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Table of Contents
1. A sample Linguistics Problem... -------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.1 So how to solve it? .......................................................................... 2
1.3 Answers to the Sample Linguistics Problem: ............................................ 5
1.3.1 Answers to Slovenian-English: .............................................................................5
1.3.2 Answers to English to Slovenian: ..........................................................................5
2. Introduction:-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6
3. Phonetics: ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
3.1 Phonetics of Consonants ................................................................... 8
Figure 1 ................................................................................................................8
4. Morphology --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------15
5. Syntax ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------17
5.1 SVO, SOV, VSO, VOS, OVS, OSV .......................................................... 18
5.2 Transitive and Intransitive verbs ........................................................ 19
6 Bibliography: ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 211
6.1 Books ...................................................................................... 211
6.2 Websites................................................................................... 211
A boy hit me
2. Ubil si ival.
3. ival me in ga je pojedel.
7. Policist je brezsren.
8. On je nesmiseln.
He is pointless.
Lastly, to translate English into Slovenian, we will need to know rules of syntax and the
application of je. NOTE: Many people think that since they have obtained the meaning
of all individual words, the problem is mostly over and that they will score highly even if
translations are not entirely accurate. This is not at all true. If the rules of syntax and
morphology are not elaborately explained, even completely correct solutions will not
score highly. However, if rules of syntax are mostly explained, even if one translation is
not entirely correct, or the explanation contains an inaccurate rule, it is still possible to
obtain a high number of points. Syntax and morphology form the main part of the
problem, and the rules MUST satisfy EVERY sentence WITHOUT exception (this is the
only way to ensure that the rules are correct; they must also make intuitive sense, as
the unknown language is still a real one, spoken by real people, who would favor
choosing the simplest explanation).
As you might have noticed, sentences 2, 5, 9 and 10 begin with verbs, unlike the others,
and have the syntactic structure VSO (verb-subject-object), unlike the others, which are
SOV (subject-object-verb). So whats common to all these sentences?
Ubil si ival.
Pojedel si se.
So whats common between these sentences? 3 of them have you as the subject of the
sentence. The last has I. But that is the only incidence of I as a subject in the entire
corpus, and every sentence in the corpus not listed here has the subject as 3 rd person
(he or some noun-like animal or boy or priest or police officer). That is their common
link, which means it is safe to assume that the sentences that are thus structured (VSO)
are the sentences that use the personal pronouns for first and second person subjects
(ie. the subject is either first or second person).
So what else is left unexplained? The use of je in sentences with other verbs as well
(sentences 1, 3, 4, 6; sentences 7 and 8 have je as the primary verb-there is no other
verb in the sentence):
Fant me je udaril.
ival me in ga je pojedla.
So, we have a rule to identify a first or second person subject (using VSO), and clearly
all these cases have third person subject, and all the sentences not here either have
first or second person subjects or have the normal use of je (but they still have it in
the sentence), to mean is. Clearly, so, it is appearing specially in cases where the
subject is third person. So, with this, knowledge, it may even be concluded that je is
not the word for is at all, and that to be is implied when there is no verb present.
So, you should provide both possible answers in such cases, with explanations. The
answers are given on the following page.
4
2. Introduction:
A linguist, contrary to popular belief, is not someone who speaks many languages and acts as a
translator, though this is often a bye-product of his job. A linguist is someone who studies how
language works, and makes rules for the operation of languages that are as universal as possible.
In a sense, he deciphers languages. As a result, knowledge of one language is sufficient to be a
linguist, though knowing more does give a more intuitive feeling of the subject.
As far as the International Olympiad in Linguistics is concerned, it is meant to be completely
theory-free, solvable through clever deduction and reasoning. However, this is not always
possible. Often, the problems demand knowledge of phenomena that are performed
subconsciously. For example, the s in pots is pronounced differently from the s in pods.
This difference is made subconsciously by the brain, and we may not be aware of a rule through
which it does this, even though such a rule does exist. Even more strangely, the brain can correctly
pronounce the plural form of words it has never encountered before, based on this same rule that
the person subconsciously knows, but cant quite describe. The rule is as follows: s and z are
practically the same letter, as are f and v, p and b, etc. with one important difference. Z,
v and b make use of the voice box, the larynx, which vibrates to produce a heavier, voiced
sound, whereas, the larynx is not used at all in pronouncing s, f and p, which are known as
voiceless sounds. They are relatively simple to distinguish-just place 2 fingers on your throat while
pronouncing zzzzzzzzzzzzzz and sssssssssss- in the first case, the vibration is prominent, in the
second, it is absent. When making plurals, the brain looks at the last sound of the word,
determines whether or not it is voiced, and accordingly changes the pronunciation of the s. So,
d and t in pods and pots are related in the same way-d is the voiced form of t.
