Introduction to Logic

Mian Waqas Haider

CHAPTER # 1

INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC
Man is rational animal.
He differs from animals b/c of
rationality
So animals only exist but men live.
Man can reason(so invent & discover)
Logic teach him to reason correctly.

MAN

VS.

ANIMAL

Unexamined Life is not

worth livingSocrates

LOGIC: DEFINITIONS FROM DIFFERENT

ANGLES.

Logic is a Science of Reasoning.

Logic is the study of the valid principles
used to distinguish correct reasoning from
incorrect reasoning.
Logic is an organized body of knowledge or
science that evaluates arguments whose aim
is to provide standards for determining the
truth of validity and thought.

DEFINITION OF LOGIC

HISTORY OF LOGIC

SUBJECT MATTER OF LOGIC

REPEATED QUESTION IN CSS

What benefits are to be achieved
from the study of logic? Discuss.
2000
OR why should we study Logic? Discuss its
importance in everyday life.

OBJECTIVES AND BENEFITS OF

LOGIC

LOGIC TEACHES US
To reason correctly

To evaluate or test arguments of the other people

To construct our owns arguments
To develop methods and techniques to
distinguish good argument from bad argument.

WHY TO STUDY LOGIC? OR

BENEFITS OF LOGIC

IMPORTANTLY,
Logic is "therapeutic": we learn logic to
recognize and to construct good arguments.
Formal logic is an indispensable item in the
contemporary philosopher's toolkit.
It develops thinking abilities systematically

ARISTOTLES LOGIC
He says Logic studies thought
Thought means not process but product of
thought
1. Concept (Term)
2. Judgment (Proposition)
3. Inference (argument)

CONCEPT
Property of mind
Picture of a thing in mind
A mental image
E.g., table, chair, pen, book

TERM
Concept expressed in language
Categorematic: term by itself; man, table
Syncategorematic: not term by themselves;
the, an, all, only, of
Acategorematic: used in neither case,
hurrah!, Alas

TERM
Positive term
Negative term
private

TERMS
Positive: table, chair, man
Negative: not-table, not-chair
Private: blind, deaf, dumb

SINGULAR AND GENERAL TERMS

Particular term, Socrates, Ravi, Lahore
Universal terms, man, cricket, university

JUDGMENT
Relationship of affirmation/negation b/w two
concepts.
Intellectual activity
Comparison/ evaluation of particular effects
of an experience
Psychological activity of awareness of
objects and relationships

PROPOSITION
Judgment expressed in language
True or false statement
Witten or spoken statement in language
3 parts:
Subject
Predicate
copula

PROPOSITION
A logical sentence.
It consists of terms (subject & Predicate.
Subject and predicate are two classes
which are related or linked through copula.
Example of Proposition:

Subject
copula
Predicate
All Men
are
Mortal.

PROPOSITION

INFERENCE
Combination of more than 1 propositions
Mental activity
Where some propositions are given
(premises) , and other follow from them
(conclusion).

INFERENCE
A inference or reasoning is a process of
transition from known/perceived facts (Premises)
to unknown or unperceived reasoning.
You see smoke and infer/ reason that there is a
fire.

INFERENCE

REASONING

All Men are Mortal.

Socrates is a Man.
Therefore, Socrates is Mortal.

Premises
Conclusion

ARGUMENT

PREMISES

PREMISES INDICATORS

CONCLUSION INDICATORS

TWO TYPES OF ARGUMENTS

Formal Argument
Informal argument

FORMAL ARGUMENT
Formal Argument deals with
1.

form/ structure of argument.

For example:
All M are P
All Scientists are Researchers.
All S are M
All Professors are scientists.
All S are P
Therefore, All Professors are researchers.
OR 2 + 2 = 4

2. Arrangement of terms and forms of proposition in an argument.

3. Constructed systems of logic carrying proofs.
4. Notion of form refers to norms/rules/laws of expression (So, Logic is
Normative Science)
5. Our thoughts are also formal n structured.
6. Language and rules of reasoning are precisely carefully defined.
Deductive reasoningsyllogisms, mathematics and computer science

INFORMAL ARGUMENT
Deals with content (meaning) of argument.
Study of reasoning and fallacies in the
context of everyday language and life.

FORMAL ARGUMENT AND

INFORMAL ARGUMENT
Difference b/w Deductive reasoning ( a
formal argument) and Inductive reasoning
(an informal argument)

DEDUCTIVE REASONING
1. In deductive argument, we move from
universal (general info) to particular
(specific observation).
Example:
All men are mortal. (universal)
Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal (particular)

2. Conclusion follows necessarily from

premises.

