Radio propagation or radiowave propagation overview

- an overview or summary the different modes or ways for the propagation of radio waves

Radio signals are affected in many ways by objects in their path and by the media through which
they travel. This means that radio signal propagation is of vital importance to anyone designing
or operating a radio system. The properties of the path by which the radio signals will propagate
governs the level and quality of the received signal. Reflection, refraction and diffraction may
occur. The resultant signal may also be a combination of several signals that have travelled by
different paths. These may add constructively or destructively, and in addition to this the signals
travelling via different paths may be delayed causing distorting of the resultant signal. It is
therefore very important to know the likely radio propagation characteristics that are likely to
prevail.
The distances over which radio signals may propagate varies considerably. For some
applications only a short range may be needed. For example a wi-fi link may only need to be
established over a distance of a few metres. On the other hand a short wave broadcast station, or
a satellite link would need the signals to travel over much greater distances. Even for these last
two examples of the short wave broadcast station and the satellite link, the radio propagation
characteristics would be completely different, the signals reaching their final destinations having
been affected in very different ways by the media through which the signals have travelled.

Radio propagation categories

There are a number of categories into which different types of radio propagation can be placed.
These relate to the effects of the media through which the signals propagate.

Free space propagation: Here the radio signals travel in free space, or away from other objects
which influence the way in which they travel. It is only the distance from the source which
affects the way in which the field strength reduces. This type of radio propagation is
encountered with signals travelling to and from satellites.
Ground wave propagation: When signals travel via the ground wave they are modified by the
ground or terrain over which they travel. They also tend to follow the earth's curvature. Signals
heard on the medium wave band during the day use this form of propagation. Read more about
Ground wave propagation
Ionospheric propagation: Here the radio signals are modified and influenced by the action of
the free electrons in the upper reaches of the earth's atmosphere called the ionosphere. This
form of radio propagation is used by stations on the short wave bands for their signals to be
heard around the globe. Read more about Ionospheric propagation
Tropospheric propagation: Here the signals are influenced by the variations of refractive index
in the troposphere just above the earth's surface. Tropospheric radio propagation is often the

means by which signals at VHF and above are heard over extended distances. Read more about
Tropospheric propagation

In addition to these categories, many short range radio communications or wireless systems have
radio propagation scenarios that do not fit neatly into these categories. Many mobile
communications systems along with wi-fi and cellular systems for example need to have their
radio propagation models generated for office, or urban situations. Under these circumstances the
"free space" propagation is modified by multiple reflections, refractions and diffractions. Despite
these complications it is still possible to generate rough guidelines and models for these radio
propagation scenarios.
There are also a number of other, more specialised forms of radio propagation that are used in a
number of instances:

Meteor scatter / Meteor Burst: This form of radio propagation is often used for links of up to
1500 km or more where real time communications are not needed. It is often used for relaying
data from remote sites to a base station. Read more about Meteor burst communications
NVIS: This is actually a form of ionospheric propagation. Signals are transmitted with a very
high angle of radiation, and returned to earth over a limited area. It is particularly useful in hilly
or forested regions where normal ground wave propagation may not be able to access all areas
needed. Read more about NVIS - near vertical incidence skywave

Areas that affect radio propagation

It is also necessary to understand the differnet areas of the atmosphere, or other areas that affect
radio propagation and radio communications signals. Read more about Areas of the atmosphere
that affect radio propagation
There are many radio propagation, or radiowave propagation scenarios in real life. Often radio
signals may travel by several means, signals travelling using one type of propagation interacting
with another. However to build up an understanding of how a signal reaches a receiver, it is
necessary to have a good understanding of all the possible methods. By understanding these, the
interactions can be better understood and it is then possible to understand some of the reasons
why mobile radio communications systems, or two way radio communications systems work in
the way they do..

Ground Wave Propagation Tutorial

- ground wave propagation is a form of signal propagation where the signal travels over the
surface of the ground, and as a result it is used to provide regional coverage onth e long and
medium wave bands.