The study of such rules is a part of linguistics. However, linguistics is far broader than just this. Any
word that a person knows consists of 5 pieces of information1:
- Phonetic information: how to pronounce the word;
- Morphological structure: details all the smaller bits it can be broken into, for example,
disassembled can be broken into 3 smaller parts-dis-assemble-d, each part containing a
specific meaning-dis- means undo or opposite; -assemble- means to put together; -d
indicates that the verb is in past tense;
1
Akmajian, A.A., Demers, R.A., Farmer, A.K., Harnish, R.M. (2010) Linguistics: An Introduction to Language
th
and Communication, 6 Edition, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. Page 14.
6
- Syntactic structure: where and how the word would appear in a sentence-for example, in Hindi,
main paani pita hoon would translate into English as I water drink; the languages follow
different sentence structures - Hindi follows Subject-Object-Verb (SOV), while English follows
Subject-Verb-Object (SVO), and instinctively, a bilingual person would translate main paani pita
hoon as I drink water, not I water drink, based on the syntactic information he or she knows
about nouns and verbs in each language.
- Semantic information: words often have specific, distinct meanings (or denotations), but often
they are used to refer to the connotations of the word itself, rather than its denotations. For
example, the denotation of blacksmith is someone who works with metals like iron and
produces armor, weapons, etc, and repairs such objects. However, the connotations of
blacksmith include whatever you would normally associate with a blacksmith-for example, a
blacksmith is commonly huge, robust and unhygienic, with black hands from beating metal. So, if
someone were to say that John has a blacksmiths hands, it would mean that Johns hands are
black and dirty, even though blacksmiths hands need not necessarily be black and dirty; a
particular blacksmiths hands may be cleaner than most, but what is commonly associated with
blacksmith is dirty hands. Similarly, the connotations of brother include comrade,
friend, helpful, and, more recently, irritant & mean; mother would connote
protection, affection, care, etc., while it denotes female biological parent. Meaning of
words is divided into 2 categories - denotations and connotations, and semantics is the study of
this extended meaning and the nature of meaning itself.
- Pragmatic information: many words we know have several meanings-for example bat has 2
meanings - it could refer to the mammal that flies and hangs upside down during the day in dark
caves, or it could refer to the instrument used in cricket to hit balls, or even to the act of
batting. However, we can tell the difference intuitively. When we say the bat is emitting
ultrasonic waves, we understand that the bat being referred to here is probably the mammal,
even though syntactically, there is nothing wrong with the cricket bat producing ultrasonic
waves, logically, we assume that the bat must be the mammal, which is known to produce such
sounds.
3. Phonetics:
3.1 Phonetics of Consonants
Phonetics of vowels and consonants are very different. Since there are more consonants, and
consonants interchange with clearer patterns, well concentrate on them first.
The key ways in which consonants differ from each other are in:
a) Place of pronunciation
b) Method of articulation
c) Voicing (use of larynx)
d) Use of nose
A phonetic chart can summarize this effectively:
Figure 12
Figure 1. English Consonants Chart 2. NOT based on the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
Acosta, F.F. (2008) 26 September, English Consonants Chart, [Online], Available: http://fajardoacosta.com/worldlit/language/phonology.htm [Accessed 1 September 2011]
8
The voiceless affricate, , is similar to ch in church in English; the voiced affricate, j is the
j sound in judge in English.
The palatal voiceless fricative is the sh sound; the palatal voiced fricative, , is a sound similar to
the s sound in measure or fusion, while the voiceless palatal fricative, , (also represented
by , the integral sign), represents the sh sound in shoulder in English.
The is the th sound in thing or thin or through whereas it is the th sound in
this or that or the.
The liquid flap r is the r in general American or British English, while the retroflex liquid r is
the r in other European Languages, like Spanish. The velar nasal, , is pronounced as ng, as
in sing. It is more prominent in African languages, and some Eastern European languages.