3. If premises are true, then conclusion

must be true.
4. In deductive reasoning, relationship
b/w premises and conclusion is of
Certainty or must be.

DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT

5. DEDUCTIVE REASONING IS A
TOP-DOWN APPROACH
Because it moves from top (universal or
greater) to down (Particular or smaller).
All men are mortal. (top) Universal
Socrates is a man.
Socrates is mortal. (down) Particular

TOP-DOWN APPROACH

Every person has a head. (start here)

Conclusion:

Aslam is a person.

Therefore, Aslam has one head.

TOP-DOWN APPROACH

6. DEDUCTION IS USED TO TEST

HYPOTHESIS AND THEORIES ETC.

7. DEDUCTIVE REASONING IS THAT IN

WHICH ARGUER CLAIMS THAT IT IS
IMPOSSIBLE FOR THE CONCLUSION TO
BE FALSE GIVEN THAT PREMISES ARE
TRUE.

8. Mathematical arguments, categorical,

disjunctive and hypothetical syllogisms
are examples of deductive reasoning.

INDUCTIVE REASONING
1. It moves from particular observations
to universal truth.
Crow 1 is black
Crow 2 is black
Particular facts
Crow 3 is black
Therefore, all crows are black. (universal)

INDUCTIVE REASONING
2. In this argument, conclusion is probably
follows from premises.

3. If premise are true, then conclusion is unlikely

or improbable" to be false.
4. The relationship b/w premises and conclusion
is of probability.

6. INDUCTIVE REASONING IS USED

TO MAKE HYPOTHESIS, LAWS AND
THEORIES

7. INDUCTIVE REASONING IS A BOTTOMUP APPROACH.

BOTTOM-UP APPROACH

Every man has 1 head.

Man 1 has only 1 head.

Man 2 has only 1 head.

Man 3 has only 1 head.

Deductive VS. Inductive

reasoning
1. Premises provide
conclusive grounds for
conclusion.

1. Premises provide
some support for
conclusion.

2. Relationship b/w
premises and conclusion
is CERTAIN.

2. Relationship b/w
premises and conclusion
is PROBABLE.

3. Valid or invalid

3. Strong or weak

Deductive VS. Inductive

reasoning
4. Truth preserving

4. Not truth preserving

5. Not based on senseexperience

5. Based on senseexperience

6. Conclusion necessarily
follows from premises

6. Conclusion probably
follows from premises

7. Mathematics is based on
deductive reasoning

7. Natural sciences are based

on inductive reasoning

SUMMARY
ARGUMENTS
Deductive
Begins from known statement

Inductive
Begins from unknown statement

Universal to particular

Particular to universal

Necessary support

Probable support

Valid

Invalid

Can be proved on logical grounds

Strong

weak

can not be proved on logical grounds

TRUTH, VALIDITY, SOUNDNESS,

STRENGTH, COGENCY
Truths property of statement/proposition.
Validity (valid/invalid) and soundness are
characteristics of deductive argument.
Strength (weak/strong argument) and
cogency are characteristics of inductive
argument.

TRUTH, VALIDITY, SOUNDNESS, STRENGTH,

COGENCY

Truth and Falsity

Proposition
Validity & Invalidity
Deductive
Soundness & unsoundness argument

Strength & weakness

Cogency & Uncogency

Inductive
argument

TRUTH
Truth and falsity are the characteristics of
propositions.
1. Material Truth: proposition should be
according to facts. Its changeable. Truth is
present in external world.
2. Formal Truth: its not conditional and
depends up its own nature. Unchangeable and
logical proposition.

VALIDITY
Validity and invalidity are characteristics of only
deductive arguments
Conclusion should necessarily follow from
premises.
It is formal aspect of thought.
Validity depends upon truth of premises and
conclusion.
Argument must be invalid, if all premises are true
and conclusion is false.

VALIDITY

SOUNDNESS

Two conditions must be met.

1. Argument must be valid.

2. All its premises must be true.
Soundness= All True Premises + Valid
Argument

SOUND ARGUMENT
If deductive argument is valid and has all
premises true, then it is called sound
argument.
Sound Argument= Valid Argument+ All
True Premises
All men are mortal
Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

UNSOUND ARGUMENT
Invalid argument with all (or one of) its
premises being false is unsound
argument.

All monkeys eats mangoes.

Mr. x eats mangoes
Therefore, Mr. x is a monkey.

STRONG ARGUMENT
It is a inductive argument in which
conclusion strongly follows from premises.
it is improbable for conclusion to be false
given that premises are true.
In weak inductive argument, conclusion
probably follows from premises.

Next Chapter
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM