Unit 1

PART B
1.

Discuss in detail the various equipments used in HVDC converter station

[Nov/Dec2010] (16 Marks)

Alternator (A.C Generator): It is a device which converts mechanical energy into

electrical energy (Alternating Current).
Convertor transformer at the sending end: It is used to side step-up the generated
A.C voltage at receiving end, it steps down the HVAC into distribution voltage
Surge Arrester: It is a Protective device, used to protect the equipments during
lightning.
Rectifier: In sending end converter station, rectifier converts high voltage A.C into
high voltage direct current (HVDC). Rectifier at receiving end is called inverter.
Filter: Both A.C and D.C Harmonics are injected into the A.C system and D.C
harmonics are injected into the D.C line. These harmonics are minimized by using
A.C and D.C filters.
Shunt Capacitors: To maintain the voltage at the receiving end, shunt capacitors
are used.
2. An overhead line has a span of 336.The line is supported at a water crossing from
two towers whose heights are 33.6m and 29m. 8.33 N/m and tension in the
conductor is not to exceed 3.34 x 1.4 N. find.
i.

Clearance between the lowest paint on the conductor and water.

ii.

Horizontal distance of this point from the lower support. (16 marks)
(Nov/Dec 2010).

Th

WL

X1=

X2 = L x1 = 336 113.1065

i. Clearance between the lowest point on the conductor and water is,
= Height of A S1
ii. Horizontal distance of the point o,
From tower A = x1
From tower B = x2
3. i) What are the various types of HVDC links explain them in detail. (Nov/Dec 2011)
(April/May 2010) (10 Marks)
HVDC links can be classified into three categories:
- Monopolar,
- Bipolar, and
- Homopolar.
Monopolar:
-

Monopolar lines have only one conductor normally operated at negative polarity
to reduce the corona loss.
Here earth is used as a return path

Bipolar:
-

In a bipolar type of links, two conductors (poles) are needed.

One pole operates at negative polarity and the other operates at positive polarity
The main advantages of bipolar links compared to monopolor links is that it can
be operated as single monopolar in the case of fault in any line.

Homopolar:
-

Homopolar lines have two or more conductors having the same polarity.
Normally negative polarities are used due to less corona loss and radio
interference. Ground is always used as return path

ii) Explain the principle of operation of Compensators used for voltage control
(Nov/Dec) (6) 2011)
Shunt capacitor:-

Shunt Capacitor banks are used to supply reactive power at both

transmission and distribution levels.
They are either directly connected to a bus bar or to the tertiary winding of a
main transformer. They may be switched on or Off depending on the loads.

Advantages :Low cost

Better Power factor
Voltage can be controlled easily.
Draw back:If the voltage dip on the bus then the reactive power (or) voltage profile supplied by
static capacitors will decrease (X..>V2)

4) i) Explain the advantages of HVDC transmission (10 marks) (nov /Dec2012) (may
/June 2013 ) (April/May 2010)
Advantages of HVDC transmission:1. These systems are economical for bulk transmission of power for long distances
as the cost of conductor reduces since d.c. system requires only two conductors
or even one if ground is used as return. Similarly the cost of supporting towers
and insulation is also reduced. Also the transmission losses are reduced.
2. There are no stability problems with d.c system. Hence a synchronous operation
of transmission in K is possible.
3. Greater power transmission per conductor is possible wit d.c. system
4. There are no serious problems of voltage regulation as there is no reactance drop
that enlists in d.c at steady state
5. The corona loss is low in d.c systems . The radio interference with HVDC is
less.
6. The losses are less in transmission with d.c
7. With HVDC link there is easy reversibility and controllability of power flow.
8. Shunt compensation is not required in d.c. lines.
9. Intermediate Substations are not require with HVDC transmission
10. The transient stability of the power system can be improved by making parallel
connection of HVAC and HVDC lines.
5. Derive an expression for sag of a line supported between two supports of
the same height. (16 marks) (nov/Dec 2012)
Consider a conductor supported by the support A and B which are located at
same level.

Let L = length of Span in meters

W= Weight per unit length of the conductor in Kg/m.\
T = Tension in the Conductor in Kg
consider a point P on the conductor and let point o is origin.
The length of Span L is large compared to Sags hence the shape of conductor
takes the form of parabola.
Let L = Half Span length = L/2
W
L2 4 X 2

Sag at P
8T

6. Draw and explain the structure of electric power (i) system in detail.
(May/June2013)(May/June2012)
-

Electric power system consists of power station, transmission line and

distribution system.

Transmission line forms the connecting link between the power station and the
distribution system.

Distribution system connects all the individual loads in a given locating to the
transmission lines.

Distribution substation uses step-down transformer for stepping down the

voltage to 400VC 11kv/0.4kv transformer 400V-line voltage, 230V-phase
voltage).

Distributor supply power to various consumers.

7. i) Make a comparison between EHVAC and HVDC based on economics (may/June

2012) (8marks)
Economics of power transmission:The cost of transmission line include the investment cost of right of way, transmission
towers, conductors insulators, terminal equipments and the operational cost of losses.

S.No HVDC

1.

EHVAC

For line designs for same insulation level it can carry

It can carry as much power

more power with two conductors (Positive and

with three conductors of the

negative)

same size.

For a given power level, it requires less right of way,

For a given power level, cost

cheaper towers, reduced conductor costs

of towers, conductor are high

Cable insulation required is less

Cable insulation required is

more

Power losses are reduced because of two conductors

Power losses are in creased

Operational cost reduces.

because of three conductors

operational cost increases

Absence of skin effect reduces power losses, thereby

Due to skin effect, power

operational cost reduces

losses increase, thereby

operational cost increase.

Dielectric losses in the power cables is less

Dielectric losses in high

Corona loss and radio interference is less compared

Corona loss & radio

to that of A.C this leads to the choice of economic

interference is high.

size of conductors for D.C

Operational cost is increases

Do not require compensation

Cost for comoensating

devices are high

10

Terminal equipment cost is high due to the presence

Terminal equipments cost is

of filters/

low.

Maintenance cost is high.

Maintenance cost is low

ii) Explain about static VAR compensator (SVC) (8 marks) May/June 2012
-

In SVC, thyristors without gate turn off capacity are used. It is a shunt connected
static VAR compensator generator or absorber.

The output of SVC is adjusted to control capacitive or inductive current in order

to control or maintain certain parameters, normally magnitude of bus voltage of
the power systems.

Unit 2
PART-B
1. A 3 phase 3 wire over head line consists of 2.5 diameter conductors in
horizontal configuration. The line is supplying a balanced load
i] Find the inductance of each phase conductor /Km length ,
ii] Why is the inductance of the 3 phases different?
iii] What is the significance of imaginary terms in the expression? Assume that
the line is not transposed. Interphone spacing is 3m.
[Apr/May 2012][16 marks]

I]
-7

La

2 x 10 [Ia ln 1/R + I6 In 1/Dab + Ic In 1/Dac ]

ii] The line is not transposed. The relative position of each conductor with respect to
the other two is different. The flux linkages of each conductor are due to
currents in all the three conductors. Therefore, the flux linkages of each
conductor are different. Therefore the inductance of three lines is different.
iii] Since the flux linkages are different, the inductive voltage drop in each is
different. The inductive voltage drop in each phase does not lead the current in
o

that phase by 90 , but by an angle which is either slightly less or more than 90 .
This leads to imaginary terms in the expression for inductances and the
inductive voltage drop.

2.Derive an expression for capacitance of a 3 phase transmission line with

usymmetrical spacing[Apr/May 2010][Nov/Dec02012][16 marks]

Can = qan/ Van = 2 / In [Deq/r] F/m

3. Derive the expression for inductance of three line with unsymmetrical
spacing.

[Nov/Dec 2010 [16 marks]

Flux linkages of conductor a is given by

-7

La = 2x10 [Ia ln1/r + Ib ln 1/Dab + Ic In 1/Dca]

Induction of conductor a ,
La = a/Ia = 2 x10-7 [(1/Ia) ln 1/r +( Ib/Ia )ln 1/Dab +( Ic/Ia )ln 1/Dca]

4. A 220KV, 50HZ, 200Km long three phase line has its conductors on the
corners of a triangle with sides 6m,6m and 12m. The conductor radius is 1.81
cm. Find the capacitance per phase per Km, capacitive reactance per phase,
charging current, and total charging Mega-volt amperes.
[Nov/Dec 2010][16 marks]

Can = qan/Van = 2/ln[Deq/r] F/m

Deg = 3

D12 D23 D31

Capacitive reactance per phase,

Xc = 1/ 2fc
Charging current,
Ic = Vph/Xc
5. Find the inductance per phase per km of double circuit 3 phase line shown
in figure . The line is completely transposed and operates at a frequency of
50HZ,

[Nov/Dec 2011][ [16 marks]

GMR = 0.7788r
Self GMD = Ds = 3DS1 x DS2 x DS3
Mutual GMD,= Dm = 3DAB x DBC x DCA
-7

Inductance / phase/m = 10 x 2 loge [Dm/Ds ]

6. i) Derive the expression for the voltage induced in communication lines

due to the current in power lines

[Nov/Dec 2011][8 Marks]

The inductance of this loop is given by,

-7

LAD = 2 x 10 ln [D1/r] H/m.

The inductance of the loop AE is given by,
-7

LAE = 2 x 10 ln [D2/r] H/m

The mutual inductance between conductor A and the loop DE is given by,
-7

MA = LAE LAD = 2 x 10 [ ln [D2/r] ln [D1/r]

The net effect of the magnetic field will be,
M = MA + MB + MC

V = 2 f I M volts /m.
ii] Explain the various factors affecting the corona loss

[ Nov/Dec 2011][8 marks]

The various factors affecting Corona and Corona loss are,

-

Electrical Factors

Line Voltage

Atmospheric Conditions

Size of the conductor

Surface conditions

Number of conductors per phase

Spacing between conductors

Shape of Conductor

Clearance from ground

Effect of load current

7. Find the capacitance between the conductors of a single phase 15km
long line. The diameter of each conductor is 1.5 cm. The spacing
between conductors is 1m. Also find the capacitance of each conductor
neutral.[May 2011][12 marks]

CAB = 0 /ln(D/r)
8. Explain the following with respect to corona
Corona [2 marks]
Effects [2 marks]

Disruptive critical voltage [4 marks]

Visual critical voltage[4 marks]

Corona Power loss[4marks] {Nov/Dec 2012}

[i] Corona:
-

It is defined as a self-sustained electric discharge in which the field

intensified ionization is localized only over a portion of distance
between electrodes.

Corona is the phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise and

production of ozone gas in an overhead transmission line.

[ii] Effects:
-

Corona is affected by atmospheric conditions, conductor size, spacing

between conductors and line voltage.

Die to Corona, the transmission line efficiency of the line is reduced.

Coron produces ozone and may cause corrosion of the conductor.

[iii]Disruptive Critical Voltage:

-

The critical disruptive voltage is defined as the minimum phase to

neutral voltage at which Corona occurs. It is denoted as Vd.

[iv] Visual Critical Voltage:

-

The critical visual disruptive voltage is the minimum phase to neutral

voltage at which corona glow apears and visible along the conductors.

In parallel conductors, the corona glow does not begin at the disruptive
voltage Vc but a higher voltage Vv called visual critical voltage.

[v] Corona Power loss:

-

The energy required to keep the ions moving is derived from the supply
system. This additional power required which is dissipated in the form
of heat, sound and light in case of corona, is called corona loss.

The following are the methods used for reducing corona loss.
i] Large diameter conductor.
ii] Using hollow and bundled conductors.
Iii] Increasing the conductor spacing.
9. Derive an expression for the inductance of a 3 over-head transmission
lines with unsymmetrical spacing. Also explain the concept of
transposition of conductors. over-head transmisision lines with
unsymmetrical spacing. Also explain the concept of transposition of
conductors. [May/Jun 2013][16 marks]

The average inductance per phase is.

Lx = 2 x 10-7 ln [Deq/r]
Where.
Deq =

D12 D23 D31

10.Derive an expression for the capitance of a 1 over head transmission

line.

[May/June 2013] [8 marks]

Cn = Can = Cbn = 2 ln[D/r]F/m.

11. Distinguish between GMD and GMR [May/Jun 2012] [ 6 marks]
GMD

1.GMD is called mutual GMD

GMR

1.GMR is called self

GMD

2.GMD is defined as the geometrical

2.GMR is defined as the limit of

mean of the distance from one end of

geometric mean of distances

the conductor to the other end.

between all pairs of the

elements in that area as the
number of elements increase
without limit.

GMD is defined as the geometrical

GMR is defined as the limit of

mean of the distance from one end of

geometric mean of distances

the conductor to the other end.

between all pairs of the

elements in that area as the
number of elements increase
without limit.

3.Mutual GMD depends only upon the

Self GMD of a conductor upon

spacing and it is independent of exact

the size and shape of the

, Size, shape and orientation of the

conductor [i.e., ] radius and is

conductors.

independent of spacing between

the conductors.

12. i] Explain clearly the skin effect and proximity effect when referred to
overhead lines

[May/Jun 2012][10 marks]

Skin effects:
-

A conductor carries a steady d.c. current. This current is uniformly

distributed over the whole cross-section of the conductor.

The current distribution is non uniform if conductor carries

alternating current.

The current density is higher at the surface than at the surface than at its
centre

This behavior of alternating current to concentrate near the surface of

the conductor is known as skin effect.

The skin effect depends on following factors; a] Nature of material b]

Diameter of wire c] frequency of supply d] Shape of wire.
Proximity Effect:
- The current distribution may be non-uniform because of another
effect known as proximity effect.
Consider a two wire line as shown in fig. below

Let each of the line conductor is assumed to be divided into 3 sections

having equal Cross-sectional area. These parallel loops are formed by
the pairs xx, yy and zz

The inductance of inter loop is less. Thus, the current density is highest
at inner edges of the conductor. Due to this non uniform distribution of
current, the effective conductor resistance increases.

The proximity effect also depends on the same factors as that of skin
effect.

12.ii]Find out the capacitance of a 1 line 30km long consisting of two

parallel wires each 15mm diameter and 1.5 m apart. [May/Jun 2013][8
marks]

C = o/loge (d/r )
C for 30km = 30 x C

Unit 3
PART B
1. Deriv the expression for sending and receiving end power of transmission lines in terms
of voltage and ABCD constants [April/May 2010][16 marks]
Power Flow through Transmission line;

The complex power delivered by the receiving end and that received by the sending
end of the transmission line is given as,
SR = PR + JQS = VRIR*
SS = RS + JQS = VS IS*
Here IR* and IS* are complex conjugate of currents IR and IS.
The real and reactive power at sending end are.
2

PS = /D//VS/ ..B. cos [b-] VS//VR//B/ cos /B+]

2

QS = /D//VS/ ..B. sin [b-] VS//VR//B/ sin /B+]

The QR when PR is maximum is given by
R2

QR = /A/ /V

//B/.

sin [b-]

2. A 3 phase, 50Hz, 100km transmission line has the following constant resistance./phase
/km = 0.153
Inductance /phase/km = 1.21mH
Cpacitance / phase/km= 0.00958hF.
If the line supplies a load of 20mw at 0.9 p f . logging at 110kv at the receiving end
calculate;
1. Sending end current
2. Sending end power factor
3. Regulation
4. Transmission Efficiency

[Apr/May 2010][16 marks]

Receiving end load current, IR = Power delivered//3 x VR cos R

IL = IR + Rc1
Is = ic2 = IL
Sending end pf.

= Cos

Total line losses = 3IL

%Total transmission efficiency =(Power delivered/power delivered + losses) x 100

% Voltage Regulation= (VR at no load VR )/ VR x 100

3.What is a nominal [Pi] circuit?Find the ABCD constants for nominal circuit.
[Nov/Dec 2010]
-

In nominal method , the total capacitance is divided into two halves with one half at
the receving end and the other half at the sending end.

Vs

= A VR + B IR

Is

= C VR + D IR
A

= [1 = YZ/2] = D

= Z

= Y [ 1 + YZ/4]

4. Write short notes on:

i] Shunt compensation [8 marks]
ii] Series compensation [ 8 markls ]

[Nov/Dec 2010]

The provision of shunt capacitor involves insertion of shunt capacitor across the line in

order to improve the power factor and voltage as well as to reduce losses.

The phase angle between the voltage and current is reduced when shunt capacitor is
applied. It has the following effects.
1.It reduces line current losses owing to generation of reactive power.
2. It reduces the transmission line current to a value less than the current in the load.
3.It improves the power factor of the transmitted power.
4. It reduces the voltage drop uniformly along the length of the line.

Advantages
11. The line current is reduced.
12. It prevents over loading of transformers and switch gears.
13. Improved voltage is obtained at the receiving end.
14. It saves penalty imposed byu electricity boards for lower power factor.
Disadvantages
-

The only disadvantages with shunt capacitor is that the response to voltage dips is not as
rapid as with series capacitor since the switching of the bank is initiated by change in
voltage.

ii} Series compensation:

- This is one of the method of reactive power control.
-

Compensation of a transmission line with the help of series capacitor is called as series
compensation.

For compensating the series reactance of the line the series capacitor is inserted in the
line at a specified point

5. A balanced 3 phase load of 30 mw is supplied at 132kv, 50Hz and 0.85 Pf logging by

means of transmission line. The series impedance of a single conductor is [20 + j 52] ohms
and the total phase neutral admittance is 315 x 10-6 mho. Using nominal T method,
determine:
1. The A,B, C and D constants of the line.
2. Sending end voltage.
3. Regulation of the line

[Nov/Dec 2011][16 marks]

A = D = 1 + Z Y/2.
B = Z [ 1 + ZY/4]
C=Y
Vs = A VR + BIR

Voltage Regulation=

Voltage at No load Receiving end voltage

Receiving end voltage

x 100

6. A 3 phase line having an impedance of [5 + j20] per phase delivers a load of 30mw at a
power factor of 0.8 lag and voltage of 33 kv. Determine the capacity of the phase modifier
to be installed at the receiving end if the voltage at the sending end is to be maintained at 33
kv . Assume the shunt admittance is neglected, [Nov/Dec 2011][16 marks]

Vs =A VR +B [PR /VR +QR /VR ] +2ABPR Cos[-B]-2ABQR sin[ -B]

Where, QC is the VAR supplied by phase modifier
QC = QL - QRnet
7. A three-phase 3km long transmission line, having resistance of 0.3 ohm/km and
inductance of 1.3mH/km is delivering power at 0.8 pf lagging. The receiving end voltage is
22kv. If the supply end voltage is 32kv, 50Hz. Find line current, regulation and efficiency of
the transmission line. [Apr/May 2011] [16 marks]

Reactance per phase XL

= 2fL

VS = VR + IR[R cos R + x sin R]

IR = Vs VR / R cos R + x sin R
Voltage Regulation (Vs VR )/ Vs x 100
2

Transmission efficiency= 3VRIR cosR/3VRIR CosR + 3 0IR R

8. A 15km long 3 phase over head line delivers 5 mW at 11kv at 0.8 lagging p.f. line loss is
12% of power delivered. Line inductance is 1.1 mH per km per phase. Find sending end
voltage and voltage regulatioln [Nov/Dec 2012] [16 marks]
Power delivered, PR = /3 x VR x IR cos R
Therefore IR = PR//3VR cosR
2

Total line losses = 3I R

I = IS = IR
VS = VR +IZ = VR + I {R + jXL]
% voltage regulation = VS VR/VR x 100
9. Explain the concept of surge impedance loading [4 marks]

Surge impedance loading{SIL]:

-

The surge impedance loading {SIL} of a line is the power delivered by a line to a purely
resistive load eequal to its surge impedance.

SIL = VR /ZC

10. Explain the following methods for medium transmission lines.

i] End condenser method [8 marks]
ii] Nominal T method [mioddle condenser method] [8 marks][may/Jun 2013]
i] End condenser method

In this method the line capacitance is lumped or concentrated near the load or at the
receiving end.
IR

= IR [cos T j sin R]

Capacitive current , IC = VR/-jxc = VR /[ 1/j2fc].

= j2fc VR = K w C VR.
IS = IR + IC
= IR cos R + j [-IR sin R + wc VR]
The voltage drop in each phase is given by,
Voltage drop / phase = IS Z = Is [R + JXL]
Sending end voltage VS = VR + z.IS
= VR + IS [R + JXL]
The voltage Regulation is given as,
% Voltage Regulation = VS VR/VR x 100
% trans. efficiency = Power delivered /Phase x 100
.

Power sent/phase + losses/Phase

2

= VR IR Cos R / VR IR CosR + IS

x 100

Disadvantages:
-

The effects of line capacitance are over estimated by this

method.

There is a considerable error of about 10 percent in the calculations.

ii] Nominal T method:

In nominal T method of analysis of medium transmission line the total line capacitance is
assumed to be lumped or concentrated at the center point of the line whereas half the line
resistance and reactance are lumped on either side of the line.

VS

= [1 + YZ/2] VR + {Z + YZ /4} IR

IS

= Y VR + [1 + YZ/2] IR
A = D = [ 1 + YZ/2]
B = [ Z + YZ2/4].
C =Y

Unit 4
PART B
1. A 3 phase overhead transmission line is being supported by three disc insulators. The
potentials across top unit and middle unit are 9kv and 11kv respectively. Calculate(i) the
ratio of capacitance between pin and earth to the self capacitance of each unit. (ii) the line
voltage and (iii) string efficiency.[16 marks][Nov/Dec 2011]
Ans:

i)let k be the ratio of capacitance between pin and earth to self capacitance.
V2=V1(1+K)
V V1
K 2
V
ii)Applying KCL to junction B,
I3=I2+i2
V3=V2+(V1+V2)K
Voltage between line to earth
=V1+V2+V3
line voltage =

3 Voltage between line to earth

voltage
across
string
iii)string efficiency=
no.of

100%

insulators v3

2. A 3 unit insulator string is fitted with a guard ring. The capacitances of the link pins, to
metal work and guard ring can be assumed to be a 15% and 5% of the capacitance of each
unit. Determine
1) Voltage distribution
2) String efficiency. [ April / May 2010] [ 8 Marks]
At junction P,
CV2= CV1+0.15 CV1-0.05 C(V2+V3)

V2=V1+0.15V1-0.05V2-0.05V3
At junction Q,
CV3= CV2+0.15 C(V1+V2)-0.005 CV3

1.05V3=1.15V2+0.15V1

voltage

string efficiency=

across
string
no.of

100%

insulators v3
3.Discuss briefly on the following:
i)
ii)

Pin type insulator [8 marks]

Suspension type insulators [8 marks] [Nov/Dec 2010]

Properties of insulators:
1) The insulators must be mechanically very strong.
2) The main function of the insulators is to resist any leakage current.
3) The insulators must be free from internal impurities such as holes, cracks, laminations
etc. this reduces the permittivity of the insulators
4) The dielectric strength of the insulators must be very high
5) There is possibility of flash over between line conductors and earth.

Pin type insulators:

-

For lower voltages up to 11 kv generally one piece pin type insulator is used.

The pin insulators are very firmly secured to the cross arm on the transmission pole
with the help of steel bolts. To avoid the direct contact of hard metal with porcelain
the lead screws are used.

Such type of insulators is used for the transmission lines which are running straight.

The conductor passes through the groove on the upper end and is bound by the
binding wire of soft copper or soft aluminum (i.e) of the same material of the
conductor.

Suspension type insulators:

-

The most popular insulators used for very high voltage transmission lines are
suspension type insulators. These have number porcelain disc units.
These units are connected to one another in series with the help of metal links.

4. Derive the expression for the insulation resistance, capacitance, electric stress and
dielectric loss of a single core cable. [16 marks] [ Nov / Dec 2010]
Insulation Resistance of a cable:

The expression for the insulation resistance,

Ri

R
ln
2l r

This can be expressed in terms of diameters as,

Ri

D
ln
2l d

Capacitance of single core cable:

The expression for the insulation capacitance,

Q

20 rV
D
ln
d

5. with neat diagrams explain constructional feature of various types of cables [16
marks][Nov/Dec 2011]
General construction of a cable:

1. Conductor or core:
2. Insulation:
3. Metallic sheath:
4. Bedding:
5. Armoring
6. Serving
Types of cables:
1.Low tension cables:[L.T. cables]
These are used for the voltage levels up to 6.6 kv. The electro static stresses in L.T.
cables are not severe hence no special construction is used for L.T cables. The paper is used as
an insulation in these cables. Sometimes resin is also used which increases the viscosity and
helps to prevent drainage.

16

2. Medium and high tension cables. (H.t cables):

The three phase medium and H.T cables are three core cables. For voltage upto 66kv, the
three core cables (i.e) multi core cables are used. These cables are classified as,
a. H.T. cables upto 11kv level which is belted type.
b. Super tension (S.T) cables for 22kv and 33kv levels which are screened cables.
c. Extra high tension (E.H.T) cables for voltage levels from 33kv to 66kv which are
pressure cables.
6. A string of 4 insulators unit s has a self capacitance equal to 4 times the pin to earth
capacitance. Calculate, i) voltage distribution as a % of total voltage (ii) string
efficiency.[16 marks][April / May 2011].

Ic=Vc/(1/2fVc )
=2fcVc
V2=(1+k)V1
V3=(K2+3k+1)V1
V4=(K3+5K2+6K+1)V1
String =

voltage across the string

nx(voltage across the unit adjacent to the line conductor)

7. Explain in detail the different method of improving the string efficiency. [16
marks][Nov /Dec 2012]

i)Reducing ratio of shunt capacitance to self capacitance

ii)Grading the inslators
Use of guard ring:
-

In this method a large metal ring surrounding the line unit and connected to the
metal part of the bottom of the line unit is used. Such a ring is called guard ring

8. what is grading? Explain any two methods of grading of cables with neat diagrams.[16
marks] [April / May 2010]
Grading of cables:
-

The process of obtaining uniform distribution of stress in the insulation of

cables is called grading of cables.

capacitance grading:
The grading done by using the layers of dielectrics having different permittivities
between the core and the sheath is called capacitance grading.

g x

Q
2x
-

The dielectric stress is inversely proportional to the permittivitys and the inner radii.

ii)Intersheath grading:
-

In this method of grading, in between the core and the lead sheath number of
metallic sheaths are placed which are called intersheaths.

9. Define string efficiency and calculate its value for a string of 3 insulators units if the
capacitance of each unit to earth and line be 20% and 5 % of the self capacitance of the
unit. Derive any formula that might be used. [16 marks] [May / June 2013]

Voltage across string V=V1+V2+V3

String =

voltage across the string

nx(voltage across the unit adjacent to the line conductor)

10. An insulator string consist of three units, insulator nearest to the line having a safe
working voltahe of 20kv. The ratio of self to shunt capacitance is 6:1 Determine the line
voltage and string efficiency.[16 marks][May /June 2012]

V2=(1+k)V1
V3=(k2+3k+1)V1
V=V1+V2+V3
Line voltage = 3 V

String =

voltage across the string

nx(voltage across the unit adjacent to the line conductor)

11. List out the properties of insulating materials used for cables.[6 marks] [ May /
June 2012]
1. The main function of the insulators is to resist any leakage current. Thus the
insulators must have very high insulation resistance.
2. The dielectric strength of the insulators must be very high.
3. The insulating material should be non porous.
4. The insulators should not be affected by the changes in the temperature.
5. To have high dielectric strength, the relative permittivity of the insulating material
should be very high.
12. what are the advantage of underground cables over overhead lines ? [10 marks] [
May /June 2012]
1. It ensures non interrupted continuity of supply. The possible supply interruptions
due to lighting, storms and other weather conditions are eliminated because of under
ground cables.
2. It requires less maintenance.
3. The accidents caused due to breakage of overhead line conductors are eliminated due
to use of underground cables.
4. The voltage drop in the underground cables is less.
5. The life of underground cables is long compared to overhead lines.
6. The beauty of cities and towns gets maintained due to underground network of cables.
7. The overhead lines use bare conductors which is unsafe in thickly populated areas.
Hence from safety point of view, the underground cables are more advantageous.

UNIT V
PART-B
1.Discuss briefly each of the following:
i)Feeders [4 Marks].
ii)Radial Distribution [Marks 6].
iii)Ring main distribution [Marks 6]. [Nov/Dec 2010].
Ans:
i)Feeders :
These are the conductors which are of large current carrying capacitor. The
feeders connect the substation to the area where power is to be finally distributed to the
consumers
ii)Radial distribution:
When the distributor is connected to substation on one end only with the help of feeder,
then the system is called radial distribution system.

Ring main distribution system:

In Ring main distribution system, the feeders cover the whole area of supply in the ring
fashion and finally terminates at the substation from where it is started.
2. A3 wire dc distribution is fed at one end at 220v between wires and middle wire as
shown in fig (15.b). the numbers between section indicate the resistance of the respective
section calculate the voltage between middle wire and outer at each load point.[16 marks][
Nov/Dec 2011]

Ans:
Apply KCL and determine the current flowing through each section and is shown below:
The voltage between middle wire and outer is given below

VAB=220-IMA.RMA+IDO.RDO
VBE=VAD-IAB .RAB-IEH.REH+IHD.RHD
VCL=VBE-IBC.RBC+ILF.RLF-IFE.RFE
VHI=220-IOD.ROD-IDH.RDH-IIN.RIN
VFJ=VHI+IHEXRHE-IEF.REF-IJI.RJI
VGK=VFJ-IFL-ILG.RLG-IKJ.RKJ

3. Explain the different types of substation [10 marks]

ii)

Explain ring bus scheme with neat sketch and write its advantages.

Advantages:
1. As each circuit is double feed, opening of any one breaker for repair and maintenance does not
interrupt supply of other circuits.
2. It is cheaper than double bus or main and transfer bus scheme.
3. The breaker maintenance is possible without supply interruption.
4. No separate bus protection is required as all sections of conductors in the station are protected
properly.
The different types of buses that may be used are given below.
1)
2)
3)
4)

simple ring
Rectangular ring
Circular ring
Zig zag ring

4. Explain briefly the various types of bus bar arrangement in as substation [16 marks] [nov/
dec 2010]
Single Bus bar system:
-

It consists of a single bus bar to which all incoming and outgoing lines are connected.
It requires less maintenance.

This system is used for the system voltages upto 33kv. The indoor 11 kv substations
always use this arrangements.
-

There are two incoming lines connected to bus bars through isolators and circuit
breakers. The outgoing lines are connected to the busbars through the transformers.

Single bus bar system with sectionalisation:

-

This scheme is simple and cheap where the single busbar is divided into sections and
load is equally distributed on all the section.
Two sections of bus bars are connected by a circuit breaker and isolators. Each
section behaves as a separate busbar.

Double bus with double breaker scheme:

It is very expensive and hence rarely used at substations.

Not desirable also when there is interconnected grid system.

Double bus bar system with single breaker:

-

In this system two bus bars, one called main bus bar and other called spare
busbar are used.
These two bus bars can take the entire substation load. The incoming and
outgoing lines can be connected to one of these bus bars with the help of bus
bar coupler consisting of circuit breaker and isolator.

Main and transfer bus bar scheme:

The system uses an additional isolator on each circuit which increases the cost of
the system.
As the changeover from main bus to transfer bus in this system is through
isolators, careful interlocking is necessary with the bus coupler breaker.

Double bus bar with bypass isolator:

-

This scheme is combination of double bus scheme and transfer and main bus
schemes.
One of the bus bars acts as main bus while the other act as transfer bus. It also
provides facility for breaker maintenance.

Breaker and a half scheme with two main buses:

-

This is a improvement of double breaker scheme which effects in saving of number

of circuit breakers.
For every two circuits, one spare circuit breaker is provided.