The nasals, liquids and semivowels are all voiced, and together, are known as the sonorants, due
to their resonating quality. They are not true consonants, as airflow, though somewhat restricted,
remains largely open (consonants allow a significantly smaller volume of air through
unobstructed).
The glottal stop is something that appears primarily in British English, in place of t , for example,
Briish (British).
While it is not necessary to know the names of the various places of articulation and various types
of consonants, it is important to be able to identify similarities between different sounds-like the
fact that p and t are stops/plosives; p, b, m and w are all articulated at the same place
in the mouth. For instance, a particular problem listed the names of Burmese children and their
dates of birth. Then, another set of birth dates was given, along with another set of childrens
names, and the task was to match the birth dates to the names. The solution entailed discovering
that the place of articulation of the first sound of the name was decided by the day of the week on
which the child was born. As is evident, there are 6 distinct sites for 6 different days, and the
seventh, Sunday, was a vowel.
So, to summarize:
1. Four main types of consonants:
a. Stops/plosives: Entail a complete halt in airflow for a fraction of a second. For this
reason, they cant even be extended, like s or z (which entail continuous exhalation).
{p, b, t, d, k, g}
b. Fricatives: entail a partial block in airflow for the duration of pronunciation (air still
continues to leave the mouth, but the tongue/teeth/lips partially obstruct it to produce
friction, and hence sound). {f, v, s, z, , , , }
c.
Affricates: the sound begins as a stop, but ends as a fricative. Only 2 in English. {, j}
For a specific example, the Malagasy Language provides an ideal case of such
nasal-morphing. Many words are formed by adding prefixes to existing words, and
the prefix zafi+(nasal) is the example of such a prefix in Malagasy. It is important
to note that the prefix itself differs in spelling based on the following consonant.
For instance, hafaladia is a word that needs prefixing, and the beginning two
10
letters of this word ha- are just placeholders because in this language, the word
needs a prefix in any form, so ha- provides an empty, or meaningless prefix.
When this is eliminated, the morphemes zafi+(nasal) and faladia need to be
combined. This is done by altering the last character of the first morpheme and
first character of the second morpheme, and accordingly, (nasal) --> m and f --> p,
fs corresponding stop sound, since it is easier to transition from a nasal to a stop,
than nasal to fricative while enunciating. So, the word becomes zafim-paladia, or
zafimpaladia. In another case, when the same prefix is added to kitrokely, the
new word is zafin-kitrokely, since it is easier to transition from to k than
from any other nasal. Though the nasal is written as n in the latin transcription,
this is because there is no distinction between n and in this script, though in
fact the word is pronounced with .
Another example is found in English itself. The prefix in- stands for opposite, or
contrary, like decent and indecent. Yet, this prefix is sometimes spelt
differently based on the next letter, as in proper and improper, where it is
spelt as im- because m is easier to pronounce here than n. M and p are
pronounced in the same place, while n and d are pronounced in the same
place.
ii. Liquids: these are an important class, as many languages differentiate between
this class and others. Often, the two sounds in the class, l and r sound
absolutely identical to lots of people, especially in Africa and Japan, both of which
contain only one liquid, and they interpret any liquid sound they hear as the liquid
they know. As a consequence, they often mispronounce l and r; they would
say: liver instead of river or berry instead of belly. What exacerbates the
problem is that in half of the cases they will preserve the correct liquid, while in
the other half, they will change it.
sounds in certain cases, for which rules needed to be deciphered. The solution
entailed discovering that u in the first dialect remained u in the second dialect
if the next letter was a liquid and the liquid was not followed by another
consonant. If either of these conditions were violated, then the u in the first
dialect would be pronounced as uoin the other dialect.
iii. Semi-vowels: also known as glides, these are mainly a class that do not really
perform functions of vowels or consonants. All that is needed to be known about
them is that they are voiced, and w is pronounced at the lips, while y is
pronounced at the back of the mouth, at the palate. Again, while it is not
necessary to know the technical names of these places, it is important to know
that they are different, and it is important to be able to identify consonants with
similar places or manners of articulation.
