
627
533
556
578
600
621
529
552
574
595
616
526
549
571
593
613
524
547
569
591
612
523
546
569
590
611
522
546
568
590
611
523
546
569
591
612
36
898
873
853
837
824
812
803
794
787
781
775
38
852
924
902
884
869
857
846
837
829
822
816
40
1008
977
952
932
916
902
891
881
872
864
858
36
950
923
902
885
871
859
849
840
833
826
820
38
1007
978
954
935
920
906
895
886
877
870
864
40
1065
1033
1007
986
969
954
942
931
922
914
907
36
691
672
658
648
641
637
634
632
631
632
632
38
713
693
679
668
661
656
653
652
651
651
652
40
735
714
699
688
681
676
673
671
670
671
672

TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
377
364
353
345
339
334
330
326
324
322
320
22
395
381
370
362
355
350
346
343
341
339
337
24
412
398
387
378
371
366
362
359
357
355
353
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
803
746
700
662
632
606
585
567
552
538
527
22
842
783
735
697
665
639
617
599
583
569
558
24
878
817
769
730
697
670
648
629
613
599
587

WIDTH
(FEET)
26
28
30
32
34
428
444
460
475
490
413
429
444
458
473
402
417
432
446
460
393
408
423
437
450
387
402
416
430
443
382
396
410
424
437
377
392
406
420
433
374
389
403
417
430
372
387
401
415
428
370
385
399
413
426
369
384
398
412
425
WIDTH
(FEET)
26
28
30
32
34
913
946
978
1008
1038
851
882
913
942
970
801
831
861
889
916
761
790
818
846
872
727
756
784
810
836
700
728
755
781
806
677
705
731
757
781
657
685
711
736
760
641
668
694
719
743
627
653
679
704
728
614
641
667
691
715
36
504
487
474
464
456
451
446
443
441
439
438
38
519
501
487
477
469
463
459
456
453
452
451
40
533
514
500
490
482
476
471
468
466
464
463
36
1067
998
942
898
861
831
805
784
766
751
738
38
1095
1024
968
922
885
854
828
807
789
773
760
40
1122
1050
993
946
908
877
851
829
810
795
782
Design Tables A-33

TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
621
610
600
592
585
580
575
570
566
563
580
22
677
663
653
644
636
630
624
619
615
611
608
24
733
718
706
696
687
680
674
668
663
659
655
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
655
643
633
625
618
612
606
602
598
594
591
22
714
700
688
879
671
664
658
653
649
645
841
24
773
757
744
734
725
717
711
705
700
695
691
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
597
582
571
563
557
553
550
548
547
546
546
22
629
613
602
594
589
584
582
580
579
578
578
24
660
644
632
624
618
614
612
610
609
609
609

WIDTH
(FEET)
26
28
30
32
34
790
849
908
969
1032
773
830
887
945
1005
760
814
870
926
983
748
802
856
910
966
739
791
844
897
951
731
782
834
886
939
724
774
825
877
929
718
767
818
868
920
712
762
811
861
912
708
756
805
855
905
703
752
800
849
899
WIDTH
(FEET)
26
28
30
32
34
834
895
958
1022
1088
818
875
936
997
1060
801
859
917
977
1037
789
846
902
960
1019
779
834
890
946
1004
771
825
879
935
991
763
817
870
925
980
757
810
863
916
970
751
803
856
909
962
746
798
850
902
954
742
793
844
896
948
WIDTH
(FEET)
26
28
30
32
34
690
719
747
775
802
673
702
729
756
783
661
689
716
743
769
653
681
707
733
759
647
675
701
727
752
643
671
697
723
748
640
668
695
721
746
639
667
694
720
745
638
866
693
720
745
638
667
694
720
746
639
668
695
722
747
36
1095
1066
1042
1022
1006
993
981
971
963
955
948
38
1161
1128
1101
1080
1062
1047
1034
1023
1014
1006
998
40
1228
1191
1162
1138
1118
1102
1088
1076
1066
1057
1049
36
1155
1124
1099
1078
1061
1047
1035
1025
1015
1007
1000
38
1224
1189
1161
1139
1120
1104
1091
1080
1070
1061
1053
40
1295
1256
1225
1200
1180
1162
1148
1135
1124
1115
1106
36
829
808
794
784
777
772
770
769
769
770
772
38
855
834
818
808
801
796
794
793
793
794
796
40
881
859
843
831
824
819
817
816
816
818
820

TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
460
445
434
425
419
413
409
406
403
401
400
22
482
466
455
446
439
434
430
427
424
422
421
24
502
486
475
466
459
454
449
446
444
442
441
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
20
961
895
843
801
767
738
714
694
876
662
649
22
1007
940
886
843
807
778
753
732
715
699
687
24
1050
981
926
882
845
815
790
769
751
735
722

WIDTH
(FEET)
26
28
30
32
34
522
541
559
577
595
506
524
542
560
577
494
512
530
547
564
485
503
520
537
554
478
496
513
530
546
472
490
508
524
541
468
486
504
521
537
465
483
501
518
534
463
481
499
516
532
462
480
498
515
531
461
479
497
514
531
WIDTH
(FEET)
26
28
30
32
34
1092
1131
1169
1205
1240
1021
1059
1095
1130
1163
965
1001
1036
1070
1102
919
955
989
1021
1053
882
916
950
982
1012
851
885
918
949
979
825
859
891
922
952
804
837
869
899
929
785
818
850
880
909
770
802
834
864
893
756
789
820
850
879
36
613
594
580
570
562
557
553
550
548
547
547
38
630
610
596
585
578
572
568
565
564
563
563
40
647
627
612
601
593
587
583
580
579
578
578
36
1274
1196
1133
1083
1042
1008
981
957
938
921
907
38
1307
1227
1164
1113
1071
1037
1008
985
965
948
934
40
1339
1258
1193
1141
1099
1064
1036
1012
992
975
961
Design Tables A-35

TABLE A-6
UPLIFT LOADS PER PILE (POUNDS) IN 80 MPH WINDS
WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
(FEET)
NUMBER
OF PILES
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
695
655
549
527
518
517
438
434
436
374
836
785
659
631
617
614
522
517
517
444
627
588
495
473
463
461
392
387
388
333
737
689
580
554
540
536
458
451
451
388
853
794
670
637
620
614
526
518
516
444
974
905
765
725
704
695
597
586
583
502
682
636
536
510
496
491
421
414
413
355
779
724
612
580
563
556
478
469
466
402
882
816
691
654
633
623
538
527
522
450
735
680
576
545
527
519
448
439
435
375

WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
NUMBER
OF PILES
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
1759
1419
1296
1075
903
764
815
694
593
538
2111
1700
1555
1286
1078
909
974
827
704
640
1583
1275
1166
965
808
682
730
620
528
480
1852
1489
1363
1126
942
793
852
722
613
558
2127
1708
1565
1291
1079
907
976
826
701
638
2408
1933
1771
1461
1219
1024
1104
933
791
720
1702
1367
1252
1033
863
725
781
661
561
511
1926
1546
1417
1169
975
819
883
747
633
576
2157
1730
1586
1308
1091
915
988
835
707
644
1797
1442
1322
1090
909
763
823
696
589
537

TABLE A-6 CONTINUED
WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
(FEET)
NUMBER
OF PILES
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
1861
1763
1475
1424
1405
1408
1186
1181
1191
1022
2381
2232
1879
1797
1759
1750
1489
1473
1475
1268
1786
1674
1410
1348
1319
1312
1117
1105
1106
951
2220
2063
1746
1656
1609
1590
1366
1343
1336
1151
2700
2490
2116
1993
1924
1891
1639
1601
1585
1368
3226
2955
2520
2360
2266
2214
1934
1880
1852
1601
2160
1992
1693
1595
1539
1513
1311
1281
1268
1095
2581
2364
2016
1888
1813
1771
1547
1504
1482
1281
3039
2767
2368
2206
2107
2049
1802
1743
1710
1481
2533
2306
1973
1838
1756
1708
1502
1453
1425
1234

WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
NUMBER
OF PILES
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3338
2876
2535
2242
2030
1872
1775
1632
1523
1341
4160
3573
3155
2782
2511
2308
2199
2015
1874
1652
3120
2679
2366
2086
1883
1731
1649
1511
1405
1239
3783
3241
2866
2521
2270
2081
1990
1819
1687
1489
4494
3841
3401
2986
2683
2454
2355
2148
1988
1756
5252
4482
3973
3483
3124
2852
2743
2499
2308
2040
3595
3073
2721
2389
2146
1963
1884
1719
1591
1405
4202
3586
3178
2786
2499
2281
2195
1999
1847
1632
4848
4131
3665
3209
2873
2619
2525
2297
2119
1874
4040
3443
3055
2674
2395
2183
2105
1914
1766
1561
Design Tables A-37

TABLE A-6 CONTINUED
WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
(FEET)
NUMBER
OF PILES
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
2596
2527
2085
2061
2077
2121
1738
1764
1807
1542
3291
3169
2630
2575
2574
2610
2161
2178
2217
1896
2468
2377
1973
1931
1931
1957
1621
1633
1663
1422
3044
2904
2423
2352
2334
2351
1965
1968
1992
1707
3676
3477
2914
2809
2769
2773
2338
2327
2344
2012
4365
4098
3449
3302
3236
3223
2739
2712
2719
2337
2941
2782
2331
2247
2215
2218
1870
1862
1875
1609
3492
3278
2759
2642
2589
2579
2191
2170
2175
1870
4089
3814
3221
3066
2988
2962
2535
2498
2493
2146
3408
3178
2684
2555
2490
2468
2113
2082
2078
1789

WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
NUMBER
OF PILES
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
4508
4008
3472
3164
2955
2813
2551
2416
2323
2025
5594
4951
4300
3903
3630
3442
3139
2962
2838
2477
4195
3714
3225
2927
2723
2582
2354
2222
2128
1858
5066
4469
3889
3518
3262
3082
2824
2657
2537
2217
5996
5273
4597
4146
3833
3612
3324
3118
2969
2597
6986
6127
5350
4813
4438
4171
3853
3605
3425
2998
4797
4218
3678
3317
3067
2889
2659
2494
2376
2078
5589
4901
4280
3851
3551
3337
3082
2884
2740
2399
6429
5625
4918
4415
4062
3809
3530
3296
3125
2737
5357
4687
4099
3679
3385
3174
2941
2747
2604
2281

TABLE A-6 CONTINUED
WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
(FEET)
NUMBER
OF PILES
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3409
3373
2759
2766
2821
2909
2349
2409
2490
2118
4297
4206
3461
3436
3477
3561
2904
2958
3039
2591
3223
3154
2596
2577
2608
2671
2178
2219
2280
1943
3955
3833
3171
3122
3136
3193
2628
2660
2718
2322
4755
4569
3798
3711
3703
3749
3111
3131
3184
2724
5624
5362
4476
4344
4309
4339
3629
3633
3677
3151
3804
3655
3038
2969
2963
2999
2489
2505
2547
2179
4499
4290
3580
3475
3447
3472
2903
2906
2942
2521
5251
4971
4165
4017
3964
3972
3346
3333
3359
2883
4376
4142
3471
3348
3303
3310
2788
2777
2799
2402

WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
NUMBER
OF PILES
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
5803
5260
4510
4184
3978
3854
3408
3284
3209
2782
7179
6477
5568
5142
4869
4697
4179
4010
3904
3389
5384
4858
4176
3857
3652
3523
3135
3008
2928
2542
6486
5828
5021
4620
4359
4190
3747
3583
3478
3022
7659
6857
5920
5429
5106
4893
4395
4191
4055
3527
8903
7946
6873
6285
5893
5631
5080
4830
4661
4058
6127
5485
4736
4344
4084
3914
3516
3353
3244
2822
7123
6357
5498
5028
4714
4505
4064
3864
3729
3247
8177
7277
6305
5750
5378
5126
4641
4402
4238
3693
6815
6064
5254
4792
4481
4271
3867
3668
3531
3077
Design Tables A-39

TABLE A-6 CONTINUED
WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
(FEET)
NUMBER
OF PILES
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
4298
4299
3497
3537
3635
3772
3017
3114
3236
2749
5399
5340
4370
4378
4464
4603
3717
3812
3939
3352
4049
4005
3277
3283
3348
3452
2788
2859
2954
2514
4953
4851
3991
3965
4015
4115
3353
3417
3513
2994
5937
5764
4764
4698
4726
4817
3957
4011
4103
3504
7003
6746
5600
5484
5484
5561
4603
4641
4727
4042
4749
4611
3812
3758
3781
3854
3166
3209
3283
2803
5602
5396
4480
4387
4387
4449
3683
3713
3781
3234
6522
6237
5198
5059
5031
5077
4233
4247
4307
3688
5435
5198
4332
4216
4192
4231
3527
3539
3589
3073

WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
NUMBER
OF PILES
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
7219
6631
5645
5300
5098
4993
4347
4233
4179
3610
8915
8146
6955
6499
6225
6071
5318
5157
5072
4388
6686
6110
5216
4874
4668
4553
3988
3868
3804
3291
8040
7315
6260
5827
5560
5403
4757
4598
4507
3903
9478
8590
7368
6834
6498
6295
5569
5365
5243
4546
11002
9937
8539
7896
7485
7229
6423
6170
6014
5219
7582
6872
5894
5467
5198
5036
4455
4292
4194
3636
8802
7949
6832
6317
5988
5784
5138
4936
4811
4175
10091
9085
7822
7211
6817
6567
5857
5612
5456
4739
8409
7571
6518
6009
5681
5472
4881
4676
4547
3949

TABLE A-6 CONTINUED
WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
(FEET)
NUMBER
OF PILES
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
5266
5306
4300
4376
4520
4710
3744
3882
4048
3435
6597
6574
5359
5403
5539
5736
4602
4741
4917
4179
4948
4930
4019
4052
4154
4302
3452
3556
3688
3135
6038
5958
4882
4882
4970
5117
4141
4241
4377
3726
7222
7064
5816
5772
5839
5979
4878
4968
5103
4351
8503
8251
6822
6724
6762
6890
5663
5737
5868
5011
5778
5651
4653
4618
4671
4784
3903
3974
4083
3481
6802
6601
5458
5379
5409
5512
4530
4590
4695
4009
7905
7615
6322
6191
6192
6280
5198
5241
5338
4565
6588
6346
5268
5160
5160
5233
4331
4367
4448
3804

WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
NUMBER
OF PILES
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
8760
8122
6880
6514
6317
6232
5369
5266
5233
4511
10802
9962
8464
7975
7699
7565
6556
6405
6342
5474
8102
7472
6348
5981
5774
5674
4917
4804
4756
4105
9730
8932
7608
7140
6866
6722
5856
5701
5626
4862
11457
10475
8943
8361
8013
7820
6845
6642
6536
5653
13285
12102
10353
9648
9217
8968
7884
7628
7485
6481
9166
8380
7154
6689
6410
6256
5476
5314
5228
4523
10628
9682
8282
7718
7373
7174
6307
6102
5988
5185
12173
11052
9472
8801
8383
8134
7179
6928
6781
5876
10144
9210
7893
7334
6986
6778
5983
5773
5651
4897
Design Tables A-41

TABLE A-6 CONTINUED
WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
(FEET)
NUMBER
OF PILES
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
6311
6393
5167
5281
5476
5723
4529
4710
4925
4175
7890
7906
6426
6509
6698
6958
5557
5743
5974
5073
5918
5929
4820
4882
5024
5219
4168
4308
4480
3804
7209
7153
5845
5871
6001
6199
4993
5130
5310
4516
8609
8468
6952
6931
7039
7234
5872
6001
6183
5267
10121
9875
8142
8063
8141
8324
6807
6921
7100
6057
6887
6774
5561
5545
5632
5787
4698
4800
4946
4213
8097
7900
6514
6450
6513
6659
5446
5537
5880
4846
9398
9102
7535
7414
7445
7577
6239
6314
6451
5510
7832
7585
6279
6178
6204
6314
5199
5261
5376
4592

WIDTH (FEET)
LENGTH
(FEET)
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
NUMBER
OF PILES
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
20
24
24
28
32
36
32
36
40
40
10424
9731
8213
7824
7632
7570
6471
6381
6372
5484
12840
11922
10092
9568
9291
9178
7893
7751
7712
6646
9630
8942
7569
7176
6968
6883
5920
5814
5784
4985
11554
10678
9063
8556
8276
8146
7042
6892
6834
5896
13593
12510
10642
10010
9648
9466
8222
8020
7931
6849
15749
14440
12310
11539
11086
10844
9461
9201
9073
7843
10875
10008
8514
8008
7718
7573
6578
6416
6344
5479
12599
11552
9848
9231
8869
8675
7569
7361
7259
6274
14420
13175
11253
10516
10073
9826
8607
8348
8211
7104
12016
10980
9378
8763
8394
8188
7173
6957
6843
5920

TABLE A-7
CAPACITY PER BOLT (POUNDS) OF FLOOR BEAM CONNECTIONS
Connection Type 1--Use 100 percent of downward load
Type of
Connection
Spiked Grid
Beam to Unnotched Pile
5/8
700
Bolt Diameter in Inches

3/4
7/8
1
3800
4100
1-1/4
-
930
1500
1100
1250
Connection Type II--Use greater of the following: 100 percent of uplift load
or
50 percent of downward load
Type of
Connection
Notched Pile
5/8
700
Spaced Beam
970
1080
1190
1300
1520
Steel Plate (beam)

Insert
(pile)
700
1200
930
1720
1100
2335
1250
3070
1500
4770
Gusset (beam)
(pile)
1450
3700
2300
5000
3000
6500
4200
10200
Strap
1450
3700
2300
5000
3000
6500
4200
10200
(beam)
(pile)
Bolt Diameter in Inches

3/4
7/8
1
880
990
1080
1-1/4
1270
Design Tables A-43

TABLE A-8
CONCRETE MASONRY UNIT PIERS
Without Inspection
CMU f'm = 1500 psi
100 MPH
7'CLR 10'CLR 12' CLR
REINFORCING REQUIREMENTS
110 MPH WIND
120 MPH WINDS
7'CLR 10' CLR
12' CLR
7' CLR 10' CLR 12' CLR
12" x 16"*
4- #8
8- #7
4- #11
4- #9
8- #8
4- #10
8- #8
4- #10
16" x 16"
4- #8
8- #7
8- #10
4- #9
8- #8
8- #8
12- #7
4-#10
8-#9
24" x 24"
4- #6
8- #5
4- #10
8- #8
8- #10
4- #6
8- #5
4- #10
8- #9
8- #11
4- #7
8- #6
4- #11
8- #9
130 MPH WINDS

4-#8
8-#7
*Steel for 12" x 16" CMU Piers is based on moment acting about major axis (t = 16").
TIE REQUIREMENTS
12" x 16" CMU PIER
7'CLR
10'CLR
12' CLR
#2T @ 12" #2T @ 6"
#2T @ 6"
16" x 16" CMU PIER

7'CLR
10' CLR
12' CLR
#2T @ 12" #2T @ 12" #2T @ 6"
CMU PIER TYPES
24" x 24" CMU PIER

7' CLR
10' CLR
12' CLR
Use four standard truss type masonry
reinforcing corner pieces every course.
8-#10

TABLE A-9
CONCRETE PIERS
REINFORCING REQUIREMENTS
f'c = 2.5 ksi
fy = 40 ksi
100 MPH WIND

7'CLR 10'CLR 12' CLR
110 MPH WIND

7'CLR 10' CLR
12' CLR
12" x 12"
4- #8
8- #7
12- #6
4- #11*
8- #9*
12- #8*
4- #9
8- #7
12- #6
8- #10
16" x 16"
4- #8
8- #6
4- #10
8- #8
12- #7
4- #11
8- #9
4- #8
8- #7
12- #6
4- #10
8- #9
12- #7
12" x 12"
4- #7
8- #6
4- #9
8- #8*
12- #7*
4- #8
8- #6
4- #10
8- #8*
12- #7*
16" x 16"
4- #7
8- #5
4- #8
8- #7
12- #6
4- #7
8- #5
4- #9
8- #7
120 MPH WIND

4- #10
8- #8*
12- #7*
8- #10
12- #9*
4- #8
8- #7
12- #6
4- #11 8- #11*
8- #9 12- #9*
12- #8
130 MPH WIND

4- #10
8- #8
12- #7
4- #9
8- #7
12- #6
8- #10 8- #11*
12- #8 12- #10*
f'c = 2.5 ksi

fy = 60 ksi
-
4- #10
8- #8
12- #7
4- #10
8- #8
12- #7
4- #8
8- #7
12- #6
4- #11*
8- #9*
12- #8*
4- #7
8- #6
12- #5
4- #9
8- #8
12- #6
4- #11
8- #9
12- #8
*Steel percentage exceeds 4%.