5. Explain the grounding methods with neat diagram.

[16 marks] [ April / May 2011]
Resonant grounding:
-

This system is also referred as arc suppression coil grounding.

It consists of a coil called Peterson coil or ground fault neutralier or arc suppression
coil whose function is to make arcing earth faults self extinguishing.

The current rating of the coil is given by,

I f

3V ph
C

Solid grounding:
-

In this method of earthing, neutral is directly connected to earth by a metallic

connection or a wire of negligible resistance and reactance.
The charging current flow through the system under normal conditions similar to
ungrounded system.

I f

The resistance of earth fault is given by,

3V p

Z 1 Z 2 Z 0

Resistance grounding:
-

In resistance earthing one or more resistances are connected between neutral and
earth.

The value of resistance to be inserted in earth circuit is given by

R = VL /

3.I where

VL = Line to line voltage

I = Full load current of largest alternator or transformer.
Reactance grounding:
-

In this system, instead of resistance, reactance is connect between neutral and earth
with ratio of reactance to resistance more than3.

Neutral grounding:
-

Grounding of generators, transformers and transmission schemes is very important

as it has a considerable bearing on the levels of transient and dynamic over
voltages stressing the equipment insulations.
Ground affects the short circuit current of power system and thus the rating of
switch gear needed to cooperate with them.

There are several methods of neutral grounding. They are

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Isolated neutral or ungrounded system.

Effectively earthed system (solid grounding)
Resistance earthing
Reactance earthing
Resorant earthing. [ arc suppression coil earthing or Tuned reactance coil earthing

6. Ground transformer (grounding through a high impedance transfarmer)

Indoor substation:
-

In indoor substation the equipments of substation such as circuit breakers,

switching fuses instruments etc are installed indoor for having better economy.
The voltage handled by these substations is upto 11 kv.

Outdoor substaitons:
-

For voltages beyond 66kv, outdoor substations are used as the clearance
required between conductors and space required for other apparatus is so large
that indoor instatallation proves to be uneconomical.
It is further divided into pole mounted or foundation mounted substations.

7. Explain the following:

1. Stepped or tapered
distributor 2. Ring main
distributor
3. DC distributor fed at one end
4. DC distributor fed at both ends. [ 4x4 = 16 marks] [ Nov / Dec 2012]
Ans:
i)

Stepped or tapered distributor:

-

The current along the length of the distributor will vary when a series of loads
are tapered off from the mains

D.C distributor fed at one end:

The total drop in the distributor is,

=r1 i1 l1 + l2 i2 (l2-l1)+l3 i3 (l3-l2)
D.C distributor fed at both ends:
i)
ii)

Ends maintained at equal voltages

Ends maintained at unequal voltages

8. Find the ratio of volume of copper required to transmit a given distance by

overhea System using
i)

Dc 2 wire and 3 wire system [10 marks]

ii)

3 , 3 wire Ac system [6 marks] [May / June 2013]

Ans :

i)

Two wire DC system with one line earthed. The maximum voltage between the
conductors is Vm, as one terminal is earthed. I = P / Vm where P-power transmitted
Let R=resistance of each conductor

... R=

l
A

Volume of copper required is

=2x area of cross sectionxlength
=2xAxl
Pm
2 2
V
m

4P 2 l
WVm

l
l
W

Three wire Dc system:

ii)

When the load is balanced, current through the third neutral wire is zero.

The area of cross section of the middle neutral wire is half of the area of cross
section of the outer conductor.

3 , 3 wire AC system
The R.M.S value of the voltage / phase is given by,
Vph =Vm / 2
The total power transmited is P watts hence per phase transmission is
Pph= P/3 Let cos be the load power factor
Iph =(P/3) / (Vm/2)cos

9. With the neat layout explain the design of modern substation with all protecting
devices: [ 16 marks] [ April / May 2010]
-

The lines connected to busbars arrangement of two incoming lines forms

double circuits or double bus bar system having two busbars one called main bus bar and
other called spare bus bar..
-

Both transformers can be operated simultaneously to share the total load

depending upon the requirement.

The incoming and outgoing lines are connected through circuit breakers with
isolators on either of its side.

The line is than earthed to remove the trapped charge from it.

The instrument transformers such as CTs and PTs are installed for metering
and protection purposes the output of CTs and PTs are given to metering and
indicating instruments and relay circuits.

The lighting arrestors are connected near the transformers on H.T side to protect

the system from lighting surges.

-

The auxiliary components such as capacitor bank, earth connections, local

supply connections d.c. supply connections.

The capacitor bank is used for power factor improvement. These components are
not shown in key diagram for simplicity.
-