One last piece of information concerning consonants is about consonant clusters. There is a lot to
know about consonant clusters, but whats important to know that languages have predefined
possibilities of consonant clusters, and native speakers of a language that does not contain certain
consonant clusters will experience great difficulty in pronouncing them. For example, Punjabi does
not contain the consonant cluster st, and native Punjabi speakers will insert a vowel in between
the two consonants in order to pronounce the cluster. For example, when they try to say
station, (IPA: sten) instead they would say s-uh-tation (sten).
3.2 Phonetics of vowels
Moving on, the phonetics of vowels is not integral to the IOL as such, so this section is mainly for
additional interesting information.
Vowels are classified by the position of the tongue when pronouncing the vowel, and the shape of
the mouth (rounded or unrounded), and length (which can be changed for all vowels).
Figures 2 & 3 summarize all information about vowels.
12
This is a simplified
chart with examples:
Figure 23
Figure 34
These charts only display the set of simple vowels. Vowels can often be combined together to give
rise to new vowel sounds, known as diphthongs. The i in fight is an example of such a
diphthong, which combines the low (open) back vowel, a in palm and the front (closed) high
vowel, i, the vowel sound in sheep. Other examples of diphthongs include spout and boy.
A particular property of diphthongs is that they are always long. Languages sometimes
differentiate between long and short vowels, like Faroese does (Problem 2, IOL at Pittsburgh,
2011). Most vowels will also have long and short versions, and commonly, the colon symbol (:, for
example, cream would be transcribed as kri:m) indicates a single vowel elongated. Any place
where a word is transcribed either with the colon or two vowel sounds (a diphthong), the vowel
sound there is long.
14
4. Morphology
Morphology refers to the study of how words change, or are morphed to add meaning or
compound meanings or create entirely new words. Morphemes are parts of words that constitute
the smallest recognizable or meaningful parts of words5.
Most morphemes contain some sort of meaning to themselves, even if they cant exist as words,
like in- or dis- which mean opposite, or -ed (past tense), -s (plural), etc. When a word
contains more than one morpheme, the meaning of the word is a combination at an intuitive
level, of the meaning of the two words themselves6.
Morphemes can be divided into 2 broad categories:
1. Free morphemes: Most words in English would come under this category; this category
contains morphemes that can exist independently as words, without any morpheme attached
to them. All free morphemes in English have specific meanings; they do not modify other nouns
or verbs by making them plural or changing their tense or subject or object. However, this is not
true of all languages. Take, for instance, Hindi, which has the word hai ( ), which does not
meaning anything but present tense. All it does is indicate that the sentence is in present
tense. English does not have such words that mark the tense or case or plurality, such words
form a part of the word to be modified itself in English (like -ing in English).
2. Bound morphemes: Obviously, these are the opposite of bound morphemes, and cannot form
words on their own. Often, they contain tense markers, mood markers, singular/plural markers,
or any such modifier that only modifies the meaning of the base morpheme, which is usually a
free morpheme, but can also sometimes be a bound morpheme itself. So, bound morphemes
are also divided into more categories:
a. Affixes: these are the most common type of free morphemes, and they include prefixes,
infixes and suffixes (depending on where they are inserted in the base morpheme). Affixes
ordinarily comprise of all the various markers that exist - like tense markers, mood markers
(especially in Romance languages), plural markers, singular markers, subject markers (again,
very prominent in Romance languages, where verbs are conjugated and suffixed depending
5
Akmajian, A.A., Demers, R.A., Farmer, A.K., Harnish, R.M. (2010) Linguistics: An Introduction to Language
th
and Communication, 6 Edition, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. Page 19
6
Akmajian, A.A., Demers, R.A., Farmer, A.K., Harnish, R.M. (2010) Linguistics: An Introduction to Language
th
and Communication, 6 Edition, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. Page 19
15
2010: 1
2009: 5
2008: 3, 4, 5
2007: 2, 3
2006: 1, 4
2005: 1
2004: 1, 5. 9
Akmajian, A.A., Demers, R.A., Farmer, A.K., Harnish, R.M. (2010) Linguistics: An Introduction to Language
th
and Communication, 6 Edition, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. Page 20.
8
Akmajian, A.A., Demers, R.A., Farmer, A.K., Harnish, R.M. (2010) Linguistics: An Introduction to Language
th
and Communication, 6 Edition, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. Page 20
9
All problems published by The International Olympiad in Linguistics, [Online], Available:
http://www.ioling.org/problems/ [Accessed 8 September 2011]
16
5. Syntax
Syntax is the part of linguistics that deals not with the microscopic level of language (words), but
with the macroscopic level (sentences). Syntax is probably the place where non-native speakers of
a language make the most mistakes, through word for word or literal translations. All languages
are governed by an arbitrary set of grammatical rules that are almost never identical for
languages. Take an example of a simple English sentence: John hit the big ball. If you were to
translate this sentence correctly (not word for word) into another language and then translate
wrongly (word for word) back into English, it is very likely that the words would be very jumbled. If
the other language were:
Hindi: John big ball hit.
French: John hit the ball big.
Spanish and most Romance languages would follow the same structure as French, while most
languages evolved from Sanskrit would follow the same pattern as Hindi, and most Germanic
languages would yield the same result as the original English sentence (without any error!).
These deviations from the original are the main task and problem that computerized translators
face - language is so vast that it is nearly impossible to produce rules that govern the language in
its entirety, especially when so many words, especially in English could represent multiple parts of
speech (they could be verbs or nouns or adjectives, etc.-the word that falls under 4 separate
parts of speech!).
Computers parse information by breaking the sentence down into smaller phrases, making them
agree with regular sentences. An ordinary, simple sentence would contain 3 parts - a subject
phrase, verb phrase and object phrase, in certain orders. Note, this is just a standard sentence, in
many cases, it is possible to make sentences without a subject or object as well. Each phrase
within itself could also contain various modifiers and sub-clauses and sub-phrases. For example, in
the sentence: A panicked John hurriedly ran from the enormous labrador, the subject phrase, A
panicked John, contains an article and an adjective besides the principle noun, which forms the
head of this noun phrase. The verb phrase, hurriedly ran contains an adverb as well as a verb,
and, then there is a preposition, from, followed by the object phrase which is another noun
phrase, the enormous labrador. This sentence itself could be handled by a computer, though
with some difficulty, but if you were to add to this sentence, the phrase that was giving chase
17
furiously, now you have a very ambiguous word, that (which belongs to at least 4 different
parts of speech-it is a pronoun, adverb, conjunction and determinant, and each one might be
translated differently in another language) coupled with a 3-word long verb in the past continuous
tense, and an adverb. If the computer was meant to decipher all of this accurately, and translate it
correctly into another language, the rules describing each language would have to be extremely
detailed and specific, and this is why syntax is such a big problem that requires a brain fluent in
either language to translate, with only a subconscious understanding of syntactic rules.
5.1 SVO, SOV, VSO, VOS, OVS, OSV
This list of abbreviations indicates all the possibilities of language subject-verb-object phrase
orders. English is an SVO language (its order is Subject-Verb-Object), while Hindi is SOV (woh paani
pita hai = I (Subject) water (Object) drink (Verb) hai (tense marker; tense = present).
Examples:
SVO: Most Romance and Germanic languages, Mandarin, Russian, Slavic languages.
SOV: Sanskrit-derived languages, Japanese, Latin etc. Over 75% of all languages fall under SVO or
SOV.
VSO: Welsh & Irish (Gaelic)10, Hebrew, some Austronesian languages.
VOS: Malagasy (from Madagascar)11 is the best documented example. Others include Tzotzil and
Fijian. Mainly Austronesian languages (including Malagasy).
OVS: Hixkarayana12 (a Carib language spoken in Brazil), and Tamil, in some forms and cases.
OSV: This is one of the rarest forms, and occurs mainly in special cases of other languages. For
example, in English, I hate tennis, but cricket I like. Rare examples include Nadb13, another
language spoken by a small minority in Brazil.
Lastly, it is important to know that there are many languages with multiple structures in different
tenses or moods or free form structures-where two or more of the subject, verb and object can be
freely interchanged. Examples of the cases with multiple structures include English in passive voice
(the lion was shot by the hunter = OVS) or French and most Romance languages with personal
10
pronouns (in which case it would be SOV, not SVO), Spanish in half the cases lacks a subject, and
many more. Examples of a free structure (also, No Dominant Order-NDO) include many
Austronesian, African and American languages. Some linguists classify German, Greek and Dutch,
among others, as having a free structure, though this is still debated.14
Discussions about word order are not limited to the orders of the Subject, Verb and Object. The
grammar of a language also specifies how pre/post positions would come in a sentence (name
depends on whether the words come before or after the word they modify/govern). For example,
English widely uses prepositions, while Hindi primarily uses postpositions. It is important to
understand that prepositional/postpositional morphemes can come in many forms-they can even
be suffixed or prefixed besides being positioned before or after the word they govern. For
example, English, a predominantly prepositional language that reserves special prepositional
words (like from, above, under, about, with, over), does contain some bound postpositions, like ward in homeward.
Even the positioning of adjectives can vary from language to language. In English, adjectives and adverbs
always come before the noun / verb they are describing, and it would be very unnatural to say I ate
hungrily the fish salty. However, in Spanish and other Romance languages, this would precisely be the
word order, and this is what led to the word order being jumbled above, when translating word for word
from French to English. Additionally, some words are even allowed to break the rules. For example, in
French, some qualitative adjectives are allowed to precede the noun, whereas other qualitative adjectives
and all quantitative adjectives must come after the noun. So, if the adjective above had been beautiful
instead of big, the sentence would have been translated properly into English, without any error. Another
example is evident in English, where adverbs can come on either side of a verb, but when adverbs describe
a noun, they must precede the adjective (you would say extraordinarily red rose, not red extraordinarily
rose, but I frequently eat Chinese and I eat Chinese frequently are both accepted). In contrast,
adjectives must always precede a noun in English.
Pagel, M., (June 2009), Evolution of Word Order Changes, [Online], Available:
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v10/n6/fig_tab/nrg2560_F5.html, [Accessed 10 September 2011]
19
An intransitive verb is a verb that does not have an object. In English, it is often grammatically
correct, and in fact even expected in some cases, to not have an object in a sentence. For
example, the sentence John went to the pizzeria does not have a traditional object. There is a
preposition placed before the place that John visited (to), and in this case, it could have sufficed
to say John went, where went is an intransitive verb. An intransitive verb is a verb that does
not have an object. Other examples of sentences with intransitive verbs include I fall, you
sleep, we dream, they drink, he eats, I joke, and many more. However, many of these
verbs could also have a transitive form, for example, they drink water and he eats biscuits. It is
essential that caution regarding the type of verb is exercised in dealing with Mayan and Aztec
languages, and indeed most Indian languages native to the Americas. Problem 5 of the IOL 200915,
in Nahuatl, the language of the Ancient Aztec Empire, intransitive and transitive verbs had
different suffixes to indicate the same thing (to make someone do the verb instead of simply
doing it: like, The postman makes him drink as opposed to The postman drinks). The suffix tia
indicated this for an intransitive verb, while the suffix ltia indicated this for transitive verbs, and
hence it was very easy to either confuse the extra -L as a part of the verb itself, or view it as a
separate morpheme.
15
The International Olympiad in Linguistics, Poland 2009, Problem 5 - Nahuatl [Online], Available:
http://www.ioling.org/booklets/iol-2009-indiv-prob.en-gb.pdf [Accessed 8 September 2011].
20
6 Bibliography:
6.1
Books
Akmajian, A.A., Demers, R.A., Farmer, A.K., Harnish, R.M. (2010) Linguistics: An
Introduction to Language and Communication, 6th Edition, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The
MIT Press.
th
Finegan, E. (2008) Language: Its Structure and Use, 5 Edition, Boston: Thomson Higher
Education.
6.2
Websites
Linguistics
Pictures,
[Online],
Available:
http://www.walkinthewords.blogspot.com
[Accessed
September
2011].
Simplified English Vowels Chart, [Online], Available:
http://people.umass.edu/neb/VowelChart.GIF [Accessed 2 September 2011].
Complete English Vowels Chart, [Online], Available:
http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~krussll/138/sec5/vow-ipa.gif [Accessed 2 September 2011].
The International Olympiad in Linguistics, [Online], Available:
http://www.ioling.org/problems/ [Accessed 8 September 2011].
VSO and Master Yoda, [Online], Available:
http://www.akerbeltz.org/beagangaidhlig/gramar/grammar_VSO.htm, [Accessed 9
September 2011].
Dryer, M.S., Order of Subject, Object and Verb, [Online], Available:
http://wals.info/chapter/81, [Accessed 9 September 2011].
Pagel, M., (June 2009), Evolution of Word Order Changes, [Online], Available:
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v10/n6/fig_tab/nrg2560_F5.html,
September 2011].
21
[Accessed
10