Fine arts

"If I am asked which nation had been advanced

in the ancient world in respect of education and
culture then I would say it was - India."
- Max Muller, German Indologist
In the area of the fine arts too the Indian psyche has proved itself to be quite fertile. An
Indian is generally familiar with the different classical dance styles that today exist in
India, like Bharat Natyam, Kathak, Manipuri, Odissi, Kuchipudi, Mohini Attam apart from
the folk dance like Bhangra and Garba.

These
dancers
from
Bali
in
Indonesia
show
clear
indian
influences.
The people of Bali are Hindus, although
ethnically different from Indians

In the area of music too we have many indigenously Indian muscial instruments like
Sarangi, Sitar, Tabla, Tambora, Tanpura, etc., Two schools of vocal music also have
evolved in India viz. the Hindustani School and Carnatic School. Exponents of Indian
vocal music and dance like Bhimsen Joshi Subbalakshmi, Yamini Krishnamurthy,
Sanjukta Panigrahi, etc. have become popular with foreign audiences. The series of
'Festivals of India' that were organised in Britain, U.S.A., France, the former U.S.S.R. and
Japan, did much to inform the peoples of these countries about Indian culture. But a
large part of ancient India's achievements in the fine arts remain unknown to Indians.
MUSIC
Since Vedic times, Indians had been required to correctly recite, the Vedas. The
correctness in recitation was very important as the Vedas were, in those days,
transmitted through memory (Smriti) and were learnt through hearing (Shruti). This v so,

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as writing was absent in early Vedic times. Even today the Vedas are traditionally learnt
through oral studies.
This kind of an emphasis on recitation the correct pronounciation lead to studies in
phonetics and sound manupulation. This was the birthplace of Indian Musical Raga
(metre) and Swaras (rhymes). That Music in ancient India was given considerable
recognition is illustrated by the fact that Saraswati, the Indian goddess of learning is
shown to be holding a musical instrument (Veena) in her hand.

An artiste with his Tambora.

The
English
word
Tambour
is derived from the term "Tambora".
according to the Oxford Dictionary

Traditionally, vocal music in India has tended to be devotional music (Bhakti-geet), and
temples have been places (as they still are) where musicians used to practice music to
please the deity and the devotees. Indian vocal music is broadly divided into two
schools viz. the Hindustani or north Indian school and the Carnatic or South Indian
school. As far as instrumental music goes there is a general identity of instruments that
have been used.
The main Indian musical instru ments are the Sarod, the Veena, the Sarangi, the
Tambora, the Harmonium, the Ghata, the Tabla, the Tanpura, the Satar, etc., As
compared to art and architecture Indian music has had less impact on the outside world.
This was so as most of Indian musical instruments require specialised ma terial and
craftsmanship for their manufac ture. And in the absence of transmission of these skills
and the absence of trade in mu sical instruments, alongwith the necessity of long and
ardous practice which was re quired to master these instruments, made the transmission
of music a difficult task.
However, as far as, devotional vocal music goes, Indian musical traditions did travel to
the countries of South east Asia. The instru mental and vocal music of Korea has many

Fine arts
elements of Indian music, which it received alongwith the Buddhist invocative and devo
tional songs and slokas (religious couplets). Alongwith Buddhism, some Indian musical
instruments like the flute (bansi), temples bell (Ghanta), etc., went to the countries of
south-east Asia. Even Europe owes certain instruments to India. Two popular European
musical instruments namely the flute and violin are believed to be of Indian origin.
Though we do not know about the process of transmission of these instruments,
however in India the flute (bansi) and the violin (a variant of the Veena) are definitely
indigenously Indian. A pointer to the fact that these instruments have been in usage in
India since a very long time is that the bansi is associated with Sri Krishna and the Veena
with the goddess Saraswati.
This apart, in modern times the western musical instruments like the Tambourin and the
Tambour are adaptations of the Indian Tambora and Tanpura. The names Tambourin
and Tambour are also derived from the word Tambora. The Saralngi, another Indian
musical instrument has also found its place in western music. The acceptance of these
musical instruments in the west is also evident from the fact that the words Tambora,
Sarangi and Tabla are mentioned in the Oxford Dictionary.
PAINTING
The very first works of visual art created in the Indian sub-continent were primitive cave
or rock paintings. Many are assumed to exist, but the largest number of discoveries are
in Central India, on sandstone rock shelters within a hundred mile radius around Bhopal
in Madhya Pradesh. these paintings are dated at around 5500 B.C. i.e. they are 1500
years old. Some of these paintings have been overlaid with later paintings and graffiti.
The paintings generally depict animals, in scenes such as hunting. Human figures are
also shown with bows and arrows, and swords and shields. The colours used An
intricately carved pillar at Ellora in Maharashtra dating back to the 7th century. are made
up of natural minerals and are in various shades of red and orange. These paintings are
the forerunners of the frescos of a later age which are seen at Ajanta, Ellora and
elsewhere in India. But unfortunately no well preserved art remains, to document the
period between the coming of the Aryans i.e. 1500 B.C. to about the time of Buddha i.e.
550 B.C.
We are told by the literary sources that the art of painting was practiced. In the Buddhist
texts, elaborate palaces of kings and houses of the wealthy are described as being
embellished with wall paintings. But actual evidence about this art is lost. How this art
could have been, can be guessed from the paintings on stone surfaces found at Ajanta
and Ellora which are said to have been done in around 400 A.D.