Ground wave propagation is particularly important on the LF and MF portion of the radio
spectrum. Ground wave radio propagation is used to provide relatively local radio
communications coverage, especially by radio broadcast stations that require to cover a
particular locality.
Ground wave radio signal propagation is ideal for relatively short distance propagation on these
frequencies during the daytime. Sky-wave ionospheric propagation is not possible during the day
because of the attenuation of the signals on these frequencies caused by the D region in the
ionosphere. In view of this, radio communications stations need to rely on the ground-wave
propagation to achieve their coverage.
A ground wave radio signal is made up from a number of constituents. If the antennas are in the
line of sight then there will be a direct wave as well as a reflected signal. As the names suggest
the direct signal is one that travels directly between the two antenna and is not affected by the
locality. There will also be a reflected signal as the transmission will be reflected by a number of
objects including the earth's surface and any hills, or large buildings. That may be present.
In addition to this there is surface wave. This tends to follow the curvature of the Earth and
enables coverage to be achieved beyond the horizon. It is the sum of all these components that is
known as the ground wave.
Beyond the horizon the direct and reflected waves are blocked by the curvature of the Earth, and
the signal is purely made up from the diffracted surface wave. It is for this reason that surface
wave is commonly called ground wave propagation.

Surface wave
The radio signal spreads out from the transmitter along the surface of the Earth. Instead of just
travelling in a straight line the radio signals tend to follow the curvature of the Earth. This is
because currents are induced in the surface of the earth and this action slows down the wavefront in this region, causing the wave-front of the radio communications signal to tilt downwards
towards the Earth. With the wave-front tilted in this direction it is able to curve around the Earth
and be received well beyond the horizon.

Ground wave radio propagation

Effect of frequency on ground wave propagation

As the wavefront of the ground wave travels along the Earth's surface it is attenuated. The degree
of attenuation is dependent upon a variety of factors. Frequency of the radio signal is one of the
major determining factor as losses rise with increasing frequency. As a result it makes this form
of propagation impracticable above the bottom end of the HF portion of the spectrum (3 MHz).
Typically a signal at 3.0 MHz will suffer an attenuation that may be in the region of 20 to 60 dB
more than one at 0.5 MHz dependent upon a variety of factors in the signal path including the
distance. In view of this it can be seen why even high power HF radio broadcast stations may
only be audible for a few miles from the transmitting site via the ground wave.

Effect of the ground

The surface wave is also very dependent upon the nature of the ground over which the signal
travels. Ground conductivity, terrain roughness and the dielectric constant all affect the signal
attenuation. In addition to this the ground penetration varies, becoming greater at lower
frequencies, and this means that it is not just the surface conductivity that is of interest. At the
higher frequencies this is not of great importance, but at lower frequencies penetration means
that ground strata down to 100 metres may have an effect.
Despite all these variables, it is found that terrain with good conductivity gives the best result.
Thus soil type and the moisture content are of importance. Salty sea water is the best, and rich
agricultural, or marshy land is also good. Dry sandy terrain and city centres are by far the worst.
This means sea paths are optimum, although even these are subject to variations due to the

roughness of the sea, resulting on path losses being slightly dependent upon the weather! It
should also be noted that in view of the fact that signal penetration has an effect, the water table
may have an effect dependent upon the frequency in use.

Polarisation & ground wave propagation

The type of antenna and its polarisation has a major effect on ground wave propagation. Vertical
polarisation is subject to considerably less attenuation than horizontally polarised signals. In
some cases the difference can amount to several tens of decibels. It is for this reason that medium
wave broadcast stations use vertical antennas, even if they have to be made physically short by
adding inductive loading. Ships making use of the MF marine bands often use inverted L
antennas as these are able to radiate a significant proportion of the signal that is vertically
polarised.
At distances that are typically towards the edge of the ground wave coverage area, some skywave signal may also be present, especially at night when the D layer attenuation is reduced.
This may serve to reinforce or cancel the overall signal resulting in figures that will differ from
those that may be expected.