Tie Requirements
For #5
Longitudinal Bars
For #6
"
"
For #7
"
"
For #8 thru #10
"
"
For #11
"
"
12" x 12" Pier

#3T @ 10"
#3T @ 12"
#3T @ 12"
#3T @ 12"
#4T @ 12"
Pier 16" x 16" Pier

#3T
#3T
#3T
#3T
#4T
@ 10"
@ 12"
@ 14"
@ 16"
@ 16"
Concrete Pier Types
4- #9
8- #7
12- #6
4- #7
8- #6
12- #5
4- #10
8- #8
12- #7
4- #11
8- #9
12- #8
Design Tables A-45
GRADE BEAM
As = A s = 0.62 in2 (2-#5 Top and Bottom)

f c = 3000 psi
fy = 60000 psi
1.
2.
3.
4.
CONCRETE PIER NOTES:

Indicated steel area to be placed in each
column face subject to moment.
Steel for a 16-inch by 12-inch column based
on moment acting only about sections major
axis (t=16)
Use No. 3 ties at 16 inches on center.
Normally, use square piers with the same
reinforcement in all faces
Figure A-2. Concrete pier cross section.
Provide dowels from grade beam into pier to

match pier vertical reinforcing
SLAB
Four inch slab with 6"x6" welded wire fabric
(No.6/No.6) placed on top of slab
Figure A-3. Grade beams and slabs.

TABLE A-10
FASTENER CAPACITIES IN SHEAR
(nails, screws, and dowel pins)
NAILS (WOOD STUD WALL)
Nail
Size
8d
10d
Working
Capacity (lb)
Lateral
Toe Nail
78
65
(57 )b
94
(85)
78
12d
94
16d
107
SCREWS--SELF TAPPING (METAL STUD WALL)

Ultimate
Capacity (lb) a
Lateral
Toe Nail
390
325
(285)
470
(425)
390
78
470
390
89
535
445
Screw
Size (In)
No. 6
S-12
dia =0.106
Working
Capacity (lb)
153
Ultimate
Capacity (lb)*
382
Source: Sweets 5.3/in P.10

*Safety factor = 2.5
DOWEL PINS (MASONRY WALL)
____________________
Source: Timber Construction Manual, AITC, 1974
aSafety factor =5
bReduced values used in this report because 8d and 10d nails
do not develop full strength in two 2x4s.
Dowel
Size
(in)
dia=0.145
Depth of
Penetration
(in)
1-1/8
Concrete
Strength
(psi)
3,000
Ultimate
Capacity
(lb)
1,966
Source: Laboratory Test data on Hilti Fasteners by Abbot

A. Hanks, 1972.
Design Tables A-47

TABLE A-11
FASTENER SCHEDULE FOR BREAKAWAY WALLS
NAILS (WOOD STUD WALL)

Breakaway Wall Height (feet)
6
Nail Size
Pile Spacing
(feet)
8
10
12
8d
8/15
10/19
-
10d
6/10
7/13
8/16
12d
5/9
6/12
8/14
16d
6/10
7/12
8d
7
10d 12d 16d
9/17
6/12 6/10 5/9
8/15 7/13 6/12
10/18 9/16 8/14
8
8d
10d
12d
7/13 7/12
9/17 8/15
- 10/19
16d
6/10
7/14
9/17
8d
10d
- 8/15
- 10/19
-
9
12d 16d
7/14 7/12
9/17 8/15
- 10/19
NOTES:
1)
Table indicates the range of total (top and bottom) nails that will result in a wall with a design safe loading resistance between
10 and 20 PSF.
2)
Where an odd number of nails is shown, put the extra nail at the bottom.
3)
Values for other wall heights or pile spacings can be interpolated.
Example: A 7-foot-high breakaway wall installed between piles spaced 10 feet apart should be fastened with no less than 8(4 top, 4 bottom)
and no more than 15 (7 top, 8 bottom) 10d nails.
SCREWS (METAL STUD WALL)
Breakaway Wall Height (feet)
6
Pile Spacing
(feet)
8
10
12
NOTES:
1)
2)
4/5
4/6
4/8
Table is used in same manner as nail table above.

Based on No. 6, S-12 screws.
4/6
5/8
6/10
4/7
5/9
6/11
5/8
6/11
7/13
Bracing B-1
Appendix B
BRACING
Chapter 4 included a discussion of pile bracing. It was
pointed out that in many cases, particularly when the design
wind speed is more than 100 mph, at least simple diagonal
bracing (Figure 4-3 1) or knee braces (Figure 4-33) may be
required. For high elevated houses or extreme design wind
speeds truss bracing may be needed, as shown in Figures 438 and 4-39.
A truss bracing system consists of two types of members,
referred to as diagonals and struts. These members can be
sized and connected to the piles using the information
provided in this appendix. The design loads, which the
members and connections must withstand, are obtained by
adding together the horizontal wind load, Table A-2, for the
appropriate wind speed, number of stories, house dimensions,
and number of piles, with the horizontal water load, Table B-1,
for the appropriate wind speed, location, size of pile, and pile
height above grade required. Once the combined horizontal
load acting on one pile is determined, Table B-2 may be used
to determine the design load for diagonals and struts.
In order to select the proper diagonal design load from
Table B-2, one needs to compute the A/B ratio for trusses
perpendicular to the shoreline. A and B are the vertical and
horizontal distances between connections of the diagonal,
respectively, as shown in Figure B-1. Design loads for
diagonals and their connections are presented in Table B-2 for
A/B ratios ranging from 1.0 to 1.5.
The procedures for sizing diagonals, struts, and their
connections to the piles are presented below, together with
discussions of knee braces and grade beams. Grade beams
are horizontal members connecting the piles in both directions

at ground surface, and are recommended in all situations, that
is, with and without truss or knee bracing.
B.1
KNEE BRACING
Knee braces provide adequate bracing when the

difference between pile height and maximum unbraced pile
(from Tables A-4 or A-4.1) is 4 feet or less. For such conditions
the full cross-bracing obtained from a truss is not required, and
knee braces can impart the necessary rigidity to the elevated
structure. They should used for at least the first row of piles
supporting a breakaway wall, to assist in transmitting loads to
the floor and other piles.
Knee braces are relatively short members. They may be
2-by-8 lumber or larger and are bolted to the sides of the pile
with two 5/8-inch bolts (minimum) at each ion. In some cases
the builder may prefer to fit the ace under the floor beam
framing directly into, or against the pile. In this case, a 4-by-4
or larger brace is connected to the pile by one 5/8-inch
(minimum) lag screw. Knee braces should be sloped about
one horizontal to one vertical.
B.2
TRUSS BRACING
In cases where a truss bracing system is needed,

indicated by Tables A-4 and A-4.l, the diagonals, struts, and
connections are designed as follows.
B.2.1 Diagonals
Dimension lumber or steel threadbars may be used for
diagonals, depending on the forces acting on the diagonals.
For practicality and balanced designs, dimension lumber
equivalent to Number 2 Southern Pine in
B-2 Coastal Construction Manual
Figure B-1. Truss normal to beach.
strength, consisting of 2-by-8 or 3-by-8 members, is

recommended for the diagonals. These diagonals may consist
of one member or two members for a given direction of loading.
When two members are required to form a diagonal, they are
placed on either side of the pile, since the connections have
been designed for double shear in these cases. The maximum
allowable tensile load in double 3-by-8 lumber diagonals is
15,000 pounds and 13,000 pounds, for A/B ratios of
approximately 1.4 and 1.0, respectively. For tensile loads
greater than these, DYWIDAG (Dyckerhoff and Widmann,
Inc., 529 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y., 10017) threadbars
are recommended. The wood members and connections
required to resist such loads would be cumbersome.
B.2.1.1 Lumber Diagonals. The allowable loads for single

member diagonals are given in Tables B-3 for 2-by-8 and B-4
for 3-by-8 members and various connection details, as
illustrated in Figures B-2 and B-3. In order to determine
allowable loads for double member diagonals, the loads in
Tables B-3 and B-4 should be doubled.
The smallest
allowable load given for a particular connection/member
combination governs the design.
For example, for a 2-by-8 single diagonal without "A"

bolts at the exterior pile connection, the allowable design load
on the member as a result of the pile connection is 4,100
pounds, even though the allowable load at the
Bracing B-3
exterior pile connection, in the case of an A/B ratio of 1.0, is
5,500 pounds and the allowable load at the interior pile
connection (splice in diagonal) is 5,700 pounds.
The allowable design load for this case could be
increased to 5,500 pounds by adding one 7/8-inch-diameter
"A" bolt to the exterior pile connection. The apparent significant
imbalance in allowable member and connection loads for the
case without "A" bolts at the exterior pile connection is justified
to simplify the design for a seemingly infinite number of design
conditions. For the case in point, changing the "B" bolts from
11/4 inches to 1 inch in diameter results in a decrease of the
allowable exterior connection load to 4,200 pounds and an
increase of the allowable diagonal member load to 4,500
pounds, thereby resulting in approximately the same allowable
design load. Therefore, the use of 1-1/4-inch-diameter bolts for
this condition is less than optimum, but justifiable when
simplifying the design to satisfy a large number of design
conditions.
Note that 1-inch-diameter "B" bolts would be insufficient
to develop the 5,500 pounds if one "A" bolt were used.
Therefore, the use of galvanized 1 1/4-inchdiameter and 7/8inch-diameter bolts is recommended for all lumber connection
details where "B" bolts and "A" bolts are specified, respectively.
Side plates to be used with diagonal members, as shown
in Figures B-2 and B-3, are to consist of galvanized steel plates
having a yield strength of 36 kips per square inch, or
equivalent plates as available from standard suppliers of
timber connectors. The minimum thickness for galvanized
plates is 1/4 inch for both exterior and interior pile connections.
The corresponding minimum plate widths
Figure B-2. Exterior diagonal to pile connection.

are 7 inches for exterior and 2/2 inches for interior ions. These
widths should be increased by 1 inches with sheared edges.
Plate end distances, as measured from the center of the
hole nearest the plate end, should be a minimum of 7 inches
for exterior pile connections for the end adjacent to the B
bolts. For plate ends adjacent to the "A" bolts, the minimum
recommended end distance is 11/2 inches. At interior pile
connections (diagonal splices), the first bolt should be at least
6 inches from the end of the lumber. Side plates at interior
connections should be sized to allow for a 1-inch space
between the two ends of the adjoining lumber diagonals.
Bolts at exterior pile connections should be of adequate
length to accommodate the single or double diagonals, steel
plates, and nuts. Note that the end of each member is fitted
with one steel side plate on each side of member. At interior
joints, the length of the bolt to be increased to accommodate
the diagonal members required for stability when loads are
applied from the opposing direction; that is, each leg of the
truss will contain a cross brace. Crossing diagonals are to be
bolted at their center crossing points, as shown in Figure B-3.
Efforts should be made to connect diagonals to piles within one
diagonal member depth below the strut, to avoid excessive
joint eccentricities.
Figure B-3. Interior diagonal to pile connection.
B.2.1.2 Threadbar Diagonals. DYWIDAG threadbars can be

used to resist diagonal tensile loads greater than those
permitted for 3-by -8 lumber members. The use of these bars
rather than conventional threaded bars is suggested because
of the large thread rolled on the threadbars. These large
threads are expected to weather the environment much better
than fine machine threads, which is important for load-carrying
capacity as well as for retensioning the bars. The threadbars
and fittings, which
Bracing B-5
are readily available, are made of high strength steel (ASTM
A722-75) and mild steel (ASTM A615-75).
DYWIDAG representatives can assist in determining the
proper threadbar size and the hardware required for a specific
application. A diagonal consisting of one #7 threadbar (7/8inch-diameter, Grade 60 steel) has a yield strength of 36,000
pounds and is sufficient to resist the largest tensile loads
resulting in diagonals from the maximum applied combined
horizontal load in Table B-2. These components should be
protected from corrosion by a coating of suitable paint or
equivalent. A routine maintenance program to inspect and
maintain these members and fittings should be followed.
Alternatively, a suitable factor of safety could be provided in the
threadbars and fittings to permit a reduced cross sectional area
attributable to corrosion. A factor of safety of at least 1.5 is
recommended for threadbars resisting loads in excess of 1
3,000 pounds.
Fittings should be lubricated to permit
tensioning as required.
Threadbars should be secured to piles using a base
plate, wedge washer, and hex nut (Figure B-4).
The
threadbars should pass through the center of the pile in holes
having diameters approximately 1/8 to 1/4 inch larger than the
maximum diameter of the threadbar, to permit alignment of the
bars. Threadbars should be secured to the piles as close to
the pile-to-strut or pile-to-grade beam joint as possible without
interfering with the horizontal members. It is important to
minimize the eccentricity of these connections at interior piles
while keeping the plane of the cross bracing near the center of
the truss. Details of exterior and interior pile joints within
DYWIDAG diagonals are shown in Figure B-4.
B.2.2 Struts
The compressive load resulting on the struts from the
combined horizontal load per pile is shown in Table B-2.
Figure B-4. DYWIDAG threadbar diagonal connections.

Timber sizes to resist the compressive loads shown in Table B2 are given in Table B-S. Timbers range in size from 4-by -4 to
8-by-8, and are assumed to consist of Number 2 Southern Pine
or equivalent strength wood.
The struts in the truss system should be cut to fit snugly
between piles. Wood shims can take up any space left open.
They should be connected with galvanized timber connectors
(hangers), such as those available from TECO or Simpson.
Struts, 4-by-4 up to 4-by-8 in size, can be connected by nailing
through the connectors. When 6-by-6 or 8-by-8 struts are
required, use 1/4-inch-thick angles top and bottom of the strut
with eight 3/4-inch lag bolts, four into the strut and four into the
pile (see the
marketing literature from manufacturers of timber connectors).

B.3
GRADE BEAMS
In all cases, piles should be braced at the ground line by

either a wood grade beam, a reinforced concrete grade beam,
or a concrete slab deepened and well reinforced at the edges.
These at-grade supports should be attached firmly to the pile to
provide support even if earth is scoured from beneath the
grade beam/slab.
If wood grade beams are used, the members and
connections should be identical to the members and
connections selected for the struts.
Bracing B-7
TABLE B-1
HORIZONTAL WATER LOADS PER PILE (POUNDS) IN 80 MPH WINDS
PILE
HEIGHT
(FEET)
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.5
13.0
13.5
14.0
14.5
15.0
15.5
16.0
16.5
17.0
17.5
18.0
18.5
19.0
19.5
20.0
20.5
21.0
21.5
22.0
8x8
PILES
10x10
PILES
10 FT
2164
2343
2531
2726
2929
3140
3359
3586
3821
4064
4314
4573
4840
5114
5396
5687
5985
6291
6605
6927
7257
7595
7940
8294
8656
2645
2869
3104
3348
3602
3865
4139
4423
4716
5020
5333
5657
5990
6333
6686
7049
7421
7804
8197
8599
9011
9434
9866
10308
10760
1538
1659
1786
1918
2055
2197
2345
2498
2657
2821
2990
3164
3344
3530
3720
3916
4117
4324
4536
4753
4976
5204
5437
5676
5920
8-INCH TIP PILES

WITH EMBEDMENTS OF
20 FT
1683
1817
1958
2104
2256
2415
2579
2749
2925
3107
3295
3489
3689
3895
4107
4325
4548
4778
5013
5255
5502
5756
6015
6280
6551
30 FT
1827
1975
2130
2291
2458
2632
2813
3000
3194
3394
3601
3815
4034
4261
4494
4733
4979
5232
5491
5757
6029
6307
6593
6884
7183
NOTE: WATER LOADS INCLUDE WAVE FORCES, CURRENT DRAG FORCES, AND IMPACT FORCES OF 300-POUND DEBRIS.

TABLE B-1 CONTINUED
PILE
HEIGHT
(FEET)
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.5
13.0
13.5
14.0
14.5
15.0
15.5
16.0
16.5
17.0
17.5
18.0
18.5
19.0
19.5
20.0
20.5
21.0
21.5
22.0
8x8
PILES
10x10
PILES
10 FT
2192
2372
2560
2755
2959
3170
3390
3617
3852
4095
4347
4605
4872
5147
5430
5721
6019
6326
6640
6963
7293
7631
7977
8331
8693
2675
2900
3135
3379
3634
3898
4172
4457
4751
5054
5368
5692
6026
6369
6723
7086
7459
7842
8235
8638
9051
9474
9907
10349
10802
1564
1685
1812
1944
2081
2224
2372
2526
2685
2849
3018
3193
3373
3559
3750
3946
4147
4354
4566
4784
5007
5235
5469
5708
5952
8-INCH TIP PILES

WITH EMBEDMENTS OF
20 FT
1709
1844
1985
2131
2284
2443
2607
2778
2954
3136
3325
3519
3719
3925
4137
4355
4579
4809
5045
5287
5534
5788
6048
6313
6585
30 FT
1854
2002
2157
2319
2486
2661
2842
3029
3224
3424
3631
3845
4065
4292
4525
4765
5011
5264
5524
5790
6062
6341
6627
6919
7217
Bracing B-9
TABLE B-1 CONTINUED
PILE
HEIGHT
(FEET)
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.5
13.0
13.5
14.0
14.5
15.0
15.5
16.0
16.5
17.0
17.5
18.0
18.5
19.0
19.5
20.0
20.5
21.0
21.5
22.0
8x8
PILES
10x10
PILES
10 FT
2275
2456
2644
2841
3046
3258
3479
3707
3944
4188
4440
4700
4968
5244
5528
5820
6119
6427
6742
7066
7397
7737
8084
8439
8802
2763
2990
3226
3471
3727
3993
4269
4554
4850
5155
5470
5795
6130
6475
6830
7195
7569
7954
8348
8752
9167
9591
10025
10469
10922
1639
1762
1889
2022
2160
2303
2452
2606
2766
2931
3101
3277
3458
3644
3835
4032
4235
4442
4655
4874
5097
5326
5561
5800
6045
8-INCH TIP PILES

WITH EMBEDMENTS OF
20 FT
1786
1922
2063
2211
2364
2524
2689
2861
3038
3221
3410
3605
3806
4013
4226
4445
4670
4900
5137
5379
5628
5882
6143
6409
6681
30 FT
1933
2082
2238
2400
2569
2744
2926
3115
3310
3511
3719
3934
4155
4382
4617
4857
5105
5358
5619
5885
6159
6439
6725
7018
7318

TABLE B-1 CONTINUED
PILE
HEIGHT
(FEET)
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.5
13.0
13.5
14.0
14.5
15.0
15.5
16.0
16.5
17.0
17.5
18.0
18.5
19.0
19.5
20.0
20.5
21.0
21.5
22.0
8x8
PILES
10x10
PILES
10 FT
2366
2548
2738
2936
3142
3356
3577
3807
4045
4290
4543
4805
5074
5351
5636
5929
6230
6539
6855
7180
7513
7853
8202
8558
8922
2861
3088
3326
3573
3831
4098
4375
4662
4959
5266
5582
5909
6246
6592
6948
7315
7691
8077
8473
8878
9294
9720
10155
10601
11056
1723
1846
1974
2108
2247
2391
2541
2696
2856
3022
3193
3369
3551
3738
3930
4128
4331
4540
4753
4972
5197
5427
5662
5902
6148
8-INCH TIP PILES

WITH EMBEDMENTS OF
20 FT
1871
2008
2150
2299
2453
2614
2780
2952
3130
3314
3504
3700
3902
4110
4324
4544
4769
5001
5238
5482
5731
5987
6248
6515
6788
30 FT
2020
2170
2327
2490
2660
2836
3019
3209
3405
3607
3816
4032
4254
4482
4718
4959
5208
5462
5724
5991
6266
6547
6834
7128
7429
Bracing B-11
TABLE B-1 CONTINUED
PILE
HEIGHT
(FEET)
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.5
13.0
13.5
14.0
14.5
15.0
15.5
16.0
16.5
17.0
17.5
18.0
18.5
19.0
19.5
20.0
20.5
21.0
21.5
22.0
8x8
PILES
10x10
PILES
10 FT
2466
2650
2841
3040
3247
3462
3685
3916
4155
4402
4657
4919
5190
5468
5755
6049
6351
6661
6979
7305
7639
7981
8331
8688
9054
2967
3197
3436
3685
3944
4213
4492
4780
5079
5387
5706
6034
6372
6720
7078
7446
7824
8211
8609
9016
9434
9861
10298
10745
11202
1814
1938
2067
2202
2342
2487
2637
2793
2955
3121
3293
3470
3653
3841
4034
4233
4437
4646
4861
5081
5306
5537
5773
6014
6261
8-INCH TIP PILES

WITH EMBEDMENTS OF
20 FT
1965
2102
2246
2395
2551
2712
2879
3052
3232
3417
3608
3805
4008
4216
4431
4652
4879
5111
5350
5594
5845
6101
6363
6631
6906
30 FT
2115
2267
2424
2589
2760
2937
3121
3312
3509
3712
3922
4139
4362
4592
4828
5071
5320
5576
5839
6108
6383
6665
6954
7249
7550

TABLE B-1 CONTINUED
PILE
HEIGHT
(FEET)
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.5
13.0
13.5
14.0
14.5
15.0
15.5
16.0
16.5
17.0
17.5
18.0
18.5
19.0
19.5
20.0
20.5
21.0
21.5
22.0
8x8
PILES
10x10
PILES
10 FT
2575
2760
2952
3153
3362
3578
3803
4035
4275
4524
4780
5044
5316
5596
5883
6179
6483
6794
7114
7441
7777
8120
8471
8830
9197
3083
3314
3555
3806
4067
4338
4618
4909
5209
5519
5839
6170
6509
6859
7219
7589
7968
8358
8757
9166
9585
10015
10453
10902
11361
1914
2039
2169
2304
2445
2591
2743
2899
3062
3229
3402
3580
3764
3953
4147
4347
4552
4762
4978
5199
5425
5657
5894
6136
6384
8-INCH TIP PILES

WITH EMBEDMENTS OF
20 FT
2066
2205
2350
2500
2657
2819
2987
3162
3342
3528
3720
3918
4122
4332
4548
4770
4997
5231
5471
5716
5968
6225
6488
6758
7033
30 FT
2219
2371
2530
2696
2868
3047
3232
3424
3622
3827
4038
4256
4480
4711
4949
5192
5443
5700
5964
6234
6510
6794
7083
7380
7682
Bracing B-13
TABLE B-1 CONTINUED
PILE
HEIGHT
(FEET)
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.5
13.0
13.5
14.0
14.5
15.0
15.5
16.0
16.5
17.0
17.5
18.0
18.5
19.0
19.5
20.0
20.5
21.0
21.5
22.0
8x8
PILES
10x10
PILES
10 FT
2692
2879
3073
3275
3485
3703
3929
4163
4405
4655
4913
5178
5452
5733
6023
6320
6625
6938
7259
7588
7925
8270
8622
8983
9352
3208
3441
3684
3937
4200
4472
4755
5047
5350
5662
5984
6316
6658
7010
7371
7743
8124
8516
8917
9328
9749
10180
10621
11072
11533
2021
2147
2278
2415
2556
2704
2856
3014
3177
3346
3520
3699
3884
4074
4269
4470
4676
4887
5104
5326
5553
5786
6024
6268
6516
8-INCH TIP PILES

WITH EMBEDMENTS OF
20 FT
2176
2316
2462
2613
2771
2934
3104
3279
3461
3648
3841
4041
4246
4457
4674
4897
5126
5360
5601
5848
6101
6359
6624
6894
7171
30 FT
2331
2485
2645
2812
2985
3165
3352
3545
3744
3950
4163
4382
4607
4840
5078
5324
5575
5834
6099
6370
6648
6932
7223
7521
7825

TABLE B-2
LOADS ON TRANSVERSE TRUSS MEMBERS (POUNDS)
COMBINED
HORIZONTAL
LOAD
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
6000
6500
7000
7500
8000
8500
9000
9500
10000
10500
11000
11500
12000
A/B RATIO FOR DIAGONAL MEMBERS

STRUTS
1.0
1500
2250
3000
3750
4500
5250
6000
6750
7500
8250
9000
9750
10500
11250
12000
12750
13500
14250
15000
15750
16500
17250
18000
2121
3182
4243
5303
6364
7425
8485
9546
10607
11667
12728
13789
14849
15910
16971
18031
19092
20153
21213
22274
23335
24395
25456
1.1
2230
3345
4460
5575
6690
7805
8920
10035
11150
12265
13379
14494
15609
16724
17839
18954
20069
21184
22299
23414
24529
25644
26759
1.2
1.3
1.4
2343
3515
4686
5858
7029
8201
9372
10544
11715
12887
14058
15230
16402
17573
18745
19916
21088
22259
23431
24602
25774
26945
28117
2460
3690
4920
6150
7381
8611
9841
11071
12301
13531
14761
15991
17221
18451
19681
20912
22142
23372
24602
25832
27062
28292
29522
2581
3871
5161
6452
7742
9032
10323
11613
12903
14194
15484
16775
18065
19355
20646
21936
23226
24517
25807
27097
28388
29678
30968
1.5
2704
4056
5408
6760
8112
9465
10817
12169
13521
14873
16225
17577
18929
20281
21633
22985
24337
25690
27042
28394
29746
31098
32450
Bracing B-15
TABLE B-3
TABLE B-4
ALLOWABLE LOADS FOR SINGLE 2-BY-8 DIAGONALS
A/B
Ratio
Joint at
Exterior
Pile
(pounds)
Joint at
Interior
Pile
(pounds)
1.00
6500
5700
4100
5500
1.43
7500
5700
4100
5500
2x8 Member
No "A"
One "A"
Bolt
Bolt
ALLOWABLE LOADS FOR SINGLE 3-BY-8 DIAGONALS
A/B
Ratio
Exterior
Joint
(pounds)
Interior
Joint
(pounds)
3x8 Member
No "A"
One "A"
Bolt
Bolt
1.00
6500
10000
6700
9000
1.43
7500
10000
6700
9000
Notes on Tables B-3 and B-4:

I.
A and B are defined in Figure B-1; "A" bolts are identified

in Figure B-2.
2.
Two 1 1/4-inch-diameter bolts ("B" bolts) are used to

connect diagonals to piles at exterior joints.
3.
Bolts at interior joint consist of 7/8-inch-diameter bolts,

installed in a single row along the center of the diagonal.
Require three bolts per diagonal, spaced 3 inches apart;
require one bolt to connect diagonals to pile. See
Section B.2.1.1 for edge and end distances.
4,
All member ends are reinforced with metal side plates

on both sides of member as described in text.
5.
Member loads are determined at critical net section

through diagonal connection.
TABLE B-5
ALLOWABLE STRUT LOADS
Allowable
Load (pounds)
3000
4800
6300
16000
16000
Strut
Size
4x4
4x6
4x8
6x6
8x8
C-1
Appendix C
DESIGN WORKSHEETS

1 of 4

Width
Length
Number of Stories
Type of Soil
Design Wind Speed
______ feet
______ feet
______
______________
______ feet
______ miles per hour
Number of Piles Required (Figure A-I)

Along Width
Along Length
______
______
___/___
______
or
or
or
or
______
______
___/___
______
or ___/___
or ______
or
or
___/___
______
______ or
______
or ______
or
______
pounds
______ or
______ or
______ or
______
______
______
or ______
or ______
or ______
or
or
or
______
______
______
feet
feet
feet
______ or
______
or ______
or
______
pounds

8x8 Square Pile
10x10 Square Pile

2 of 4

8x8 Square Pile
10x10 Square Pile
______ or
______ or
______ or
______
______
______
or ______
or ______
or ______
or
or
or
______
______
______
8x8 Square Pile
______
______
______
10x10 Square Pile
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
feet
feet
feet

Width x Length
Pressure
Wall Height
___X___ or ___X___
___/___ or ___/___
___/___ or ___/___
______
______
______
______
10 to 20 psf
______ feet
or___X___
or ___/___
or ___/___
______
______
or
or
or
___X___ feet
___/___
___/___
______
______

3 of 4
______
______
(Table A-11)
______
(Table A-10)
______
______
or
______
or ______
or
______
pounds
or
______
or ______
or
______
pounds
or
______
or ______
or
______
pounds
Horizontal Load per Pile at Breakaway

______ or
Wall Collapse
______
or ______
or
______
pounds
______ or
______
or ______
or
______
pounds
______ or
______
or ______
or
______
pounds

8x8 Square Pile
______ or
10x10 Square Pile
______ or
______ or
______
______
______
or ______
or ______
or ______
or
or
or
______
______
______
feet
feet
feet
(Horizontal Load 2)

4 of 4
8x8 Square Pile
______
______
______
10x10 Square Pile
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
______

Along Width
______
Along Length
______
______
Size of Pile
______
______ feet
______ (if yes, see 'Bracing Design Worksheet')

1 of 2
General House Information
Width
Length
Number of Stories
Design Wind Speed
______
______
______
______
feet
feet
Connections Between Floors

Uplift Loads per Foot of Wall (Table A-5)
Roof Connection
Second Floor Connection
First Floor Connection
______
______
______
pounds per foot

pounds per foot
pounds per foot
miles per hour
Connectors Selected Based on Manufacturers' Data

Type
____________
Spacing
______ inches
CONNECTION DESIGN WORKSHEET (CONTINUED)

2 of 2
Floor Beam Connection
Downward Load per Pile (Table A-1)
100% of Load
50% of Load
Uplift Load per Pile (Table A-6)
Capacity per Bolt of Selected Floor Beam
Connection (Table A-7)
Type of Connection
___/___ or
___/___
or ___/___
or
___/___
______ or
______ or
______ or
______
______
______
or ______
or ______
or ______
or
or
or
______
______
______
______
pounds
____________
Beam
Bolt Diameter
Number of Bolts
______
______
inches
Bolt Diameter
Number of Bolts
______
______
inches
Pile
pounds
pounds
pounds

1 of 3
Width
Length
Number of Stories
Design Wind Speed
______
______
______
______
______

___/___ or
___/___
or ___/___
or
___/___

8x8 Square Pile
10x10 Square Pile
______ or
______ or
______ or
______
______
______
or ______
or ______
or ______
or
or
or
______
______
______
feet
feet
feet
miles per hour
Can Knee Braces Be Used? (Is clearance above grade minus maximum unbraced height 4 feet or less?)
8x8 Square Pile
______ or ______ or ______
or ______
10x10 Square Pile
______ or ______ or ______
or ______
______ or ______ or ______
or ______
If Knee Bracing Cannot Be Used, Continue on for Truss Bracing
feet
feet
feet

2 of 3
Horizontal Water Loads per Pile (Table B-1)
8x8 Square Pile
10x 10 Square Pile
Horizontal Wind Loads per Pile (Table A-2)
______ pounds
______ pounds
______ pounds
______ or ______
Combined Horizontal Loads per Pile (Wind + Water)

8x8 Square Pile
______
10x10 Square Pile
______
______
Truss Width = B = Pile Spacing Along Length
______
or ______
or
______
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds
feet
or
or
or
or
______
______
______
______
or
or
or
or
______
______
______
______
or
or
or
or
______
______
______
______
______ or
______
or ______
or
______
8x8 Square Pile

10x10 Square Pile
______ or
______ or
______ or
______
______
______
or ______
or ______
or ______
or
or
or
______
______
______
pounds
pounds
pounds
Diagonals
8x8 Square Pile
10x10 Square Pile
______ or
______ or
______ or
______
______
______
or ______
or ______
or ______
or
or
or
______
______
______
pounds
pounds
pounds
A/B Ratio for Diagonal Members (Figure B-1)

Loads on Transverse Members (Table B-2)
Struts

3 of 3
Information on Bracing to be Used for Selected Pile Combination
Strut Size (Table B-5)
Diagonals (Tables B-3 and B-4)
Single or Double
Size
"A" Bolt (yes/no)
______
______
______
______
Design Equations and Procedures D-1
Appendix D
DESIGN EQUATIONS AND
PROCEDURES
The engineering procedures and equations used to
develop the design tables in Appendices A and B are
presented in this appendix. Use of these procedures allows a
designer to develop and evaluate individual designs which
may not be encompassed by the typical designs addressed by
the tables.
For ease of organization, the design procedures herein
are presented in the order of and referenced to the design
tables. In general, each supporting equation is presented
descriptively, then with variable names and
actual values that were used to produce the tables. With the
assumptions clearly stated, a designer can readily substitute
alternative assumptions and values in order to evaluate a
specific design.
Variable names used in the equations generally
correspond directly to those used in the computer programs
(Appendix E) for the design tables. A few names have been
changed slightly for clarity in presentation of the equations.
D-2 Coastal Construction Manual
D.1 PROCEDURE A-1: DOWNWARD LOADS PER PILE

This procedure calculates downward loads per pile resulting from dead and frequently applied (non-storm) live loads. The
building is assumed to have 2-foot eaves.
Roof + attic load = (plan area) (unit dead + live pressures)
DATTIC = (width + 4) (length + 4) (44 psf)
Second floor load = (plan area) (unit pressure)
D2ND = (width) (Length) (38.5 psf)
First floor load = (plan area) (unit pressure)
DIST = (width) (length) (48.5 psf)
Total vertical load = VLOAD = DATTIC + D2ND + DIST
Load per pile = (total vertical load) (number of piles)
VPlLE = VLOAD/(NPW x NPD)
Note: For one-story buildings, D2ND = 0.
D.2 PROCEDURE A-2: HORIZONTAL WIND LOADS PER PILE

This procedure evaluates total horizontal wind load on the building, resolved into a horizontal load applied to the top of each
pile. The building is assumed to have 9-foot stories; the roof ridge is parallel to the wind, sloped 3:1, with 2-foot eaves.
QH = Horizontal wind pressure on story being considered, for design wind velocity from building code (psf)
W = Building width perpendicular to wind direction (ft)
Horizontal Force on attic = (vertical surface area) (wind pressure)

HATTlC = (W2/12) (QH)
Horizontal Force on 2nd story H2ND = (W x 9) (QH)
Horizontal force on 1st story = HIST = (W x 9) (QH)
Total horizontal load = HLOAD = HATTIC + H2ND + HIST
Horizontal load per pile = (total load) (number of piles)
NPILE = HLOAD/(NPW x NPD)
Note: For the total horizontal load on a one-story building, omit H2ND and revise wind pressures for reduced building height.

D.3 PROCEDURE A-3: MINIMUM EMBEDMENT DEPTH OF PILES
This procedure calculates the minimum embedment depth of a pile required to safely carry a given vertical load. Soil types
considered are sand and clay. Pile types considered are 8-and 10-inch square and 8-inch tip round tapered.
S = surface area per unit length of pile
= 10 inches x 4/12 inches per foot = 10/3 square feet for 10-inch square pile
= 8 inches x 4/12 inches per foot = 8/3 square feet for 8-inch square pile
(D+TH) = (8/12 + TH) for 8-inch tip round tapered pile
T = increase in radius per length of tapered pile = typically 0.5 inch/10 feet = 1/240
K = lateral earth pressure coefficient
= buoyant unit weight of sand (pcf)
= friction angle between wood and soil (degrees)
FS = factor of safety
H = embedment depth of pile (feet)
P = allowable vertical load on pile (pounds)
Cl = clay adhesion to wood (psf)
D.3.1 Square Piles
D.3.1.1 Square Piles in Sand. Bearing capacity, P, in sand is calculated as
P
= frictional capacity + tip capacity
1/2 H K tan x S/FS + 1/2 HNqA/FS
Solve for H in quadratic equation:

2
(1/2 KS tan /FS)H +(1/2 HN qA/FS)H-P=0
(1)
For loose sand, choosing typical soil parameters = 50 pcf, K = 0.6, = 20, Nq = 33, equation (1) becomes:
2
(1/2 x 50 x 0.6 x S tan 20/FS) H + (1/2 x 50 x 33 x A/FS) H - P = 0
Substituting values for S and A corresponding to pile size and letting FS = 2.5
2
(1/2 x 50 x 0.6 x 8/3 x tan 20/2.5) H + (1/2 x 50 x 33 x 0.44/2.5) H - P = 0 for 8-inch piles
and
2
For medium dense sand, choosing typical parameters = 65 pcf, K = 0.9, = 23, Nq = 65, equation (1) becomes:
2
(1/2 x 65 x 0.9 x S tan 23/FS) H + (1/2 x 65 x 65 x A/FS) H - P = 0
Substituting values for S and A corresponding to pile size, with FS = 2.5

2
and
2
D.3.1.2 Square Piles in Clay. Bearing capacity P in clay is calculated as

P = adhesion capacity + tip capacity
= S x H x Cl/FS + Cl x N c x A/FS
where soil cohesion approximately equals soil-pile adhesion.
H= (P x FS) - (Cl x Nc x A)
S x Cl
(2)
For soft clay, choosing typical values Cl = 250 pcf and Nc = 9, and letting FS = 2, equation (2) becomes:
H = 2P - (250 x 9 x 0.44 ) for 8-inch piles in soft clay
8/3 x 250
H= 2P - (250 x 9 x 0.69 ) for 10-inch piles in soft clay
10/3x250
For medium stiff clay, choosing typical values Cl = 450 pcf and Nc = 9, with FS = 2, equation (2) becomes:
H = 2P - (450 x 9 x 0.44 ) for 8-inch piles in medium stiff clay
8/3 x 450
H= 2P - (450 x 9 x 0.69 ) for 10-inch piles in medium stiff clay
10/3x450

D.3.2 Round Tapered Piles
D.3.2.1 Round Piles in Sand. Bearing capacity is calculated as
P = frictional capacity + tip capacity
2
= 1/2 H K tan x S/FS+1/2 HNq A/FS

2
= 1/2 H K tan x (D + TH)/FS + 1/2 HNqA/FS

= T K tan H3 + D K tan H2 + NqA H
2 x FS
2 x FS
2 x FS
Solve for H in cubic equation:
T K tan H3 + D K tan H2 + NqA H - P = 0
2 x FS
2 x FS
2 x FS
(3)
For loose sand, choosing typical soil parameters = 50 pcf, K = 0.6, 20, Nq = 33, equation (3) becomes:
T x 50 x 0.6 tan 20 H3 + D x 50 x 0.6 tan 20 H2 + 50 x 33A H - P = 0
2 x FS
2 x FS
2 x FS
Substituting pile taper T = 1/240, tip diameter D = 8 inches, tip area A = 0.35 square feet, and FS = 2.5:
1/240 x x 50 x 0.6 tan 20 H3 + 0.33 x 50 x 0.6 tan 20 H2 + 50x33x0.35 H - P = 0 for 8-inch tip piles
5
5
5
o
For medium dense sand, choosing typical values = 65 pcf, K = 0.9, = 23 , Nq = 65, equation (3) becomes:
T x 65 x 0.9 tan 23 H3 + D x 65 x 0.9 tan 23 H2 + 65 x 65A H - P = 0

2 x FS
2 x FS
2 x FS
Substituting the selected pile characteristics and letting FS = 2.5:
1/240 x x 65 x 0.9 tan 23 H3 + 0.33 x 65 x 0.9 tan 23 H2 + 65 x 65 x 0.35 H - P = 0 for 8-inch tip piles
5
5
5

D.3.2.2 Round Piles in Clay. Bearing capacity is calculated as
P = adhesion capacity + tip capacity
= (S x H x Cl/FS) + (Cl x Nc X A/FS)
= (D + TH) x H x Cl/FS + Cl x Nc x A/FS
where soil cohesion approximately equals soil-pile adhesion.
Solve for H in quadratic equation:
T Cl H2 + D Cl H + Nc A x Cl - P = 0
FS
FS
FS
(4)
For soft clay, choosing typical soil parameters Cl = 250 pcf and Nc = 9 and with FS = 2, equation (4) becomes:
T x 250 H2 + D x 250 H+ 9A x 250 - P = 0
2
2
2
Substituting T = 1/240, D = 8 inches, and A = 0.35 square feet:
/240 x 250 H2 + 0.67 x 250 H + 9 x 0.35 x 250 - P = 0 for 8-inch tip piles
2
2
2
For medium stiff clay, choosing typical Cl = 450 pcf, equation (4) becomes:
1240x 450 H2 + 0.67 x 450 H+ 9 x 0.35 x 450 - P = 0 for 8-inch tip piles
2
2
2
Notes for all piles:
1. Minimum 10-foot embedment is recommended for all piles.
2. These are the embedment depths required for adequate support of vertical loads. It is essential to provide additional
embedment in erosion-prone areas. Depth of potential scour should be researched locally; if no local information is available,
assume 4 feet of scour in sand and add to above embedments for first row of houses from shore. For inland houses assume 2
feet of scour in sand and add to above embedments.
3. Required embedment to resist lateral loads was also evaluated. For the assumed soil types and minimum 10-foot
embedment, vertical capacity as calculated above was determined to be the governing criterion for embedment.
D.4 PROCEDURE A.4: MAXIMUM UNBRACED HEIGHT OF PILES

This procedure calculates maximum unbraced height of a pile by equating allowable bending moment in the pile to moment
generated by water and debris forces on the pile and wind forces on the building.
Fm
= wave force on pile (pounds)
Mm
= moment of wave force around pile base (foot-pounds)
Fd
= current drag force on pile (pounds)
Md
= moment of current drag force around pile base (foot-pounds)
= debris impact force on pile (pounds)
= moment of debris impact force around pile base (foot-pounds)
LOAD
= applied wind load at top of pile (pounds)
Mw
= moment of wind force around pile base (foot-pounds)
Mp
= allowable bending moment in pile (foot-pounds)
DIA
= diameter of pile (inches)
Hw
= design water height = minimum pile height above existing grade (feet)
Hp
= actual pile height above existing grade (feet)
D.4.1 Moment of Wave Forces

Wave force on a pile is derived in Procedure B-1, yielding
2
Fm = 14.255 (DIA/12) Hw for round piles
2
= 23.758 (DIA/12) H w for square piles

Moment around base of pile (1984 Shore Protection Manual) is:
Mm = (Fm)(1.11d)
where d = H w /1.546 (see Figure D-1)
Mm =(Fm)(0.178 H w)
3
= 10.235 (DIA/12) H w for round piles

3
= 17.058 (DIA/12) H w for square piles
wave height
above stillwater
= 0.7 Hb
Water depth =
minimum pile height =
HW
HW = (BFE) - (ground surface elevation) = d + 0.7 Hb

= Hb + 0.7 H
b
0.78
+ 1.982 H b
Figure D-1. Water depth relationships.
D.4.2 Moment of Current Drag Forces

Current drag force on a pile is derived in Procedure B-1, yielding:
2
Fd = CDHW (DIA/12) v
For wind speed 80 mph, assume water velocity v = 3 knots = 5.06 ft/sec:
2
Fd = CDHW (DIA/12) (5.06)
Moment arm is 1/2 H W , so moment around base of pile is:

2
2
Md = CDHW (DIA/24) (5.06)
For wind speed > 80 mph, assume v = 5.06 ft/sec in lower 3/4 of water column and v = 0.057 Ws in upper 1/4,
2
2
Fd = 3/4 (CDHW ) (DIA/12) (5.06) + 1/4 (CDHW ) (DIA/12) (0.0587 Ws)
Moment arm of lower 3/4 of water column is (3/8) HW , and moment arm of upper 1/4 is (7/8) HW . Thus moment around base of
pile is:
2
2
2
2
Md = (3/8) (3/4) (CDHW ) (DIA/12) (5.06) + (7/8) (1/4) (CDHW ) (DIA/12) (0.0587 Ws)
= (CDHW 2) (DIA/12) (7.201 + 0.000754 Ws 2)

with C D = 1.2 for round, 2.0 for square.
Md
= HW 2 (DIA/12) (8.641 + 0.000905 Ws 2) for round piles

2
2
= HW (DIA/12) (1 4.402 + 0.00151 Ws ) for square piles
D.4.3 Moment of Debris Impact Forces

Debris impact force on a pile is derived in Procedure B-1. For an assumed 300-Ib debris load,
F = 238.6 lb for wind speed 80 mph
= 0.032 Ws 2 lb for wind speed > 80 mph
Debris is assumed to impact at top of pile at maximum water height, so moment arm around base of pile is equal to pile height
H w:
M = F x HW
= 238.6 H W for wind speed 80 mph
2
= 0.032 Ws HW for wind speed > 80 mph
D.4.4 Moment of Wind Forces

Resolution of wind forces on the building into horizontal loads applied to the top of a pile is described in Procedure
A-2. Moment arm around base of pile is equal to pile height Hp, which is equal to or greater than water height Hw.
MW = LOAD x Hp

D.4.5 Allowable Bending Moment of Piles
Allowable bending moment of a pile is expressed as:
Mp = 1.33 /y
where 1.33 = factor of allowable stress increase for transient loads
= allowable tensile stress (psf)
= section modulus (ft 4)
Y = distance to section centroid (ft) For round pile:
For round pile:
= (DIA/12)
64
Y = 1/2 (DIA/12)
Assuming = 1850 psi = 1850 x 144 psf (disregarding relatively small uplift forces), then
Mp = 1.33(1850 x 144) (DIA/ 12) /(DIA/24)
64
3
= 1.33(1850) (DIA)
384
For square pile:
4
= (DIA/12)
12
Y = 1/2 (DIA/12)
Assuming = 1300 psi = 1300 x 144 psf (disregarding uplift forces), then

4
Mp = 1.33 (1300x 144) (DIA/12) / (DIA/24)
12
3
= 1.33(1300) (DIA)
72
D.4.6 Maximum Unbraced Pile Height

Pile height (= water height HW ) is solved by equating allowable bending moment in pile to applied moment around base of
pile.
Mp = Mm + Md + M + MW
0 = Mm + Md + M + MW - Mp
This results in a cubic equation to be solved for pile height.
NOTES:
1.
Results presented in Table A-4 are based on the assumption that pile height above grade H p equals maximum design
water height Hw (at BFE). For cases where Hp > H w, H w should be expressed as a fraction of Hp, so the above equations
can be solved for Hp, resulting in a higher allowable unbraced height.
2.
If Table A-4 indicates that bracing is required, a designer may reduce some of the conservatism by reducing wave force
Fm in above equations by up to 25 percent. This is realistic because the full force of a breaking wave is likely to occur
against only one row of piles at a time, and will be distributed to other piles by the grade beams and floor frame.

D.5 PROCEDURE A-4.1: MAXIMUM UNBRACED HEIGHT FOR PILES SUPPORTING BREAKAWAY WALLS
This procedure calculates maximum unbraced height of a pile supporting a breakaway wall by equating allowable bending
moment in a pile to moment generated by wind forces on the superstructure and water and wind forces on the breakaway wall at the
moment of breakaway wall collapse.
D.5.1 Moment of Wind Forces on Superstructure
Resolution of wind forces on the building into horizontal loads applied to the top of a pile are described in Procedure
A-2. Moment arm around the base of the pile is equal to pile height Hp:
MW = (wind load per pile) (Hp)
D.5.2 Moment of Breakaway Wall Forces
Calculation of maximum forces on a breakaway wall per pile are described in the Pile Design Worksheet, based on the
allowable load range of 10 to 20 psf specified by NFIP. Moment arm around the base of the pile for half of the load (resisted by the top
fasteners) is equal to pile height Hp. Moment arm for the half of the load resisted by the bottom fasteners is zero.
Mb = 1/2 (breakaway wall ultimate capacity per pile) (Hp) + 0
D.5.3 Allowable Bending Moment in Piles
The allowable bending moment of a pile, as derived in Procedure A-4, is expressed as:
3
Mp = 1.33(1850) (DIA) for round piles
384
3
= 1.33(1300)(DIA) for square piles

72
D.5.4 Calculation of Maximum Unbraced Pile Height

Pile height Hp is solved for by equating allowable bending moment in a pile to applied moment around the base of the pile.
Mp = MW + Mb
= (Hp) (wind load per pile + 1/2 breakaway wall ultimate capacity per pile)
Solving for Hp:
Hp = 1.33 (1850) (DIA) 3 /384 (wind load + 1/2 wall capacity) for round piles
= 1.33(1300)(DIA) 3/72 (wind load + 1/2 wall capacity) for square piles

D.6 PROCEDURE A.5: UPLIFT LOADS PER FOOT OF WALL
This procedure produces wind-induced uplift load values per foot of wall at connections between stories of one- and two-story
buildings. The building is assumed to have 9-foot stories; the roof ridge is parallel to the wind, sloped 3:1, with 2-foot eaves.
QH
= horizontal wind pressure on story being considered, from building code (psf)
QV
= vertical uplift pressure on roof (psf)
QU
= vertical uplift pressure on exposed underside of building (psf)
= building width perpendicular to wind direction (feet)
= building length parallel to wind direction (feet)
Uplift loads at each connection level are sum of vertical uplift minus dead loads plus uplift resulting from moment due to
horizontal loads.
D.6.1 Rafter Connections
Roof uplift = (roof surface area) (wind uplift pressure)
VIROOF = (W + 4) (L + 4) (QV)
Dead load of roof and attic = (plan area) (unit dead load)
DATTIC = (W + 4) (L + 4) (14 psf)
Horizontal force on attic = (vertical surface area) (wind pressure)
HIATIC - (W2/12) (QH)
Moment due to horizontal force = (force) (moment arm to centroid)
MIATIC = (HIATIC) (W/18)

Summation of uplift on rafter connections, along two lengths of house (see Figure D-2):
(roof uplift) - (dead load) +(vertical surface area) (wind pressure)
connected length
NIATIC = VIROOF - DATTIC + MIATIC
2L
(2/3)L 2
Note: Wind pressures based on ANSI A58.1 - 1982 vary with building height. Therefore, uplift on roof connections differs for one-and
two-story buildings.
D.6.2 Connections Between Stories
Roof uplift on two-story roof = V2ROOF = (W + 4) (L + 4) (QV)
Dead load of second story = (plan area) (unit dead load)
D2ND = (W) (L) (8.5 psf)
Dead load of roof and attic = DATTIC = (W + 4) (L + 4) (14 psf)
Horizontal force on second story = (vertical surface area) (wind pressure)
H2ND = (W x 9) (QH)
Horizontal force on attic = H2ATIC = (W 2/12) (QH)
Moment due to total horizontal force above connections = (force) (moment arm)
M2ND = (H2ND x 4.5) (H2ATIC x (W/18 + 9))
Summation of uplift on connections, around full perimeter (see Figure D-3):
roof uplift - total dead load + vertical force resisting applied moment
perimeter
M2ND
K2ND = VIROOF - (DATTIC + D2ND) +
2L + 2W
L (W + 2L/3)
applied moment = MIATIC = resisting moment = (2) (1/2 FL) (2/3L)

2
maximum force F = MIATIC/ (2/3L )
Figure D-2. Resisting force - roof connections.
applied moment = M2ND = resisting moment = (2) (1/2 FL) (FW)(L)

maximum force F = M2ND/ (L)(W = 2/3L)
Figure D-3. Resisting force - story connections.

D.6.3 Bottom Floor Connections (Two-story)
V2ROOF = (W + 4) (L + 4) (QV)
Dead load of 1st story = (plan area) (unit dead load)
DIST =(W x L)(8.5psf)
D2ND = W x L (8.5 psf)
DATTIC = (W + 4) (L + 4) (14 psf)
Horizontal force on 1st story = (vertical surface area) (wind pressure)
HlST2 = (W x 9) (QH)
H2ND = (W x 9) (QH)
H2ATIC = (W2/12) (QH)
Vertical uplift on exposed underside = (surface area) (wind pressure)
VUNDER = (W x L) (QU)
Moment due to total horizontal force = (force) (moment arm)
MIST2=(HIST2 x 4.5)+(H2ND x 13.5)+(H2ATIC x (W/18+18))
Summation of uplift on connections, around full perimeter (see Figure D-3):

roof uplift + underside uplift - dead load + vertical force resisting applied moment
perimeter
NIST2 = V2ROOF + VUNDER - (DATTIC + D2ND + DIST) + MIST1
2L + 2W
L (W + 2L/3)
Note: For bottom floor uplift on a one-story building, omit second story dead loads and horizontal forces, and revise wind pressures
and moment arms.

D.7 PROCEDURE A-6: UPLIFT LOADS PER PILE
This procedure calculates uplift loads per pile resulting from wind forces on the building. The building is assumed to have 9-foot
stories; roof ridge is parallel to wind, sloped 3:1, with 2-foot eaves.
QH
QV
QU
W
L
NPW
N
Fo
= Horizontal wind pressure on story being considered, for design wind velocity from building code (psf)
= Vertical uplift pressure on roof (psf)
= Vertical uplift pressure on exposed underside of building (psf)
= Building width perpendicular to wind direction (feet)
= Building length parallel to wind direction (feet)
= Number of piles along building width
= Number of piles along building length
= Maximum uplift per pile due to moment (pounds)
Uplift loads at top of piles are sum of vertical uplift minus dead loads plus uplift resulting from moment due to horizontal loads.
D.7.1 Forces on Roof and Attic
Vertical uplift on roof = (surface area) (wind pressure)
V2ROOF = (W + 4) (L + 4) (QV)
Dead load of roof, attic = (plan area) (unit pressure)
DATTIC = (W + 4) (L + 4) (14 psf)
Horizontal force on attic = (vertical surface area) (wind pressure)
2
H2ATIC = W (QH)
12

D.7.2 Uplift Forces on Second Story
Dead load of second story = (plan area) (unit pressure)
D2ND = (W x L) (8.5 psf)
Horizontal force on second story = (vertical surface area) (wind pressure)
H2ND = (W x 9) (OH)
D.7.3 Uplift Forces on First Story
Dead load of first story = (plan area) (unit pressure)
DIST = (W x L) (8.5 psf)
Horizontal force on first story = (vertical surface area) (wind pressure)
HIST2 = (W x 9) (QH)
Vertical uplift on exposed underside of building = (exposed surface area) (wind pressure)
VUNDER = (W x L) (QU)
D.7.4 Uplift at Top of Piles Due to Vertical Loads
Total vertical load = roof uplift + underside uplift - dead loads
VLOAD2 = V2ROOF + VUNDER -(DATTIC + D2ND + DIST)
Vertical load per pile = total vertical load/number of piles
VPILE2 = VLOAD2/(NPW + N)

D.7.5 Uplift at Top of Piles Due to Moment
Moment about top of piles = (summation of horizontal forces) (moment arms)
MMENT2 = (H2ATIC x (W/18 + 18)) + (H2ND x 13.5) + (HIST2 x 4.5)
For each row of piles parallel to applied wind moment MMENT2, we want to solve for maximum resisting force Fo, which
occurs at outermost piles. The force in each interior pile is proportional to its distance from centroid (see Figure D-4, a and b).
Total moment on row of piles = summation of (F x moment arm),
where moment arm = (spacing) (number of spaces to centroid)
Moment
row=2
Fo x 1/2 L (N-1)+2F 1 x 1/2 L (N-3)+2F 2 x 1/2 L (N-5) +...

N-1
N-1
N-1
In terms of Fo, from Figure D-4:

Moment
row
= Fo x L (N-1) + Fo (N-3) L (N-3)+ Fo (N-5) L (N-5) +...

N-1
N-1 N-1
N-1 N-1
Total moment MMENT2 = (Moment
row)
(NPW)
Solving for Fo:
where ( N - x)2 terms are added in numerator until (N - x) 0

(N- 1)2
elevation
# pile bays along length L = N-1

F1 = (spacing)(1/2)(#bays - 2) = (N-1)-2
Fo
(spacing)(1/2)(#bays)
N-1
length L
(# piles = N)
F2 = (N-1) -4
Fo
N-1
etc.
plan
Figure 4-a. Applied moment on pile row.
Figure 4-b. Resisting forces along pile row.
D.7.6 Total Uplift at Top of Piles

Total uplift per pile = (uplift due to vertical loads) + (uplift due to moment)
NVMAX2 = VPILE2 + Fo
Note: For one-story buildings, omit D2ND and H2ND, and revise wind pressures and moment arms for reduced height.
D.8 PROCEDURE B-1: HORIZONTAL WATER LOADS PER PILE

This procedure calculates horizontal water loads per pile for varying wind speeds. Maximum water loads include
inertial and drag forces of waves, current drag forces, and impact forces of waterborne storm debris.
Fm
= wave force (pounds)
= pile width or diameter (feet)
DIA
= pile width or diameter (inches)
= unit mass of water (lb-sec 2/ft)
= gravitational acceleration (ft/sec2)
Hb
= wave height (feet)
HW
= total water depth = minimum pile height (feet)
Hp
= actual pile height (feet)
Fd
= current drag force (pounds)
= projected area of pile = HW x DIA/12 for square or round (square feet)
Ws
= wind speed (mph)
D.8.1 Wave Forces

For shallow water breaking waves, force on round pile (1984 Shore Protection Manual):
2
Fm CD x 1/2 gD H b
with C D = 1.75 for breaking wave

2
= (1.75) (1/2) (2) (32.2) (DIA) (Hb )

2
= 56 (DIA) Hb
12
Expressing Hb in terms of total water depth H W (see Figure D-1):

Fm = 56 (DIA/12) HW /1.982)
= 14.255 (DIA/12) H W
for round piles
For square piles, multiply by ratio of current drag coefficients (2.0 square/1.2 round):
2
Fm = 14.255 (2.01/1.2)(DIA/12) HW
= 23.758 (DIA/12) H W
for square piles

D.8.2 Current Drag Forces
Drag force due to currents (1984 Shore Protection Manual):
2
Fd = 1/2 CDAv
For wind velocity of 80 mph or less, assume water column velocity = 3 knots = 5.06 ft/sec.
Fd = (1/2) (2) CD HW (DIA/12) (5.06)
with C D
= 2.0 for square piles

= 1.2 for round piles
For wind velocity greater than 80 mph, assume water velocity of lower 3/4 of water column is 5.06 ft/sec. Assume water velocity
in upper 1/4 of water column is affected by wind shear and is equal to 4 percent of wind speed Ws.
V 3/4 = 5.06
V 1/4 =0.04 x Ws mph x 88ft/sec = 0.0587 Ws
60 mph
2
Fd 3/4 = 3/4 (1/2 x 2 x CD x HW x (DIA/12) x 5.06 )

= 3/48 x CD x HW x DIA x (5.06)
2
2
Fd 1/4 = 1/4 (1/2 x 2 x CD x HW x (DIA/12) x (0.0587 Ws) )

= 1/48 (CDHW ) (DIA) (0.0587 Ws)
Total Fd = Fd 3/4 + Fd 1/4

2
= 1/48 x CD x HW x DIA (3 x (5.06) + (0.0587 Ws) )

with C D
= 2.0 for square piles

= 1.2 for round piles

D.8.3 Debris Impact Forces
Using basic relations of deflection, velocity, and acceleration:
2
Deflection S = 1/2 at and a = v/t

2
So, S = 1/2 (v/t)t

t = 2S/v
Impact force F = m dv
dt
= m v/(2S/v)
If we consider a 300-pound debris load, moving with the velocity of the water surface for various wind speeds, and an
allowable pile deflection of 0.5 feet,
F = 300
32.2
v
(l/v)
2
= 9.32 v
= 9.32 (5.06) = 238.6 lb for wind speed 80 mph

2
= 9.32 (0.0587 W s) = 0.032 Ws lb for wind speed > 80 mph

D.8.4 Total Forces on Piles
Maximum water loads per pile = wave forces + current forces + debris impact forces
= Fm + Fd + F
D.9
PROCEDURE B-2: LOADS TRANSFERRED TO FOUNDATION TRUSS MEMBERS
This procedure evaluates loads imparted to horizontal and diagonal bracing members resulting from longitudinally applied
horizontal loads (applied parallel to truss).
Horizontal strut load = 1.5 (applied horizontal load)
STRUT = 1.5 (load)
Diagonal load = (strut load) diagonal length

strut length
DIAG = STRUT x
Computer Program Listings E-1
Appendix E
COMPUTER PROGRAM LISTINGS
E-2 Coastal Construction Manual
Construction Cost F-1
Appendix F
F. 1
CONSTRUCTION COST
As discussed in Section 4.3.1 of this manual, foundation

systems for residential structures in coastal high hazard areas
typically consist of piles or a combination of below-ground piles
and above-ground piers. Costs are presented in the following
subsections (F.1.1 through F.1.6) for various components of
these foundation systems, including the piles, pile caps, grade
beams, piers, and pile-to-beam connections.
A variety of construction methods, as presented in this

manual, exist for elevating residential structures in coastal high
hazard areas, and for reducing wind and water damage to
these houses in severe storms. Implementation of these
construction methods, however, can be expected to increase
the cost of the structure over conventional at-grade)
construction. These costs are dependent upon site conditions,
material costs, and labor costs and will differ in various regions
of the country and even among contractors in the same area.
Reported costs were found a vary considerably, reflecting both
real differences in costs of construction and differences in how
costs are allocated.
To provide some guidance as to the magnitude of .costs
that can be expected, ranges of costs have been determined
for various methods of elevation and structure protection.
Values of "average" or "typical" cost are given where possible.
These costs, presented in detail below, include all material,
labor, and installation costs and are the cost to the consumer.
Sources for this information include local building contractors,
state and local officials, and various cost estimating
publications.
The cost information presented here serves only to give
the reader a general idea of the costs of coastal storm-resistant
construction.
These data cannot be directly applied to
estimating costs of a structure in a specific community. For this,
extensive contacts with local suppliers and contractors will be
necessary.
FOUNDATIONS
F.1.1 Wood Piles

F.1.1.1 Types of Wood Piles. Pile foundations, specifically
wood pile foundations, are the most commonly used method
for elevating residential structures in coastal high hazard
areas. The piles may terminate at the ground surface or extend
upward to the floor beam or roof. Two different types of wood
piles are typically employed--circular and square in cross
section. The selection of "round" (tapered cylindrical) or square
piles is usually made on the basis of required depth of
embedment, local availability, and custom and does not
generally represent a cost evaluation. Square piles usually
have dimensions of 8 by 8 or 10 by 10 inches, and round piles
are usually 8 inches in tip diameter with a 12-inch butt. The
choice of method for installing piles--drilling, jetting, or driving-also tends to be a matter of local custom and soil conditions. A
number of factors affect the cost of positioning piles, such as
the availability of contractors capable of doing this work, costs
of mobilizing equipment onsite, and the type of soils to be
encountered in driving. For example, in certain areas on the
West Coast where reported pile costs are highest, large
boulders that would prevent pile driving must often be removed
before piles can be embedded.
F-2 Coastal Construction Manual

F.1.1.2 Wood Pile Costs. The range of costs determined for
typical sizes and lengths of square and round wood piles are
presented in table F-1. The costs for installing the piles--by
jetting, driving, or a combination of these methods--are
presented in Table F-2. It was determined that pile installation
can be expected to cost between $90
and $381 per pile for 18-to 30-foot piles (i.e., about $5 to $13
per linear foot, installed)). Installation costs typically range
from about $2 per linear foot for straightforward installation to
$15 per linear foot for difficult installation (e.g., boulders).
TABLE F-1
Pile Costs *
Type
Dimensions
(inches)
Square Timber
8x8-inch
18
5-10.50
90-188
Square Timber
8x8-inch
24
5-12.00
120-240
Square Timber
10x10-inch
18
7-11.40
127-205
Square Timber
10x10-inch
24
8.70-15.90
209-381
Round Timber
8-inch-dia.
18
7.50-12.70
135-229
Precast Concrete
10x10-inch
18-30
6.80-16.00
68-160
Precast Concrete
12x12-inch
18-30
9-16.00
90-160
Variable
8-9.50
65-76
Poured-in Place Concrete
__________________
*All costs are 1985 cost to consumer for installed piles.
Member
Length (ft)
$/ft
$/Member

TABLE F-2
COSTS FOR COMPONENTS OF PILE FOUNDATION
COMPONENT
TYPE
DIMENSIONS
COST ($)
Embedment
Drive Piles
Not Applicable
2.20-15.00/linear foot
Embedment
Jet Piles
Not Applicable
1.70-3.40/linear foot
Pile Support
Knee Bracing
Two-2"x4" or 2"x6"
Members
17.00-27.00/pile
Pile Support
Diagonal Bracing
Two-2"x6" or 2"x8"
Members
11.00-24.00/set
Grade Beam
Reinforced Concrete
8x 16-inch to
24x 24-inch
7.70-27.50/ft
Pile Cap
Reinforced Concrete
Timber Pile to Floor Beam

Connections
Galvanized Bolts
Variable
1/2-inch-dia.
to 1 1/4-inch-dia.
45-330/pile
2.50-4.00/bolt

F.1.1.3 Pile Support. Piles are often supported with additional
knee or diagonal bracing between the piles. Knee bracing
typically consists of two 2-by-8-inch boards or one 4-by-4 inch
timber bolted to the pile and floor beam, and can be expected
to cost between $17 and $27 per pile. Diagonal bracing may
consist of two 2-by-8-inch 3-by-8-inch planks or metal rods
connected between the piles. The cost for wood diagonal
bracing between two piles was determined to be between $11
and $24. These costs have been included on Table F-2.
F.1.2 Concrete Piles
Precast concrete piles may also be used for foundation
support and are installed using a pile driver. At certain sites,
subsurface conditions preclude the driving of piles. A method is
used in the Florida Keys by which holes are augered and
poured-in-place piles are formed. As presented on Table F- 1,
costs for precast piles were determined to be between $7 and
$16 per linear foot for ) 10-by-10-inch piles and between $9
and $16 per linear foot for 12-by-12-inch piles. Costs of $8 to
$9.50 per linear foot were determined for piles developed by
the poured-in-place method.
F.1.3 Pile Caps and Grade Beams
A variation of the pile foundation system includes concrete
or wooden piles terminating just below the ground surface and
covered with a pile cap. A grade beam is poured over the pile
caps and connected to the piers elevating the structure to
ensure stability of the building. pile cap costs are dependent
upon the pile dimensions and resultant cap dimensions
required, but range in cost between $45 and $330 per pile.
Reinforced grade beams range in size from 8 by I 6 inches to
24 by 24 inches and in cost from $7.70 to $27.50 per linear
foot. Costs for these two aspects of pile foundations are
presented in Table F-2.
F.1.4 Masonry and Concrete Piers

To elevate the structure above the pile/grade beam
system, masonry or concrete piers may be employed.
Reinforced concrete masonry piers for which cost data are
available are typically 8 by 16 inches or 12 by 12 inches and
range in price between $2 and $14 per linear foot (including
footing cost). Reinforced concrete piers are usually more
expensive than masonry, as verified by the $14 to $48 per
linear foot costs observed for 1-by-2-foot piers, presented in
Table F-3.
Note that larger (and correspondingly more
expensive) piers are recommended in this manual, as
presented in Tables A-8 and A-9. These piers would likely cost
$20 to $50 per installed foot.
F.1.5 Pile to Floor Beam Connections
Floor beams may be connected to pier and pile systems
by several methods. When the pier or pile is precast reinforced
concrete, reinforced masonry, or cast-in-place concrete,
reinforcement rods or other metal fasteners are provided to
connect to the wooden floor beams or cast-in-place floor
beams. Wooden piles are often bolted to wooden floor beams
using hot-dipped galvanized bolts and/or metal connecting
plates. The cost of the bolts was determined to be
approximately $2.62 per bolt for 1/2-inch-diameter bolts; $2.75
per bolt for 5/8-inch -diameter bolts; and between $300 and
$385 for the complete pile system using 3/4-inch bolts.
F.2 STRUCTURAL BRACING
In addition to the bracing required to stabilize and
support the foundation, bracing is required in the structure to
resist the wind and water loads in coastal high hazard areas.
This bracing includes support between the joist and floor
beam, along the external walls, and between the roof truss and
walls.

F.2.1 Joist to Floor Beam Connection
F.2.3 Roof Truss Connections
Floor joists are connected to floor beams using a

hurricane clip, which is secured to the beam on one end and to
the joist on the other end. The cost for hurricane clips is
typically between $7 and $12 per 100 clips.
In order to provide a continuous connection from the roof

to the foundation, hurricane clips are often used to .connect the
roof trusses to the building. The same cost of $7 to $12 per
100 clips is incurred for these hurricane clips.
F.2.2 Stud Straps and Corner Bracing
F.3
Additional support is provided along the external walls

and specifically at the corners by applying stud straps between
the studs, and/or by attaching plywood to the corners of the
building. Stud straps cost between $.18 and $.29 per strap and
plywood costs were determined to range from $.71 to $1.12 per
installed square foot for 3/8-inch-to 5/8-inch-thick sheeting.
These costs are presented in Table F-4.
As discussed in Section 4.3.6, it is usually

recommended that all utilities be raised above the BFE. The
cost of elevating utilities is directly related to the height of the
structure and therefore the distance the utilities must be raised
and the additional materials and labor involved. Costs for
raising various utilities are presented in Table F-4, and
range from $3 to $16.50 per foot. These elements can be
expected to increase costs between $200 )and $600 per
dwelling.
ADDITIONAL COSTS
TABLE F-3
COSTS FOR PIERS AND SHEAR WALL FOUNDATIONS
Means of Elevation
Reinforced Concrete Pier
Dimensions (inches)
12x24
Reinforced Concrete Masonry Pier
12x12 or 8x16
Height of
Member (Feet)
8-12
$/foot
14-48.00
$/member
112-528.00
2.00-13.75
17.-110.00
10
2.50-13.75
24-138.00
12
11.60-13.75
139-165.00

F.3.1 Breakaway Walls
TABLE F-4
COSTS FOR OTHER COMPONENTS
OF ELEVATED CONSTRUCTION
Component
Hurricane clips
Stud straps
Cost/Unit ($)
7-12/100 clips
.18-.19/strap
3/8" plywood sheet (installed)
.71-.87/square foot
.84-.91/square foot
.91-1.12/square foot
Raise water utility
4-8.80/foot
Raise sewer utility
6-16.50/foot
Raise gas utility
4.00/foot
Raise electric utility
3.00/foot
Breakaway walls are sometimes constructed between

the grade and elevated first floor. Breakaway walls may be
constructed of lattice work, stud walls, or concrete block, as
presented in Section 4.3.5. For purposes of this study, lattice
was assumed to consist of furring over a wood frame; concrete
block breakaway walls were assumed to consist of nonreinforced block with a styrene filler at the top of the block.
Since breakaway walls differ from normal walls only in the
extent of reinforcing and connection, costs would not be
expected to differ significantly from normal wall costs. The
expected cost of these three forms of breakaway walls, as
presented in Table F-S, range from $.75 per square foot for
lattice work to $2.70 to $3.10 per square foot for concrete block
breakaway walls.
F.3.2 Other Costs
Several other factors could also add cost to residential
structures built in coastal high hazard areas. All portions of the
building outside of the main structure itself must be securely
attached and anchored.
These include porch overhangs,
external stairways, and decks. In addition, because the
structure is elevated, all exterior construction above the
foundation will require the use of scaffolding. One builder
estimated that this causes a 20 to 30 percent increase in labor
costs.
F.4
COST COMPARISON FOR ELEVATED AND NONELEVATED STRUCTURES
The total costs of elevating residential structures in

coastal high hazard areas, as previously discussed, depend
upon numerous factors. Discussions with builders and local
officials revealed, however, that the additional cost to elevate a
structure over the cost of at-grade construction

can be expected to be between $1.30 and $5.10 per square
foot. This additional cost was also determined to vary with the
size of the structure, with higher additional unit (square foot)
costs being associated with larger structures.
For purposes of this study a cost comparison was made
for a 28-by-32-foot building constructed on pilings and one
built on a monolithic slab. This analysis indicates not only the
components of elevated construction that must be considered
in estimating building costs in coastal high hazard areas, but
also the magnitude of additional cost that can be expected.
Costs were obtained from Tables F-I through F-4, and average
costs were assumed where ranges of costs existed.
For purposes of this example, the lowest floor of the

structure was built 10 feet above grade on 8-by-8inch wood
pilings, 24 feet long and arranged in four rows, each containing
four piles. The piles were supported by knee bracing (two
braces per pile) and a 12-by-24-inch grade beam. The piles
were connected to the floor beam using two 5/8-inch
galvanized bolts per pile, and the floor joists were connected to
the floor beam using hurricane clips. The external walls were
supported using stud straps and the thick plywood sheets (two
per corner). A completely tied down system was ensured by
applying hurricane clips to the roof trusses. In addition, the
utilities (water supply, sewerage, and electricity) were raised
10 feet to the first floor elevation.
TABLE F-5
BREAKAWAY WALL COSTS
Type of Wall
Lattice Work
Stud Wall with Plywood Sheathing
Block Wall
Dimensions (inches)
$/square foot
1x2 (furring)
.75
2x4 (16 to 24 O.C.)
1.50-2.00
6 or 8 (thick)
2.70-3.10
1.
TABLE F-6
ELEVATION COSTS FOR 28-by-32-FOOT HOUSE
Foundation
a. Pile Cost
a.1 24-foot 8X8 inch piles x $8.50 per foot = $204 per pile
a.2 $204 per pile x 16 piles = $3,264.00
b. Knee bracing
b.1 $22 per pile x 16 piles = $352.00
c. Grade Beam
c.1 $7.70 per foot x 184 feet = $1,417.00
d. Pile to Floor Beam Connection
d.1 $5.50 per 2-5/8 inch bolts x 16 piles = $88.00
d.2 $2.35 per pile labor costs x 16 piles = $38.00
Foundation Total =
2.
Connections and Support

a. Floor Joist to Floor Beam Connection
a.1 44 floor joists x 2 hurricane clips per joist = 88 clips
a.2 $.095 per clip (9.50 per 100) x 88 clips = $8.36
a.3 $1.17 per clip labor costs x 88 clips = $103.00
b. Stud Straps
b.1 120 feet of external walls/3 = 40 straps
b.2 40 straps x .29 per strap = $11.60
b.3 $1.17 per strap labor costs x 50 straps = $47.00
c. Plywood Corner Bracing (2 sheets per corner)
c.1 8 sheets x 32 square feet per sheet = 256 square feet
c.2 $.84 per square foot x 256 square feet = $215
d. Roof Truss Connection
d.1 44 roof trusses x two hurricane clips per truss = 88 clips
d.2 $.095 per clip x 88 clips = $8.36
d.3 $1.17 per clip labor costs x 88 clips = $103.00
Connections and Support Total =
3.
$5,159
$ 497
Utilities
a. Water
elevated 10 feet above grade x 6.40 per foot = $64.00
b. Sewer
c. Electricity
Utilities Total =
Total for elevating structure =
$ 209
$5,865
A worksheet of the cost calculations is presented in

Table F-6. As shown on this sheet, the total cost of elevating
and supporting this structure is approximately $5,865. Since
the structure is 896 square feet in size, this additional cost of
construction is equivalent to $6.54 per square foot. According
to Means Residential/Light Commercial Cost Guide (Means,
1985), the cost of at-grade cost of at-grade or a one-story
house ranges from $35.70 to $44.40 per square foot. This
additional cost of $6.54 per square foot, therefore, represents
an increase in cost of 15 to 1B percent over at-grade
construction.
It should be noted that, although this cost appears
higher than those obtained from builders and officials, this
analysis represents a complete and more detailed level of
support and bracing than is often encountered in coastal
construction. Typically the foundation system may be lacking
the additional support of the grade beam, which would lower
the additional cost of construction to $4.96 per square foot or
11 to 14 percent of the cost of construction at grade.
Sample Coastal Construction Code G-1
Appendix G
SAMPLE COASTAL
CONSTRUCTION CODE
1.
This sample code is provided for local jurisdictions that

wish to develop a coastal construction code to supplement the
governing building code. Each jurisdiction will need to tailor
the code provisions to account for specific circumstances, such
as storm history, beach configuration, soil conditions, and local
building practices.
2.
The sample code, as presented here, is not intended to

provide detailed design instructions and requirements; rather it
provides a framework through which key elements of coastal
construction can be identified, thereby assuring their inclusion
in the design process. The code is based on the standards for
wind loading relationships prepared by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) and for water loading from the
Shore Protection Manual, prepared by the Corps of Engineers'
Waterways Experiment Station.
The NFIP Coastal
Construction Manual (Design and Construction Manual for
Residential Structures in Coastal High Hazard Areas ) is also
referenced in the code, both as guide to interpreting material in
the ANSI Standards and the Shore Protection Manual, and
as a source of supplemental information. Relatively routine
low-rise structures designed solely with the provisions of the
Coastal Construction Manual will meet the requirements of this
code. Although the NFIP manual may offer some guidance,
design of larger, unusual, or more complicated structures
should be undertaken by a design professional to meet the
requirements of this code.
TITLE
The provisions herein contained shall constitute the

"Coastal Construction Codes for (community), (county), (state)"
and hereinafter will be referred to as the "Coastal Code."
PURPOSE
The purpose of this Coastal Code is to provide minimum

standards for the design and construction of residential
structures in Coastal High Hazard Areas and adjacent coastal
A zone areas where wave action can be expected. The intent
of this code is the incorporation of certain nationally
recommended construction methods and practices so that the
potential damage to an individual structure during storm
conditions may be minimized and the public health, safety, and
general welfare of the citizens of (community) will be protected.
These standards are intended to supplement the
(Standard, BOCA, or Uniform) Building Code, specifically to
address design factors affecting structural integrity under
severe storm stress and to offer guidance to the design
professional. In the event of a conflict between the Coastal
Code and the (Standard, BOCA, or Uniform) Building Code
and other State or Federal laws or regulations, the
requirements resulting in the more restrictive minimum design
standards shall apply.
In addition to the provisions of this Code, it is assumed
structures in Coastal High Hazard Areas would be designed
and constructed following standard engineering practice for
detail, completeness, and safety.
G-2 Coastal Construction Manual

3.
SCOPE
lateral loading forces, without causing damage to the elevated

portion of the building or supporting foundation system.
The requirements of this Code apply to the following:
4.
1.
New construction of single family, duplex, and

multifamily residential structures in Coastal High
Hazard Areas.
2.
Substantial improvement of or additions to

existing residential structures.
"Substantial
improvement" means any repair, reconstruction,
or improvement of a structure, the estimated cost
of which equals or exceeds 50 percent of the
market value of the structure. Market value for the
purposes
of
determining
substantial
improvements does not include the value of the
land, and shall be determined using standard
appraisal techniques, including the market
comparison approach, cost approach to value (replacement cost less depreciation), or income
approach.
DEFINITIONS
ANSI --American National Standards Institute, Inc.
Base Flood--The flood having a 1 percent chance of

being equaled or exceeded in any given year, commonly
referred to as the 100 year flood.
Base Flood Elevation (BFE)--The crest elevation in
relation to mean sea level (using National Geodetic Vertical
Datum), expected to be reached during a I 00 year flood which
encompasses the 100 year flood plain.
Breakaway Wall--A wall that is not part of the structural
support of the building and is intended through its design and
construction to collapse under specific
Coastal High Hazard Area--Area within the 100 year

flood plain that is subject to high velocity waters, caused by
(but not limited to) hurricane wave wash. These areas are
designated as Zones VI-30, VE, or V on the Flood Insurance
Rate Map (FIRM).
Column Action--Potential elastic instability in piles or
columns resulting in buckling or lateral bending of the member,
resulting from compressive stresses due to direct axial and
bending loads.
Dead Load--Passive weight
of all
permanent
construction in a building or structure, including walls, floors,
roofs, stairways, and fixed service equipment.
Erosion--Wearing away of land by the action of natural
forces. On a beach, the carrying away of beach material by
wave action, tidal currents, littoral currents, or by deflation.
Grade --Average elevation of the ground, paved or
unpaved, adjoining a building or structure.
Grade Beams --Wood timber or reinforced concrete
beams located at or below grade elevation, and extending
around the perimeter and through the interior of a building, that
securely interconnect and distribute lateral loads among the
foundation piles or piers.
Landward--In a direction away from the water.
Live Load--Weight superimposed upon the building or
structure by its use and occupancy and not attributable to
environmental loads such as water and wind or dead load.

Pile Clus ter--A group of piles in close proximity that are
tied together by a pile cap and function as a unit.
Piling Foundation--Includes pilings used as columns
and those terminating below grade at pile caps, providing the
support of a structure.
Residential Structure--Any building or portion thereof
that is designed, built, rented, or leased to be occupied as a
home or residence by one or more persons or families.
Stable Soil Elevation--Minimum elevation of soil
resulting from erosion or scour. The design erosion or scour at
a site depends on site elevation and soil type, in combination
with the Base Flood Elevation.
Structure--That which is built or constructed, an edifice
or building of any kind, or any piece of work artificially built up,
compounded of parts joined together in some definite manner.
Uplift Pressure --Forces acting vertically upward on the
base, deck, or floor of the structure by positive or negative
pressure.
5.
ELEVATION STANDARDS
No new construction or substantial improvements are

allowed seaward of (specify established setback line or
specific setback distance from shoreline points, such as the
mean high tide line (minimum requirement) or vegetation or
dune line). All new construction or substantial improvements
shall be elevated on pilings or columns such that the lowest
horizontal structural member supporting the lowest elevated
floor (excluding columns, piles, diagonal bracing attached to
the piles or columns, grade beams, pile caps, slabs, and other
members designed to either withstand storm action or break
away without imparting damaging loads to the structure) is
elevated to or above the BFE.
6.
DETERMINATION OF LOADING FORCES
Structural design in Coastal High Hazard Areas shall consider
the effects of wind and water loads acting simultaneously
during the Base Flood on all building components. The design
conditions for those loadings are presented in Section 6.1 for
water and Section 6.2 for wind loads. Equations, procedures,
and other guidance for determining and utilizing design values
for these loadings are available in the documents referenced in
Section 14.
6.1
WATER LOADS
The structural design shall be adequate to resist water
forces that would occur during the Base Flood. Horizontal
water loads considered shall include inertial and drag forces of
waves, current drag forces, and impact forces from waterborne
storm debris. Dynamic uplift loads shall also be considered if
bulkheads, walls, or other natural or manmade flow
obstructions could cause wave runup beyond the BFE.
6.2
WIND LOADS
Buildings shall be designed and constructed to resist the
forces due to wind pressure.
Wind forces on the
superstructure include windward and leeward forces on
vertical walls, uplift on the roof, internal forces when openings
allow wind to enter the house, and upward force on the
underside of the house when it is exposed. In the design, the
wind should be assumed to blow potentially from any lateral
direction relative to the house.
Design wind pressures on a building and its components are derived from wind velocities associated with storms
with a 100 year mean recurrence interval. The 100 year design
wind velocity is to be taken as (specify) mph. The design
method to be used is that set forth by the American National
Standards Institute, Section A58.1 - 1982.

7.
FOUNDATION STANDARDS
All structures erected in Coastal High Hazard Areas

shall be supported on pilings or columns and adequately
anchored to such supports to resist collapse and lateral
movement from wind velocity and water pressures determined
in accordance with Sections 6.1 and 6.2. Spread footings
and fill shall not be used for structural support purposes.
Foundations must be designed to transfer safely to the
underlying soil all loads due to wind, water, dead load, live
load, and other loads (including uplift due to wind and water).
(NOTE: Foundation standards may require modification by the
local jurisdiction if unusual soil or rock conditions dictate the
use of special foundation systems.)
7.1
PILE FOUNDATION DESIGN
7.1.1 Pile Spacing

The design ratio of pile spacing to pile diameter shall not
be less than (8):1 for individual piles; however this would not
apply to pile clusters located below the design grade. The
maximum center-to-center spacing of wood piles shall not be
more than (12)* feet on center under load bearing sills, beams,
or girders.
7.1.2 Pile Embedment
Pilings shall have adequate soil penetration (bearing
capacity) to resist the combined wave and wind loads (lateral
and uplift) determined in accordance with Sections 6.1 and 6.2,
acting simultaneously with typical structure (live and dead)
loads, and shall include consideration of decreased resistance
capacity caused by erosion of soil
___________________
*Values given in parentheses are suggested, and subject to
local modification.
strata surrounding the piles. The minimum penetration for

foundation piles is to an elevation of (5) feet below mean sea
level (msl) datum if the BFE is +10 msl or less, or to at least (10)
feet below msl if the BFE is greater than +10 msl. Additional
guidance on pile embedment, including load/embedment
tables for different soil and pile types, is provided in the Coastal
Construction Manual.
7.1.3 Column Action
Pile foundation analysis shall also include consideration
of piles in column action from the bottom of the structure to the
stable soil elevation of the site. Pilings may be horizontally or
diagonally braced to withstand wind and water forces.
7.1.4 Pile Standards
The minimum acceptable sizes for timber piles are a tip
diameter of (8) inches for round timber piles and (8) by (8)
inches for square timber piles. All wood piles must be treated in
accordance with requirements of AWPA-C3 to minimize decay
and damage from fungus.
Reinforced concrete piles shall be cast of concrete
having a 28-day ultimate compressive strength of not less than
5,000 pounds per square inch, and shall be reinforced with a
minimum of four longitudinal steel bars having a combined
area of not less than 1 percent nor more than 4 percent of the
gross concrete area. Reinforcement for precast piles shall
have a concrete cover of not less than 1-1/4 inches for No. 5
bars and smaller and not less than 1-1/2 inches for No. 6
through No. 11 bars. Reinforcement for piles cast in the field
shall have a concrete cover of not less than 2 inches.

7.1.5 Pile Installation
7.2
Piles shall be driven by means of a pile driver or drop

hammer, jetted, or augered into place.
Masonry piers or poured-in-place concrete piers shall

be internally reinforced to resist vertical and lateral loads, and
be connected with a moment-resisting connection to a pile cap
or pile shaft. Additional guidance on pier construction is
provided in the Coastal Construction Manual.
7.1.6 Bracing
Additional support for piles in the form of bracing is often
required to resist horizontal forces. This bracing may include
lateral or diagonal bracing between piles.
Piles shall be braced at the ground line in both
directions by a wood timber grade beam, a reinforced concrete
grade beam, or a concrete slab deepened and reinforced at
the edges. These at-grade supports should be securely
attached to the piles to provide support even if scoured from
beneath.
Diagonal bracing between piles, consisting of 2-inch-by(8)-inch (minimum) members bolted to the piles, shall be
limited in location to below the lowest supporting structural
member and above the stable soil elevation, and in the vertical
plane along pile rows perpendicular to the shoreline.
Galvanized steel rods (minimum diameter (1/2) inch) or cable
type bracing is permitted in any plane.
Knee braces, which stiffen both the upper portion of a
pile and the beam-to-pile connection, may be used along pile
rows perpendicular and parallel to the shoreline. Knee braces
shall be 2-by-8 lumber bolted to the sides of the pile/beam, or
4-by-4 or larger braces framed into the pile/beam.
Bolting
shall consist of two (5/8)-inch galvanized steel bolts (each
end) for 2-by-8 members, or one (5/8)-inch lag bolt (each end)
for square members. Knee braces shall not extend more than 3
feet below the BFE.
8.
COLUMN FOUNDATION DESIGN
ANCHORING STANDARDS
All buildings and structures must have all components

adequately anchored and continuously connected from the
foundation to the roof, to prevent flotation, collapse, or
permanent lateral movement during the Base Flood
concurrent with the 100 year design wind velocity.
8.1
CONNECTORS AND FASTENERS
Galvanized metal connectors, wood connectors, or bolts

of size and number adequate for the calculated loads must be
used to connect adjoining components of a structure. Toe
nailing as a principal method of connection is not permitted. All
metal connectors and fasteners used in exposed locations
shall be steel, hot-dipped galvanized after fabrication.
Connectors in protected interior locations shall be fabricated
from galvanized sheet.
8.2
BEAM TO PILE CONNECTIONS
The primary floor beams or girders shall span the

supports in the direction parallel to the flow of potential;
floodwater and wave action and shall be fastened to the
columns or pilings by bolting, with or without cover plates.
Concrete members shall be connected by reinforcement, if cast
in place, or (if precast) shall be securely connected bolting or
welding. If sills, beams, or girders are attached to wood piling
at a notch, a minimum of two (5/8)-inch galvanized steel bolts
or two hot-dipped galvanized straps

(3/16 inch by 4 inches by 18 inches) each bolted with two (1/2)inch lag bolts per beam member, shall be used. Notching of
pile tops shall be the minimum sufficient to provide ledge
support for beam members without unduly weakening pile
connections. Piling shall not be notched so that the cross
section is reduced below 50 percent.
galvanized steel rods (1/2-inch diameter) or galvanized steel

straps not less than I inch wide by 1/16 inch thick may be used
to connect from the top wall plate to the sill, beam, or girder.
Washers with a minimum diameter of 3 inches shall be used at
each end of the 1/2-inch round rods. These anchors shall be
installed no more than (2) feet from each corner rod, no more
than (4) feet on center.
8.3 FLOOR AND DECK CONNECTIONS