Fine arts
These paintings at Ajanta and Ellora depict Buddhist tales from the Jatakas. Though the
paintings are today 1500 years old, the paint has not only retained its colour but also
much of its lusture.

A
finely
sculpted
panel
from Rajasthan. Indian Pierced Marble work
reached
unparalled
heights
in the middle ages

The technique of painting has been thus described by a student of Indian Art,"The
surface of the stone was first prepared by a coating of potter's clay, mixed variously with
cow dung, straw, and animal hair. Once this was levelled to a thickness of half an inch to
two inches, it was coated with a smooth fine white lime plaster which became the actual
painting surface. On the still-damp wall, the artist first laid out his composition with a
red cinnabar line and then defined the subjects with an undercoat of grey or terre verte.
This was followed by the addition of local colours, and once the whole wall was
completely coloured, a brown or black line restated the drawing to finish the
composition. A last burnishing with a smooth stone gave it a rich lustrous surface. The
colours which were natural and water soluble, consisted of purple, browns, yellow, blue,
white, green, reds and black."

Fine arts

This
painting
at
Ajanta
in Western India, was done in the 5th Century
It was done using vegetable colours
and has survived for 1,500 years.

Thus it is evident that the technique of painting had developed to an advanced level
This monumental bull was carved in marble in the 3rd century B.C. It stood on a column
built by Emperor Ashoka, which was inscribed with Buddhist edicts.
of sophistication due which the paintings could survive for 1500 years. Though the
colours used are supposed to have been derived from minerals and vegetables they had
been treated to last long. The above description also illustrates how, complicated
procedures of preparing the surface to be painted had evolved in India.
This technique of painting had also spread to central Asia and South-east Asia. Some
strains of Indian painting can even be identified in western church paintings and
mosaics. Indian influence is clearly evident in the paintings at Bamiyan in Afghanistan
and in Miran and Domko in Central Asia. Not only do these paintings depict the Buddha
but also Hindu deities such as Shiva, Ganesha and Surya.

Fine arts
This pagoda complex
at
Phnom
Phnem
in
Cambodia
displays
Indian
influences
in its central spires.
The name Cambodia
was
derived
from
the
Sanskrit
term
Kamboja

The statues in the caves at Kizil in central Asia depict Lord Krishna with Gopis (shepard
maidens). The cult of Narayana had also spread to Soviet Central Asia. This is
corrobotated by the discovery of Kharosthi inscriptions of the Kushana period which
have been deciphered as 'Narayana be victorious'. Another panel at Kizil shows the
performance of a dance style which has a close resemblance with the frescos at Ajanta.
As mentioned earlier, some Indian motifs can be traced in Gothic sculptures and
paintings. The occurence of images of the lotus, elephants and the Swastika support the
fact that they could have been borrowed from India as these images are traditionally
Indian. Strzygowski an European archealogist has compared the masonic background of
the Ajanta caves, that we referred to earlier, with the Ravenna mosaics found in Europe.

Fine arts

This
magnificent
Pagoda at Bongkok
has its own unique style
which is an amalgam of
Indian
and Chinese styles.

LINGUISTICS
The spread of Indian culture to Central Asia and South-east Asia left a permanent mark
in the languages of these countries. It is not well known that for a time Sanskrit had
become the lingua franca of many South-east asian countries. Even the Indian Brahmi
script was used in Malaysia and some other parts of South-east Asia. This Brahmi was
that which was used in southern India around 800 to 1000 A.D.
The Javanese Kawi script has been developed from the Pallava script from which Tamil,
Malayalam, Telgu and Kannada scripts have also evolved. Even a cursory glance would
show the resemblance between the scripts used in Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, etc., with
the scripts of today's South Indian Languages.
There are also a considerable number of Indian words in use in the languages of
Southeast Asia. For instance in the Malayasian (Malayan) language there are the
following words have been derived from Sanskrit; Bhoomiputra i.e.son of the soil,
Shurga i.e. heaven which in Sanskrit is Swarga; bangsi i.e. flute, dhobi i.e. washerman,
geni i.e. fire (agni in Sanskrit), etc.

Fine arts
Another view of the Pagoda at Bangkok

In Burma also there are many Indian words. For instance the river Irawaddy (Iravati in
Sanskrit)is derived from the original Sanskrit term Iravati, the word Burma is itself a
corruption of the Sanskrit term Brahmadesh (land of Brahma), In Thailand we have place
names like Aranyaprathet which sounds quite In dian and is a corruption of the term
Aranyapradesh meaning a forested area in Sanskrit. The names of the cities viz.
Singapore and Kuala Lumpur end with the term 'pur' which means city in Sanskrit. Even
first names of individuals in these countries are derived form Sanskrit roots. Instances of
such names are Sukarno derived form Sanskrit Sukarna, Suharto derived form the
Sanskrit Suharta, Bhumibol from Sanskrit Bhumibala, Thanom Kittikachoron from
Krittikacharan, and so on.
In fact in Malaysia the official title of honour given to persons of national importance is
'Tan Sri' Tan means big, and Sri is derived from the Sanskrit word Shri which roughly
means 'Sir'. In Indonesia the official language is called 'Bahasha Indonesia', the word
Bahasha is derived from the Sanskrit word Bhasha which means language.
The Indonesian Airways is named Garuda which means an eagle both in the Indonesian
Language and in Sanskrit. There can be innumerable such instances. This goes to
establish beyond doubt the contribution of India to the languages of these countries.
This apart, through the medium of trade India has contributed to the lexicon of Greek,
Arabic, Persian and even the English language.
DANCE
The mention of the word dance conjures up images of Nataraja (Lord of dance) as the
Indian God Shiva is portrayed. Apart from Shiva even Ganesha and Srikrishna are
associated with dance and music. India has many classical dance styles. The oldest text
dealing with aesthetics covering various art forms including dance is the Natyashastra
which is authored by Bharatamuni.
All the Indian classical dance styles viz. Bharata Natyam, Kuchipudi, Kathak, Odissi,
Mohiniattam, Kathakali, Manipuri, etc., are derived from the Natyashastra. Some of these
dance styles have evolved from folk dances and are intimately connected with the art of
story telling. Most of these stories are drawn from our epics like the Ramayana and
Mahabharata, tales from collections like the Panchatantra, Hitopadesha, Katha Sarit

Fine arts
Sagara, etc., also from the subject matter of these dance styles. In fact the Kathak and
Kathakali from U.P. and Kerala respectively, derive their names from the term Katha
which in Sanskrit means a story. As the story is told in the form of dance, these dance
styles can actually be called dance-dramas, the only difference is the absence of
dialogues.
The Charkul dance-drama of Central India revolves around a story generally from the
Indian epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Similar traditions of dance-dramas
are prevalent in other parts of India too. In Maharashtra, you have the Dashavatara, in
Karnataka you have the Yakshagana The Kathak dance of North India and the ktha*ali
dance of Kerala also originated as dance dramas and derive their names from the
Sanskrit work 'Katha' which means a story.
The story has to be told solely through actions and hence an elaborate pattern of facial
expressions (Mudra), movement of hands (Hasta) and the simulation of various moods
like anger (Krodha), envy (Matsara), greed (Lobha), lust (Kama), ego (Mada), etc., have
been evolved. The mastery of perfect expression of these feelings by subtle movement
of the lips and eyes forms the root of all the classical Indian dance styles.
In fact the combination of the three qualities viz. expression, rhyme and rhythm i.e.
Bhava, Raga, and Tala go into the determination of the term Bha-Ra-Ta, which is used as
the name of one dance style viz. Bharata Natyam.
The integration of Indian classical dance with the physical exercises of Yoga and the
breath control of "Pranayam" has perfected the dance styles. Yoga especially had given
the dance styles an excellent footwork which is called Padanyasa and Padalalitya.
Another feature of these dance styles is that they are integrated with theology and
worship. Traditionally these dances were partronised by the temples. During festivals
and other religious occasions, these dances were performed in the temple premises to
propitiate the deity. Thus the dance came to combine both art and worship. Even today
every recital of any Indian classical dance begins with an invocation to Nataraja or
Nateshwara the god of dance.
In Indian folklore and legend, the God of Dance is himself shown to be dancing in a
form called the Tandava. This has also been depicted in the statues and carvings in
temples like, Khajuraho and Konark in Northern India, and at Chidambaram, Madurai,
Rameshwaram, etc. in the South.
Indian dances have also evolved styles based on the Tandava like the Urdhra Tandava,
Sandhya Tandava, etc. Indian classical dance found its way outside India, especially to
the countries of Southeast Asia. The dance styles of Thailand, Indonesia, Burma, etc.,

Fine arts
have so heavily borrowed from the Indian classical dance traditions that to a casual
observer there would seem to be hardly any difference between the two. While Western
dance has not directly borrowed anything from Indian classical dance, it has borrowed
from Indian folk dance through the medium of the Gypsies.
The Gypsies originated in India
The Gypsies as has been established today, migrated from India to the west many
centuries ago. The Gypsies speak a language called Romany which has many common
words with Indian languages. The religion of the Gypsies is a modified form of early
Hinduism. The Gypsies seem to have been the Banjar nomads who are still found in
India. Being a very carefree nomadic community the Gypsies earned their living by
giving performance of folk dances, alongwith the persuing of other nomadic activities.
Gypsy dance has influenced western dance styles like the Waltz and the foxtrot. Even the
American Break dance and other dances associated with jazz music have borrowed
elements from the gypsy folk dance. The Gypsy folk dance, is itself a free flowing and
care free dance, a modified version of which is found in the folk dances of many Adivasi
and nomadic tribal communities in India.
THEATRE
The origin of the Indian theatre or rather folk theatre and dramatics can be traced to
religious ritualism of the Vedic Aryans. This folk theatre of the misty past was mixed with
dance, ritualism, plus a depiction of events from daily life. It was the last element which
made it the origin of the classical theatre of later times. Many historians, notably D.D.
Kosambi, Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya, Adya Rangacharaya, etc. have referred to the
prevalance of ritualism amongst Aryan tribes in which some members of the tribe acted
as if they were wild animals and some others were the hunters. Those who acted as
animals like goats, buffaloes, reindeer, monkeys, etc. were chased by those playing the
role of hunters and a mock hunt was enacted.
In such a simple and crude manner did the theatre originate in India nearly 4000 years
back in the tribal Aryans of Rig Vedic times. There also must have existed a theatrical
tradition in the Indus valley cities, but of this we have no literary numismatic or any
other material proof.
The origin of drama and the theatre has been told to us in an aptly dramatic manner by
Bharatamui, the author of Natyashastra an ancient Indian text on dance and drama.
Bharatamuni is said to have lived around the 4th century but even he is not aware of the
actual origin of the theatre in India. He has cleverly stated in a dramatic manner that it
was the lord of creation Brahma who also created the original Natyashastra (Drama).

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Fine arts
According to Bharatamuni, since the lord Brahma created the entire universe we need
not question his ability in creating dramas.
But Bharatamuni goes on to tell us that the original Natyashastra of Brahma was too
unwieldy and obscure to be of any practical use. Hence, Bharatamuni, himself took up
the task of making Natyashastra simple, intelligible and interesting. Thus the
Natyashastra of Bharatamuni was supported to be understood by lay people. So the
Natyashastra of Bharatamunii is not the oldest text on dance and drama, as Bharata
himself says that he has only simplified the original work of lord Brahma. The
Natyashastra assumes the existence of many plays before it was composed, and says
that most of the early plays did not follow the rules set down in the Natyashastra.
But the Natyashastra itself seems to be the first attempt to develop the technique or
rather art, of drama in a systematic manner. The Natya Shastra a tells us not only what is
to be portrayed in a drama, but how the portrayal is to be done. Drama, as Bharatamuni
says, is the imitation of men and their doings (loka-vritti). As men and their doings have
to be respected on the stage, so drama in Sanskrit is also known by the term roopaka
which means portrayal.
According to the Natyashastra all the modes of expression employed by an individual
viz. speech, gestures, movements and intonation must be used. The representation of
these expressions can have different modes (vritti) according to the predominance and
emphasis on one mode or another. Bharatamuni recognises four main modes viz.,
Speech and Poetry (Bharati Vritti), Dance and Music (Kaishiki Vritti), Action (Arabhatti
Vritti) and Emotions (Sattvatti Vritti).
Bharatamuni also specifies where and how a play is to be performed. In ancient India
plays were generally performed either in temple-yard or within palace precints. During
public performances, plays were generally performed in the open. For such public
performances, Bharatamuni has advocated the construction of a mandapa. According to
the Natyashastra in the construction of a mandapa, pillars must be set up in four
corners. With the help of these pillars a paltform is built of wooden planks. The area of
the mandapa is divided into two parts. The front part, which is the back stage is called
the r angashrishu. Behind the ranga-shirsha is what was called the nepathya-griha,
where the characters dress up before entering the stage.
Bharatamuni has also specified that every play should have a Sutradhara which literally
means 'holder of a string'. The Sutradhara was like the producer-director of today. Every
play had to begin with an inovation of God. This invocation was called the poorvaranga.
Even today, plays in Indian languages begin with a devotional song called Naandi. The

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Fine arts
Ramayana and the Mahabharata can be called the first recognised plays that originated
in India.
These epics also provided the inspiration to the earliest Indian dramatists and they do
even today. One of the earliest Indian dramatists was Bhasa whose plays have been
inspired by the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Bhasa's date cannot be definitely
ascertained, but that he lived before Kalidasa is proved by the latter's reference to Bhasa
as one of the early leading playwrights. As Kalidasa lived in the 4th century, Bhasa
should have lived in the early centuries of our era. Bhasa was a natural dramatist who
drew heavily from the epics, but Kalidasa can be called an original playwright.
Kalidasa has written many plays, some of which are; AbhijananShakuntalam,
Kumarsambhavam, Meghadutam and Malavikagnimitram. Kalidasa was the court
playwright at the Gupta court. He lived at Ujjaini, the capital of the Guptas and was for
some days the Gupta ambassador at the court of the Vakatakas at Amaravati where he
wrote the play Meghadutam.
The next great Indian dramatist was Bhavabhuti. He is said to have written the following
three plays viz. Malati-Madhava, Mahaviracharita and Uttar Ramacharita. Among these
three, the last two cover between them the entire epic, Ramayana. Bhavabhuti lived
around the 7th century A.D., when Sanskrit drama was on its decline, mainly due to the
lack of royal patronage. The last royal patron of Sanskrit drama seems to be king
Harshavardhana of the 7th century. Harshavardhana is himself credited with having
written three plays viz. Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda.
But nevertheless despite lack of patronage two more leading playwrights came after
Bhavabhuti, they were Shudraka whose main play was the Mricchakatikam, and the
second dramatist was Rajashekhara whose play was titled Karpuramanjari. But the
decline of Sanskrit theatre is evident from the fact that while Mricchakatikam was in
Sanskrit, the Karpuramanjari was in Prakrit which was a colloquial form of Sanskrit.
Rajashekhara has himself said that he chose to write in Prakrit as the language was soft
while Sanskrit was harsh. Sanskrit plays continued to be written upto the 17th century in
distant pockets of the country, mainly in the Vijayanagara empire of the South. But they
had passed their prime, the later Sanskrit dramas are mostly imitations of Kalidasa or
Bhavabhuti.
As in the case of the other fine arts, the Indian theatre has left its mark on the countries
of South-east Asia. In Thailand, especially it has been a tradition from the middle ages to
stage plays based on plots drawn from Indian epics. This had been so even in Cambodia
where, at the ancient capital Angkor Wat, stories from the Ramayana and Mahabharata
have been carved on the walls of temples and palaces. Similar, bas reliefs are found at

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Borobudur in Indonesia. Thus, the Indian theatre has been one of the vehicles of
enriching the culture of our neighbouring countries since ancient times.
We can conclude this chapter with the words of an Arab historian of the middle ages,
named Abu Mashar.
"The Indians are the first nation very large in numbers and belonging to a noble
country. All the ancient people have acknowledged their wisdom and accepted
their excellence in various branches of knowledge."

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