HF Ionospheric Radio Signal Propagation

The basics of HF ionospheric radio propagation and how the ionosphere enables radio
communications links to be established over large distances around the globe using what
are termed sky waves or skywaves.
As electromagnetic waves, and in this case, radio signals travel, they interact with objects and
the media in which they travel. As they do this the radio signals can be reflected, refracted or
diffracted. These interactions cause the radio signals to change direction, and to reach areas
which would not be possible if the radio signals travelled in a direct line.
Radio communications signals in the medium and short wave bands travel by two basic means.
The first is known as a ground wave (covered on a separate page in this section), and the
second a sky wave using the ionosphere.

Skywaves
When using ionospheric radio propagation, the radio signals leave the Earth's surface and travel
towards the ionosphere where some of these are returned to Earth. These radio signals are termed
sky waves for obvious reason. If they are returned to Earth, then the ionosphere may (very
simply) be viewed as a vast reflecting surface encompassing the Earth that enables signals to
travel over much greater distances than would otherwise be possible. Naturally this is a great
over simplification because the frequency, time of day and many other parameters govern the

reflection, or more correctly the refraction of signals back to Earth. There are in fact a number of
layers, or more correctly regions within the ionosphere, and these act in different ways as
described below.

Tropospheric propagation
On frequencies above 30 MHz, it is found that the troposphere has an increasing effect on radio
signals and radio communications systems. The radio signals are able to travel over greater
distances than would be suggested by line of sight calculations.
The reason for the increase in distance travelled by the radio signals is that they are refracted
by small changes that exist in the Earth's atmosphere close to the ground. It is found that the
refractive index of the air close to the ground is very slightly higher than that higher up. As a
result the radio signals are bent towards the area of higher refractive index, which is closer to
the ground. It thereby extends the range of the radio signals.

Enhanced conditions
These extended distances result from much greater changes in the values of refractive index over
the signal path. This enables the signal to achieve a greater degree of bending and as a result
follow the curvature of the Earth over greater distances.
Under some circumstances the change in refractive index may be sufficiently high to bend the
signals back to the Earth's surface at which point they are reflected upwards again by the Earth's
surface. In this way the signals may travel around the curvature of the Earth, being reflected by
its surface. This is one form of "tropospheric duct" that can occur.
It is also possible for tropospheric ducts to occur above the Earth's surface. These elevated
tropospheric ducts occur when a mass of air with a high refractive index has a mass of air with a
lower refractive index underneath and above it as a result of the movement of air that can occur
under some conditions. When these conditions occur the signals may be confined within the
elevated area of air with the high refractive index and they cannot escape and return to earth. As
a result they may travel for several hundred miles, and receive comparatively low levels of
attenuation. They may also not audible to stations underneath the duct and in this way create a
skip or dead zone similar to that experienced with HF ionospheric propagation.
The refractive index of the atmosphere varies according to a variety of factors. Temperature,
atmospheric pressure and water vapor pressure all influence the value. Even small changes in
these variables can make a significant difference because radio signals can be refracted over
whole of the signal path and this may extend for many kilometers.

Mechanism behind tropospheric propagation

Tropospheric propagation effects occur comparatively close to the surface of the Earth. The radio
signals are affected by the region that is below an altitude of about 2 kilometres. As these regions

are those that are greatly affected by the weather, there is a strong link between weather
conditions and radio propagation conditions and coverage.
Under normal conditions a there is a steady gradient of the refractive index with height, the air
being closest to the Earth's surface having the highest refractive index. This is caused by several
factors. Air having a higher density and that containing a higher concentration of water vapour
both lead to an increase in refractive index. As the air closest to the Earth's surface is both more
dense (as a result of the pressure exerted by the gases above it) and has a higher concentration of
water vapour than that higher up mean that the refractive index of the air closest to the earth's
surface is the highest.
Normally the temperature of the air closest to the Earth's surface is higher than that at a greater
altitude. This effect tends to reduce the air density gradient (and hence the refractive index
gradient) as air with a higher temperature is less dense.
However, under some circumstances, what is termed a temperature inversion occurs. This
happens when the hot air close to the earth rises allowing colder denser air to come in close to
the Earth. When this occurs it gives rise to a greater change in refractive index with height and
this results in a more significant change in refractive index.
Temperature inversions can arise in a number of ways. One of the most dramatic occurs when an
area of high pressure is present. A high pressure area means that stable weather conditions will
be present, and during the summer they are associated with warm weather. The conditions mean
that air close to the ground heats up and rises. As this happens colder air flows in underneath it
causing the temperature inversion. Additionally it is found that the greatest improvements tend to
occur as the high-pressure area is moving away and the pressure is just starting to fall.
A temperature inversion may also occur during the passage of a cold front. A cold front occurs
when an area of cold air meets an area of warm air. Under these conditions the warm air rises
above the cold air creating a temperature inversion. Cold fronts tend to move relatively quickly
and as a result the improvement in propagation conditions tends to be short lived.

Multipath propagation basics

Multipath radio signal propagation occurs on all terrestrial radio links. The radio signals not only
travel by the direct line of sight path, but as the transmitted signal does not leave the transmitting
antenna in only the direction of the receiver, but over a range of angles even when a directive
antenna is used. As a result, the transmitted signals spread out from the transmitter and they will
reach other objects: hills, buildings reflective surfaces such as the ground, water, etc. The signals
may reflect of a variety of surfaces and reach the receiving antenna via paths other than the direct
line of sight path.

Multipath fading
Signals are received in a terrestrial environment, i.e. where reflections are present and signals
arrive at the receiver from the transmitter via a variety of paths. The overall signal received is the

sum of all the signals appearing at the antenna. Sometimes these will be in phase with the main
signal and will add to it, increasing its strength. At other times they will interfere with each other.
This will result in the overall signal strength being reduced.
At times there will be changes in the relative path lengths. This could result from either the
transmitter or receiver moving, or any of the objects that provides a reflective surface moving.
This will result in the phases of the signals arriving at the receiver changing, and in turn this will
result in the signal strength varying. It is this that causes the fading that is present on many
signals.
It can also be found that the interference may be flat, i.e. applied to all frequencies equally across
a given channel, or it may be selective, i.e. applying to more to some frequencies across a
channel than others.A more in depth description of multipath fading is given in a page referenced
in the "Related Articles" section on the left hand side of this page below the main menu.

Interference caused by multipath propagation

Multipath propagation can give rise to interference that can reduce the signal to noise ratio and
reduce bit error rates for digital signals. One cause of a degradation of the signal quality is the
multipath fading already described. However there are other ways in which multipath
propagation can degrade the signal and affect its integrity.
One of the ways which is particularly obvious when driving in a car and listening to an FM
radio. At certain points the signal will become distorted and appear to break up. This arises from
the fact that the signal is frequency modulated and at any given time, the frequency of the
received signal provides the instantaneous voltage for the audio output. If multipath propagation
occurs, then two or more signals will appear at the receiver. One is the direct or line of sight
signal, and another is a reflected signal. As these will arrive at different times because of the
different path lengths, they will have different frequencies, caused by the fact that the two signals
have been transmitted by the transmitter at slightly different times. Accordingly when the two
signals are received together, distortion can arise if they have similar signal strength levels.
Another form of multipath propagation interference that arises when digital transmissions are
used is known as Inter Symbol Interference, ISI. This arises when the delay caused by the
extended path length of the reflected signal. If the delay is significant proportion of a symbol,
then the receiver may receive the direct signal which indicates one part of the symbol or one
state, and another signal which is indicating another logical state. If this occurs, then the data can
be corrupted.

How intersymbol interference can be avoided

One way of overcoming this is to transmit the data at a rate the signal is sampled, only when all
the reflections have arrived and the data is stable. This naturally limits the rate at which data can
be transmitted, but ensures that data is not corrupted and the bit error rate is minimised. To
calculate this the delay time needs to be calculated using estimates of the maximum delays that
are likely to be encountered from reflections.
Using the latest signal processing techniques, a variety of methods can be used to overcome the
problems with multipath propagation and the possibilities of interference.

OFDM and multipath propagation

In order to meet the requirements to transmit large amounts of data over a radio channel, it is
necessary to choose the most appropriate form of signal bearer format. One form of signal lends
itself to radio data transmissions in an environment where reflections may be present is
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex, OFDM. An OFDM signal comprises a large number
of carriers, each of which are modulated with a low bit rate data stream. In this way the two
contracting requirements for high data rate transmission, to meet the capacity requirements, and
low bit rate to meet the intersymbol interference requirements can be met.