8.5
Wood 2- by 4-inch (minimum) connectors or metal joist
anchors shall be used to tie floor joists to floor beams/girders.
These should be installed on alternate floor joists, at a
minimum. Cross bridging of all floor joists shall be provided.
Such cross bridging may be 1- by (3)-inch members, placed 8feet-on-center maximum, or solid bridging of same depth as
joist at same spacing.
Plywood should be used for subflooring and attic
flooring to provide good torsional resistance in the horizontal
plane of the structure. The plywood should not be less than
(3/4)-inch total thickness, and should be exterior grade and
fastened to beams or joists with 8d annular or spiral thread
galvanized nails. Such fastening shall be supplemented by
the application of waterproof industrial adhesive applied to all
bearing surfaces.
8.4
EXTERIOR WALL CONNECTIONS
All bottom plates shall have any required breaks under a

wall stud or an anchor bolt. Approved anchors will be used to
secure rafters or joists and top and bottom plates to studs in
exterior and bearing walls to form a continuous tie. Continuous
15/32-inch or thicker plywood sheathing-overlapping the top
wall plate and continuing down to the sill, beam, or girder--may
be used to provide the continuous tie. If the sheets of plywood
are not vertically continuous, then 2-by-4 nailer blocking shall
be provided at all horizontal joints. In lieu of the plywood,
CEILING JOIST/RAFTER CONNECTIONS
All ceiling joists or rafters shall be installed in such a

manner that the joists provide a continuous tie across the
rafters. Ceiling joists and rafters shall be securely fastened at
their intersections. A metal or wood connector shall be used at
alternate ceiling joist/rafter connections to the wall top plate.
Gable roofs shall be additionally stabilized by installing
2-by-4 blocking on 2-foot centers between the rafters at each
gable end. Blocking shall be installed a minimum of 8 feet
toward the house interior from each gable end.
8.6 PROJECTING MEMBERS
All cantilevers and other projecting members must be
adequately supported and braced to withstand wind and water
uplift forces. Roof eave overhangs shall be limited to a
maximum of 2 feet and joist overhangs to a maximum of 1 foot.
Larger overhangs and porches will be permitted if designed or
reviewed by a registered professional engineer or architect
and certified in accordance with Section 13 of this Code.
9.
ROOF SHEATHING
Plywood, or other wood material, when used as roof sheathing,

shall not be less than (15/32) inch in thickness,

and shall be of exterior sheathing grade or equivalent. Such
sheathing shall be fastened to rafter or truss assemblies in the
manner required by the (applicable) Building code. All
attaching devices for sheathing and roof coverings shall be
galvanized or be of other suitable corrosion resistant material.
wind and water loads associated with the base flood without
causing collapse, displacement, or other structural damage to
the elevated portion of the building or supporting foundation.
Enclosed space may be used solely for vehicular parking and
for building access (stairs, stairwells, and elevator shafts).
All corners, gable ends, and roof overhangs exceeding

(6) inches shall be reinforced by the application of waterproof
industrial adhesive applied to all bearing surfaces of any
plywood sheet used in the sheathing of such corner, gable
end, or roof overhang.
11.1
In addition, roofs should be sloped as steeply as

practicable to reduce uplift pressures, and special care should
be used in securing ridges, hips, valleys, eaves, vents,
chimneys, and other points of discontinuity in the roofing
surface.
10.
PROTECTION OF OPENINGS
All exterior glass panels, windows, and doors shall be

designed, detailed, and constructed to withstand loads due to
the design wind speed of (specify) mph. Connections for these
elements must be designed to transfer safely the design loads
to the supporting structure. Panel widths of multiple panel
sliding glass doors shall not exceed 3 feet. Storm shutters or
other types of protective panels are recommended for
additional protection of openings.
11.
USE OF SPACE BELOW THE LOWEST ELEVATED
FLOOR
All new construction and substantial improvements
within the Coastal High Hazard Zone must have the space
below the lowest floor either free of obstruction or constructed
with nonsupporting breakaway walls, open wooden lattice
work, or insect screening intended to fail under
BREAKAWAY WALL DESIGN STANDARDS
The breakaway wall shall have a design safe loading

resistance of not less than (specify) and not more than (specify,
but not more than 20) pounds per square foot, with the criterion
that the safety of the overall structure at the point of wall failure
be confirmed using established procedures. Grade beams
shall be installed in both directions for all piles considered to
carry the breakaway wall load. Knee braces are required for
front row piles that support breakaway walls. (NOTE: Loading
strengths may be governed by code requirements for minimum
design wind velocity pressures. Use of a 10 PSF value is
generally recommended since it would allow for wall failure
only under hurricane (greater than 75 mph) wind speed
conditions.)
11.2
CERTIFICATION OF BREAKAWAY WALLS
Breakaway wall strengths above 20 PSF are not generally recommended for detached or low rise residential
construction. However, in those cases where such wall
strengths are to be considered the following criteria should be
used.
Use of breakaway wall strengths in excess of 20 PSF
shall not be permitted unless a registered professional
engineer or architect has developed or reviewed the structural
design and specifications for the building foundation and
breakaway wall components, and certifies that (1) the
breakaway walls will fail under water loads less than those that
would occur during the base flood; and (2) the elevated

portion of the building and supporting foundation system will
not be subject to collapse, displacement, or other structural
damage due to the effects of wind and water loads (both
having a 100 year mean recurrence interval) acting
simultaneously on all building components.
engineer or architect, and shall be accompanied by a

statement, bearing the signature of the architect or engineer,
certifying that the design and methods of construction to be
used are in accordance with accepted standards of practice
and with all applicable provisions of this Code.
12.
14.
UTILITIES
All machinery and equipment servicing the building must be

elevated to or above the BEE, including heating, ventilating,
and air conditioning equipment, hot water heaters, appliances,
elevator lift machinery, and electrical junction and circuit
breaker boxes. Sanitary sewer and storm drainage systems
that have openings below the BFE shall be provided with
automatic backflow valves or other automatic backflow devices
that are installed in each discharge line passing through a
building exterior wall.
13.
CERTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS
For all new and substantial improvements to residential

structures in the Coastal High Hazard Area, building permit
applications shall be accompanied by design plans and
specifications, prepared in sufficient detail to enable
independent review of the foundation support and connection
components to be used in meeting Sections 7 and 8 of this
Code. Said plans and specifications shall be developed or
reviewed by a registered professional
REFERENCE DOCUMENTS
Standard reference documents for use with this Code in

determining design wind and water forces on structures are:
Wind --American National Standards Institute, Inc., Minimum
Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ANSI
A58.1 - 1982 (New York, 1982).
Water--Waterways Experiment Station, Shore Protection
Manual, two volumes, Department of the Army, Corps of
Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center
(1984).
Guidance on the application of information from the above
reference documents, together with other design data and
procedures, is provided in:
Coastal
Federal
Emergency
Management
Agency,
Construction Manual (Washington, D.C., 1986).
Individuals Contacted During Study H-1
Appendix H
INDIVIDUALS CONTACTED
DURING STUDY
Aultman, James (Aultman Construction, Key West, Florida)
(1)
Contacted during preparation of First Edition, 1981.
(2)
Contacted during preparation of Second Edition, 1986.
Benson, John (David A. Crane Partners/DACP, Inc., Boston,

Massachusetts) (1)
Baily, Brenden (Federal Disaster Assistance Administration,

Region I, Boston, Massachusetts) (1)
(1,2) Contacted during preparation of both 1981 and 1986

editions.
Ainslie, Richard, AIA (Houston, Texas) (1)

Aiu, Boniface (Chief, Honolulu Fire Department, Honolulu,
Hawaii) (1)
of Insurance,
Anderson, Max (Building Department, Sanibel Island, Florida)

(2)
Aspinwall, Jerry (Building Director, Monroe County, Florida)
(2)
Atkinson,
Donald
Massachusetts) (1)
(Building
Inspector,
Inspector,
Galveston,
Bohn, John (Administrator, Oahu Civil Defense Agency,

Honolulu, Hawaii) (I)
Adler, Harold, AIA (Charleston, South Carolina) (1)
Allread, Jess (North Carolina Department

Engineering Division) (2)
Blackledge, Ben (County Building

Texas)(1)
Bratlin, George (Technical Director, State Building Code

Commission, Boston, Massachusetts) (1)
Bretshneider, Charles L., Ph.D. (University of Hawaii,
Department of Ocean Engineering, Honolulu, Hawaii;
Tsunami Technical Advisory Committee) (1)
Cahill, John C., AIA (John C. Cahill Associates, Inc.,
Washington, D.C.) (1)
Camara, L. (Honolulu Fire Department, Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Cameron, Lyle (Cameron Construction, Key West, Florida) (2)
Rockport,
Cantrell, Ralph (North Carolina Office of Coastal Management,

Dare County, North Carolina) (1)
Atwood, Clayton (Sea Pines Corporation, Land Development

Division, Hilton Head, South Carolina) (1)
Carmichael, Thad (Director, Building Division, New Hanover

County, North Carolina) (1)
H-2 Coastal Construction Manual

Cassell, Robert D., Jr. (FEMA Region IV, Atlanta, Georgia) (1)
Donald, W.M. (Building Inspector, Isle of Palms, South

Carolina) (1)
Chamberlain, John (Builder, Pensacola, Florida) (1)

Chan, John, S.E. (Consulting Structural Engineer, Van Nuys,
California) (1)
Doyel, Carol (Federal Insurance Administration, Region IV,

Atlanta, Georgia) (1)
Chun, K.K. Calvin (Executive Director, Council of Housing and

Construction Industry, Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Duane, David B. (U.S. Department of Commerce, National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Sea
Grant, Gaithersburg, Maryland) (1)
Collins, Ian J., Ph.D., P.E. (Vice President and Chief Engineer,
Tetra Tech, Inc., Pasadena, California) (1)
Eberly, John (U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic

and Atmospheric Administration, Rockville, Maryland) (I)
Colville, Richard (Architect, Monroe County, Florida) (2)
Fau, Charles (AM FAC Committees) (1)
Cox, Doak C., Ph.D. (Director, University of Hawaii, Environmental

Center,
Honolulu,
Hawaii;
Tsunami
Technical Advisory Committee) (1)
Feinman, David (Builder, Sand & Sea Properties, Galveston,

Texas) (1,2)
Craven, John (University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)

Davis, Bill (Building Inspector, Panama City, Florida) (1)
Davis, Emery (Building Inspector, Gulfport, Mississippi) (1)
DeMary, Henry (Chief Building Inspector, Galveston, Texas)
(1)
DeMenthe, Larry (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New Orleans,
Louisiana) (1)
Deverall, Mr. and Mrs. Alex (Homeowners, Orange County,
California) (1)
Dobson, Bill (Building Inspector, Marshfield, Massachusetts)
(1)
Ferragamo,
Stanley
Massachusetts) (1)
(Building
Inspector,
Revere,
Foster, Norman (Director of Inspection Services, City of Mobile,

Alabama) (1)
Frank, Neil (U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration, Hurricane Disaster Center,
Miami, Florida) (1)
Gariss, Howard (Architect, Ligon B. Flynn Architect AIA,
Wilmington, North Carolina) (2)
Goforth, George (Defense Civil
Preparedness Agency,
Grabiel, Paul (Building Inspector, Galveston, Texas) (1)

Graves, Bill, AIA (Pensacola, Florida) (1)
Gregory, Walter (Building Inspector, Dare County, North
Carolina) (1)
Higa, Jinji (City and County of Honolulu, Building Safety

Division, Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Hirota, Dennis (Sam 0. Hirota, Inc., Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Grooms, Robert (City Administrator, Folly Beach, South

Carolina) (1)
Holmes, Dwight (Architect, Rowe Holmes Barnett Architects,

Inc., Tampa, Florida) (2)
Gross, Jim (U.S. Department of Commerce, National Bureau

of Standards, Codes Office, Gaithersburg, Maryland) (1)
Huggins, Dub (Building Inspector, City of North Myrtle Beach,

South Carolina) (2)
Guscio, Frank (Sea Pines Corporation, Architectural Review

Board, Hilton Head, South Carolina) (1)
Hughes, John (Delaware Department of Natural Resources,

Soil and Water Conservation Service, Beach Preservation
Section, Dover, Delaware) (1)
Hale, John (County Engineer for Coastal Problems, Los

Angeles, California) (1)
Hanna, James (Architect, Maryland Housing Office) (I)
Hansford, Don (Federal Insurance Administration, Region IV,
Haralson, James (Building Inspector, Georgetown County,
South Carolina) (1)
Harris, Bill (Federal Insurance Administration, Region IV,
Hunter, Robert J. (Federal

Washington, D.C) (1)
Insurance
Administration,
Indler, EIvan (Electronic Data Systems, Rockville, Maryland)(1)

Ivey, John (Federal Insurance Administration, Region VI,
Dallas, Texas) (1)
Jacobs, Paul (U.S. Department of Commerce, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Weather
Service, Silver Spring, Maryland) (1)
Harris, Mike (County Engineer, Galveston County, Texas) (1)
Johnson, Ray (Gay and Taylor, Insurance Adjustors, Myrtle

Beach, South Carolina) (2)
Henry, Robert (Delaware Department of Natural Resources,

Soil and Water Conservation Service, Beach Preservation
Section, Dover, Delaware) (1)
Johnston, Henry (Johnston Architects, Wilmington,

Carolina) (2)
Hickman, Raymond J. (Hickman Real

Beach, Delaware) (1)
Estate, Bethany K
North
Jones, Chris (Coastal Engineer, Florida Sea Grant Extension

Program, Gainesville, Florida) (2)
Keith, John, P.E. (Consulting Engineer, Galveston, Texas) (1)

Kimura, George, P.E. (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Pacific
Ocean Division, Flood Plain Management Section,
Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Kirkpatrick, Sally (Legislative Assistant, American Insurance
Association, Washington, D.C.) (1)
Leyendecker, E.P. (U.S. Department of Commerce, National

Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, Maryland) (1)
Loomis, Harold, Ph.D. (U.S. Department of Commerce,
National
Oceanic
and
Atmospheric
Administration/University of Hawaii, Joint Tsunami
Research Effort, Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Kittridge, David (Private Consultant, Miami, Florida) (1, 2)

Lopez, A. (Honolulu Fire Department, Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Kopacka, Bill (Planning Director, Charleston County, South
Carolina) (1)
Marks, Jim (Private Consultant, Miami, Florida) (I)
Krahl, Nat, Ph.D. (Consulting Engineer, Nat Krahl and

Associates, Houston, Texas) (1)
Mason, Rick (Federal Insurance Administration, Region IV,

Kugler, John (Building Inspector, Gulf Shores, Alabama) (1)
McBeth, Robert (FEMA Region IV, Atlanta, Georgia) (2)
Lakey, Mr. (Building Inspector, Folly Beach, South Carolina)

(1)
McDonald, Allen (Building Inspector, Quincy, Massachusetts)

(1)
Lash, Doug (Federal Insurance Administration, Washington,

D.C.) (1)
McLeod, Mr. (Builder, Galveston, Texas) (1)

Mercom, John (Consulting Engineer,
Associates, Houston, Texas) (1)
Latimer, Mr. (Builder, Galveston, Texas) (I)

Lee, Edgar (Tsunami
Technical
Advisory
Committee,
Lee, Jake, AIA (Lee and Partners, Hilton Head, South

Carolina) (1)
Lewin, Kermit (Chairman, Planning Board, Monroe County,
Florida) (1)
Lewis, Lynwood (Building Inspector, Mobile County, Alabama)
(1)
Nat
Krahl
and
Meredith, Burgess (Homeowner, Malibu Beach, California) (1)

Merli, Kevin (Federal Insurance Administration, Region I,
Boston, Massachusetts) (1)
Mieremet, Ben (Hazards Coordinator, Coastal Management
Division, NOAA, Washington, DC) (2)
Miller, Crane (Scheaffer & Roland, Consulting Engineers,
Chevy Chase, Maryland) (I)

Miller, Mike (Zoning Administrator, Sarasota County, Florida)
(2)
Nielson, Susan (County Building Inspector, Galveston, Texas)

(1)
Miller, Paul, AIA (Lee and Partners, Architects, Hilton Head,

South Carolina) (I)
Onufer, Andrea (Assistant Building Director, City of Clearwater,

Florida) (2)
Minor, Joseph (Director, Institute for Disaster Research, Texas

Tech University, Lubbock, Texas) (2)
Palmeiri, Peter (Schoenfield Associates,

Massachusetts) (1)
Mixon, Charles (City Engineer, Tarpon Springs, Florida) (2)
Patrick, George (Defense Civil Preparedness Agency, Region

I, Boston, Massachusetts) (1)
Montgomery, Harry (Builder, Galveston, Texas) (1)

Moore, Robert B. (Assistant Administrator, Oahu Civil Defense
Agency, Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Morelli, Ugo (Federal Disaster Assistance Administration,
Munn, Chuck (Fripp Island Development
Beaufort County, South Carolina) (1)
Corporation,
Muraoka, Arthur (Department of Land Utilization, City and

County of Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Muraoka, Herbert (Chief of Building Safety, City and County of
Myers, Dalton (Building Inspector, Georgetown County, South
Carolina) (1)
Myers, Vance, Ph.D. (U.S. Department of Commerce,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
Nesbitt, John (Director of Public Works, Wrightsville Beach,
North Carolina) (2)
Inc.,
Boston,
Patterson, James C. (Sea Scaping Construction Company,

Destin, Florida) (1)
Peoples, Bryon (Building Official, Pensacola, Florida) (1)
Perry, John (Commonwealth of Massachusetts, State
Disaster Recovery Team, Boston, Massachusetts) (1)
Peteet, Frank, AIA (Inspection
County, South Carolina) (I)
Department,
Georgetown
Peterson, Dale (Federal Insurance Administration, Region

IX, San Francisco, California) (1)
Phippen, George (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal
Engineering Research Center, Washington, D.C.) (1)
Raban, Truitt (Landscape Architect, Edward Pinchney, Hilton
Head, South Carolina) (1)
Ragin, Donald (State of Texas, Division of Water Resources)
(2)
Ray, Glenn (Builder, Grayson Enterprises, WrightsviIle Beach,
North Carolina) (2)

Rice, Derwood (Building Inspector, Craven County, North
Carolina) (1)
Sims, James (Professor of Civil

University, Houston, Texas) (1)
Richardson, Bill (Anderson-Nichols & Co., Inc., Boston,

Massachusetts; Scituate Conservation Commission) (1)
Smith, Jim (Federal Insurance Administration, Region IV,

Rogers, Spencer M., Jr. (Department of Civil Engineering,

North Carolina State University and UNC Sea Grant,
Marine Advisory Services, Kure Beach, North Carolina)
(2)
Smith, Louis (Oahu Civil Defense Agency, Honolulu, Hawaii)

(1)
Rowland, Bill (Homeowner and Builder,

California) (1)
Malibu Beach,
Engineering,
Rice
Sparks, Peter R. (Assoc. Professor of Civil Engineering and

Engineering Mechanics, Clemson University, Clemson,
South Carolina) (2)
Spears, R.E. (Building Official, Galveston, Texas) (1)
Russell, Joe (Federal Disaster Assistance Administration,

Saconas, Edward S. (Developer, Hitchcock, Texas) (1)
Sandifer, Tony (Building Official, Santa
Authority, Pensacola Beach, Florida) (1)
Selder, Mr. (Building
Carolina) (1)
Inspector,
Edisto
Standley, David (Commissioner, Massachusetts Department of

Environmental
Quality
Engineering,
Cambridge,
Massachusetts) (1)
Rosa
Island
Stewart, Paul (Assistant Building Director, Lee County, Florida)

(2)
Beach,
South
Stluka, Willard J. (Chairman, Tsunami Technical Advisory

Committee, Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Sharp, Dr. (University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida) (1)
Stone, Bill (Building Inspector, Scituate, Massachusetts) (1)
Sheffer, James M. (General Manager, Santa Rosa Island

Authority, Pensacola Beach, Florida) (1)
Sullivan, Mr. (Builder, Galveston, Texas) (1)

Teagle, C.R. (Builder, Pensacola, Florida) (1)
Shima, Howard M. (Chairman, Tsunami Subcommittee,

Structural Engineering Association of Hawaii, Honolulu,
Hawaii) (1)
Teale, Sandy (Building Inspector, Beaufort County, South

Carolina) (I)
Shumpert, Horace
Florida) (1,2)
Thomas, Edward A. (Federal Insurance Administration

Regional Director, Region I, Boston, Massachusetts) (1)
(Consulting
Engineer,
Pensacola,

Thompson, Jerry (Thompson Construction, Myrtle Beach,
South Carolina) (2)
White, Fred R., AIA (Architects Hawaii, Ltd., Honolulu, Hawaii;

Tsunami Technical Advisory Committee) (1)
Timely Corporation (San Antonio, Texas; Contact made with

builder) (1)
Wicks, Bill (Building Inspector, New Hanover County, North

Carolina) (1)
Tom, S. (Honolulu Fire Department, Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Wilcox, Ed (Building Inspector, Beaufort County, South

Carolina) (1)
Tubbs, Townsend (Builder, Bethany Beach, Delaware) (1)

Ushijima, Thomas M., P.E. (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
Pacific Ocean Division, Flood Plain Management
Coordinator, Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Weiss, David C., S.E. (Consulting Structural Engineer, Encino,
California) (1)
West, James (Mike Evans & Co., Bethany Beach, Delaware)
(2)
Woodward, Glenn (Federal

Insurance
Administration,
Regional Director, Region IV, Atlanta, Georgia) (1)
Yuasa, Ernest T. (Hawaiian Telephone Company, Honolulu,
Hawaii; Tsunami Technical Advisory Committee) (1)
Zensinger,
Larry
(Federal
Insurance
Administration,
Bibliography I-1
Appendix I
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alpeirn, Lynn M., Custodians of the Coast: History of the United
States Army Engineers at Galveston (U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, Galveston District; 1977).
The American Institute of Architects Foundation, Elevated
Residential Structures, prepared for Federal Emergency
Management Agency, FEMA 54 (1984).
American Institute of Timber Construction, Timber Construction
Manual, Second Edition (John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1974).
American Insurance Association, Catastrophe Loss History
Coastal Areas Delaware and New Jersey (Property Claim
Service, May 12, 1970).
American National Standards Institute, Building Code
Requirements for Minimum Design Loads in Buildings and
Other Structures, ANSI A58.1 - 1972 (New York, 1972).
American National Standards Institute, Inc., Minimum Design
Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ANSI A58.1-1982
(New York, 1982).
American Plywood Association, Plywood Construction Guide
(published annually).
American
Wood-Preservers'
Association,
All Timber
Products--Preservative Treatment by Pressure Processes ,
Standard No. C1-84 (Stevensville, Maryland; 1984).
American Wood Preservers Institute, FHA Pole Construction

(McLean, Virginia; 1975).
Anderson, L.O., and Walton R. Smith, Houses Can Resist
Hurricanes, U.S. Forest Service Research Paper FPL 33,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service (Forest
Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin; August 1965).
Bretschneider, Charles, and Peter G. Wybro, Inundations and
Forces Caused by Tsunamis for the State of Hawaii,
Technical Supplement No. 5 to the Hawaii Coastal Zone
Management Program (1978).
Building Officials & Code Administrators International, Inc., The
BOCA Basic National Building Code/1984 , Ninth Edition.
Building Officials and Code Administrators International, Inc.,
The BOCA Basic Building Code/1978; Model Building
Regulations for the Protection of Public Health, Safety and
Welfare , Seventh Edition (1978).
Burdin, Walter W., "Surge Effects from Hurricane Eloise," Shore
and Beach , Vol. 45, No. 2 (American Shore and Beach
Preservation Association, April 1977).
Chen, Michael,
Tsunami Propagation in Response to
Coastal Areas , Publication No. HIG 73-15 (University of
Hawaii, Hawaii Institute of Geophysics; 1973).
Chiu, Arthur N. L., Luis E. Escalante, J. Kenneth Mitchell, Dale
C. Perry, Thomas A. Schroeder, and Todd Nalton,
Hurricane Iwa, Hawaii, November 23, 1982, Committee on
Natural Disasters, Commission on Engineering and
Technical Systems, National Research Council (National
Academy Press, Washington, D.C.; 1983).
I-2 Coastal Construction Manual

Collier, C.A., Building Construction on Shoreline Property: A
Checklist (Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Marine
Advisory Program).
Collier,
Courtland
A.,
"Bulkhead
and
Revetment
Effectiveness, Cost and Construction," 2nd Edition (State of
Florida, Department of Natural Resources; November 1976.
Collier, C.A., Construction Guidelines to Minimize Hurricane
Damage to Shore Area Homes , (Florida Department of
Natural Resources, November 1976).
Collier, Court land A., Kamran Eshaghi, George Cooper, and
Richard S. Wolfe, Guidelines for Beachfront Construction
with Special Reference to the Coastal Construction
Setback Line, Sea Grant Program Report No. 20, State
University System of Florida (sponsored by State of
Florida, Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of
Beaches and Shores; February 1977).
Cox, Doak and Joseph Morgan, Local Tsunamis and Possible
Local Tsunamis in Hawaii, Publication No. HIG-77-l4
(University of Hawaii, Hawaii Institute of Geophysics;
November 1977).
Defense Civil Preparedness Agency, Interior Guidelines for
Building Occupant Protection from Tornadoes and Extreme
Winds , Report TR-83A (U.S. Department of Defense, 1975).
Delaware Coastal Zone Management Program, Coastal
Storm Damage Report 1923-1974, Technical Report No. 4,
Document No. 1003-78-01-05 (September 1977).
Edge, W.L., J. S. Fisher, W. O. Connor, and S. Nnaji, "A

Supplement to the Southern Building Code for Hurricane
Protection," sponsored by The South Carolina Coastal
Council, Department of Civil Engineering Clemson
University, 1984).
Federal Emergency Management Agency, Elevating
Wave Crest Level, A Benefit: Cost Analysis 1980.
to the
Federal Emergency Management Agency, "National Flood

Insurance Program, Final Rule, 44 CFR Parts 59, 60, 61, 64,
66 70, 72, and 75," Federal Register, Vol. 50, No. 171
(September 4,1985).
Federal Insurance Administration, Guide for Ordinance
Development According to 1910.3(e) of the National Flood
Insurance
Program
Regulations,
HUD-481-5-FIA,
Community Assistance Series No. 1(e) (U.S. Department of
Housing and Urban Development, June 1978).
Federal Insurance Administration, Manual for the Construction
of Residential Basements in Non Coastal Flood Environs,
Contract No. H-3849 (1977).
Herbert, Paul J., "North Atlantic Tropical Cyclones, 1979,"
NOAAs Climatological Data, National Summary, Volume
32, Nos. 1-12, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration,
National
Hurricane Center, Miami
(National Climatic Center, Asheville, North Carolina; 1980).
Houston, James R., Robert D. Carver, and Dennis G. Markle,
Tsunami-Wave Elevation Frequency of Occurrence for
the Hawaiian Islands , Technical Report H-77- 16 (U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers, Pacific Ocean Division; August
1977).
Bibliography I-3
Institute
of
Behavioral
Science,
Natural
Hazard
Management in Coastal Areas , NTIS #PB-266 #015
(NOAA-Office of Coastal Zone Management, Colorado
University; November 1976).
International Conference of Building Officials, Uniform Building
Code Standards (Whittier, California; 1982).
King, C.A.M., Beaches and Coasts (St. Martin's Press, New
York; 1972).
King, Paul A., and Joseph Millison (eds), National Con struction
Estimator, 1985 , 33rd Edition (Craftsman Book Company,
Carlsbad, California).
Komar, P.D., Beach Processes
and
Sedimentation
(Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey; 1976).
Lawrence, Miles B., "North Atlantic Tropical Cyclones, 1978,"
NOAA's Climatological Data, National Summary, Volume
29, No. 13, National Hurricane Center, Miami (1978).
"Living with the Shore," book series--see Pilkey and Neal
(eds).
Loomis, Harold G., The Tsunami Wave Runup Heights in
Hawaii (NOAA/University of Hawaii, Joint Tsunami
Research Effort; May 1976).
Masonry Institute of America, Masonry Design Manual,
Publication 601 (Los Angeles, 1979).
McHarg, Ian, "Best Shore Protection: Nature's Own Dunes,"
Civil Engineering, Vol. 42, No. 9 (September 1972).
Robert Snow Means Company, Inc., Residential/Light

Commercial Cost Data, 1985, 4th Annual Edition Kingston,
Massachusetts; 1985).
Robert Snow Means Company, Inc., Building Construction
Cost Data, 1985, 43rd Annual Edition (Kingston,
Massachusetts; 1985).
National Climatic Data Center, Storm Data , Vol. 23, 24, and
25, No. 12, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (Asheville, North Carolina; December
1981,1982, and 1983).
Design
National
Forest Products Association, National
Specification for Wood Construction: Stru ctural Lumber,
Glued Laminated Timber, Timber Pilings, Fastenings,
(Washington, D.C.; 1982).
National Forest Products Association, Design Values for Wood
Construction (Supplement to the 1982 Edition of National
Design Specification for Wood Construction) (Washington,
D.C.; March 1982).
North Carolina
Building
Inspectors' Association, North
Carolina Uniform Residential Building Code, North Carolina
State Building Code Volume l-B--Residential, adopted by
North Carolina Building Code Council (1976).
Pararas-Carayannis,
George,
World
Data
Center--A
Tsunami: Catalog of Tsunamis in the Hawaiian Islands
(U.S. Department of Commerce, May 1969).
Patterson, Donald, Pole Building Design, Sixth Edition
American Wood-Preservers' Institute, 1969; reprinted
April 1981).
I-4 Coastal Construction Manual

Patterson, James C., "Construction Costs in Coastal High
Hazard
Areas,"
Coastal
Residential
Construction
Workshop , Federal Emergency Management Agency
(1984).
Pelissier, Joseph M., and Miles B. Lawrence, "North Atlantic
Tropical Cyclones, 1980," NOAA's Climatological Data,
National Summary (National Hurricane Center, Miami;
1980).
Pilkey, Orrin H., Jr., and William J. Neal, Series Editors, "Living
with the Shore" (book series) (Duke University Press,
Durham, North Carolina).
Pilkey, Orrin H., Sr., Walter D. Pilkey, Orrin H. Pilkey, Jr., and
William J. Neal, Coastal Design: A Guide for Builders,
Planners, and Home Owners (Van Nostrand Reinhold
Company Inc., 1983).
Rogers, Spencer M., Jr., "Wooden Wind Anchors far HurricaneResistant Construction Near the Ocean," Blue prints , UNC
Sea Grant, UNC-SG-BP-84-3 (Kure Beach, North Carolina;
1984).
Rogers, Spencer M., Jr., "Hurricane Diana: Impact on Coastal
Development," Proceedings of Coastal Zone '85, Vol. II,
American Society of Civil Engineers (New York, New York;
1985a).
Rogers, Spencer M., Jr., "Corrosion in Salt Air," Blueprints,
UNC Sea Grant, UNC-SG-BP-85-3 (Kure Beach, North
Carolina; 1985b).
Rogers, Spencer M., Jr., Peter R. Sparks, and Katharine M.
Sparks, "A Study of the Effectiveness of Building Legislation
in Improving the Wind Resistance of Residential Structures,"
Proceedings of the Fifth U.S. National Conference on Wind
Engineering, Texas
Tech University (Lubbock, Texas; November 6-8, 85).

Saffir, Herbert S., Design Construction Requirements for
Hurricane-Resistant Construction, American Society of Civil
Engineers Preprint 2830 (New York, 1977).
Saffir, Herbert S., "Hurricane Exposes Structural Flaws," Civil
Engineering, Vol. 41, No. 2 (February 1971).
Sherman, Zachary, "Tornado Design," AE Concepts in Wood
Design (January/February 1977).
Simpson, R. H., and M. B. Lawrence, "Atlantic Hurricane
Frequencies Along the
U.S. Coastline,"
Technical
Memorandum NWS TM SR-58 (NOAA, June 1971).
Southern Building Code Congress International,
Standard Building Code (1982 Edition).
Inc.,
Southern Forest Products Association, How to Build Storm

Resistant Structures, Publication No. 121 (New Orleans).
Structural Engineers Association of Hawaii, A Survey of Major
Structural Damage Caused by Hurricane Iwa, November
23, 1982 (Honolulu, May 1983).
Terrell, T. T., Physical Regionalization of Coastal Ecosystems
of the United States and its Territories , FWS/OBS-78/80,
U.S. Department of Interior, Fish, and Wildlife Service,
Coastal Ecosystems Project 1979)
Texas Coastal and Marine Council, Model Minimum Hurricane
Resistant Building Standards for the Texas Gulf Coast
(September 1976; Third Printing, June 1981).
Bibliography I-5
University of North Carolina, Sea Grant, Wood in Marine
Structures:
Proceedings of a Seminar, Sea Grant
Publication No. UNC-SG-77-12 (Sponsored by NOAA,
Office of Sea Grants, and North Carolina Department of
Administration (Kure Beach, North Carolina; September
1977).
U.S. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Low-Cost
Shore Protection--A Guide far Engineers and Contractors
(1981).
U.S. Department of the Army, Carps of Engineers, Low-Cast
Shore Protection--A Guide for Local Government Officials
(1981).
U.S. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Low-Cost
Shore Protection--A Property Owner's Guide (1981).
U.S. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Shore
Protection Manual (two volumes), Waterways Experiment
Station, Coastal Engineering Research Center (1984).
U.S. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Guidelines

for Identifying Coastal High Hazard Zones , Galveston
District (June 1975).
U.S. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Tsunami
Wave Elevation Frequency of Occurrence far the Hawaiian
Islands , Technical Report H-77-16, Pacific Ocean Division
(August 1977).
Walton, Todd L., Jr., Hurricane-Resistant Construction for
Homes , MAP- 16 (Florida Cooperative Extension ,Service
Marine Advisory Program, A Florida Sea Grant Publication;
reprinted and revised January 1983).
Walton, Todd L., Jr., and Thomas C. Skinner, Beach Dune
Walkover
Structures,
SUSF-SG-76-006
(Florida
Cooperative
Extension
Service,
Marine
Advisory
Program, A Florida Sea Grant Publication; December
1976).
Ward, D.B., Wind-Resistant Design Concepts for Residences,
Defense Civil Preparedness Agency, Report TR-83 (U.S.
Department of Defense, 1976).
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1986 620-214;40619

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Steel Sheet Piling Timber Piles Foundations Geotechnical

Coastal Construction Manual

Federal Emergency Management Agency

FEMA-55/ February, 1986

Design guidance for breakaway wall enclosures

Revision of the design procedures to reflect the 1982 ANSI

A chapter on larger structures (mid-rise and high-rise

A sample construction code for coastal areas

PURPOSE AND SCOPE

NATIONAL FLOOD INSURANCE PROGRAM

Flood Plain Management

CHAPTER 2: COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

NORTH ATLANTIC COAST

MIDDLE ATLANTIC COAST

SOUTH ATLANTIC COAST

vi Coastal Construction Manual

CHAPTER 3: SITE DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS

BUILDING CODE AND ZONING REQUIREMENTS

CHAPTER 4: STRUCTURE DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS

Salt Air, Moisture, and Wind-Driven Rain

Water, Waves, and Debris

Effects of Forces on Higher and Larger Structures

Main Supporting Members (Beams)

Other Wood Construction Members

Masonry Materials and Concrete

Table of Contents vii

Joists and Rafters

Wall to Floor Joists

Floor Joist to Floor Beam

Floor Beam to Pile, Post, or Pier

viii Coastal Construction Manual

4.3.5 Breakaway Walls

Breakaway Wall Designs

Design Considerations for Breakaway Walls

4.3.7 Wind and Storm Protection of Interior

Gable and Eave Vents

GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

EXTERIOR WALL SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 6: DESIGN PROCEDURES AND EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1--ELEVATION ON WOOD PILINGS

EXAMPLE 2--BRACING REQUIRED

EXAMPLE 3--BREAKAWAY WALLS

APPENDIX C: DESIGN WORKSHEETS

PILE DESIGN WORKSHEET

CONNECTION DESIGN WORKSHEET

BRACING DESIGN WORKSHEET

APPENDIX D: DESIGN EQUATIONS AND PROCEDURES

PROCEDURE A-1: DOWNWARD LOADS PER PILE

PROCEDURE A-2: HORIZONTAL WIND LOADS PER PILE

PROCEDURE A-3: MINIMUM EMBEDMENT DEPTH OF PILES

Square Piles in Sand

Square Piles in Clay

D.3.2 Round Tapered Piles

Round Piles in Sand

Round Piles in Clay

x Coastal Construction Manual

PROCEDURE A-4: MAXIMUM UNBRACED HEIGHT OF PILES

Moment of Wave Forces

Moment of Current Drag Forces