Note on OFDM:

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM) is a form of transmission that uses a large
number of close spaced carriers that are modulated with low rate data. Normally these signals
would be expected to interfere with each other, but by making the signals orthogonal to each
other there is no mutual interference. The data to be transmitted is split across all the carriers to
give resilience against selective fading from multi-path effects..
Click on the link for an OFDM tutorial

OFDM is the modulation format that is used for many of today's data transmission formats. The
applications include 802.11n Wi-Fi, LTE (Long Term Evolution for 3G cellular
telecommunications), LTE Advanced (4G), WiMAX and many more. The fact that OFDM is
being widely used demonstrates that it is an ideal format to overcome multipath propagation
problems.

MIMO
While multipath propagation creates interference for many radio communications systems, it can
also be used to advantage to provide additional capacity on a given channel. Using a scheme
known as MIMO, multiple input multiple output, it is possible to multiple the data capacity of a
given channel several times by using the multipath propagation that exists.

Note on MIMO:

Two major limitations in communications channels can be multipath interference, and the data
throughput limitations as a result of Shannon's Law. MIMO provides a way of utilising the
multiple signal paths that exist between a transmitter and receiver to significantly improve the
data throughput available on a given channel with its defined bandwidth. By using multiple
antennas at the transmitter and receiver along with some complex digital signal processing,
MIMO technology enables the system to set up multiple data streams on the same channel,
thereby increasing the data capacity of a channel.
Click on the link for a MIMO tutorial
In view of the advantages that MIMO offers, many current wireless and radio communications
schemes are using it to make far more efficient use of the available spectrum. The disadvantage
to MIMO is that it requires the use of multiple antennas, and with modern portable equipment
such as cell phones being increasingly small, it can be difficult to place tow sufficiently spaced
antennas onto them.
Multipath propagation is an issue for any radio communications system. Ranging from the short
range wireless communications such as Wi-Fi though the cellular and longer range data schemes
such as WiMAX though to VHF links where troposheric propagation may affect the signal path,
through to HF systems using the ionosphere for reflections. In all of these systems, the effects of
multipath propagation can be seen and experienced. Any form of communications, therefore has
to be able to accommodate the effects of the multipath propagation in one way or another.

Free Space Path Loss: Details, Formula, Calculator

- summary, tutorial or overview about the free space path loss, FSPL, and how to calculate
the loss using the RF path loss formula or equation with free space path loss calculator.

The free space path loss, FSPL, is used in many areas for predicting radio signal strengths that
may be expected in a radio system.
Although the free space path loss does not hold for most terrestrial situations because of other
effects from the ground, objects in the path and the like, there are still very many situations in
which it can be used. It is also useful as the basis for understanding many real life radio
propagation situations.
Accordingly, the free space path loss, FSPL, is an essential basic parameter for many RF
calculations. It can often be used as a first approximation for many short range calculations.
Alternatively it can be used as a first approximation for a number of areas where there are few
obstructions. As such it is a valuable tool for many people dealing with radio communications
systems.

Free space path loss

In addition to this, these free space path loss, FSPL, calculations can be used in wireless survey
tools where the free space loss is calculated and other scenarios added to provide an overall view
of the signal strength at a given point. With the growing requirements to be able to analyse
wireless or radio coverage, wireless survey tools are being used increasingly to enable coverage
to be predicted at the early stages of design. Accordingly these wireless survey tools are being
used increasingly in the development and installation of radio and wireless systems.

Free space path loss basics

The free space path loss, also known as FSPL is the loss in signal strength that occurs when an
electromagnetic wave travels over a line of sight path in free space. In these circumstances there
are no obstacles that might cause the signal to be reflected refracted, or that might cause
additional attenuation.

The free space path loss calculations only look at the loss of the path itself and do not contain
any factors relating to the transmitter power, antenna gains or the receiver sensitivity levels.
These factors are normally address when calculating a link budget and these will also be used
within radio and wireless survey tools and software.
To understand the reasons for the free space path loss, it is possible to imagine a signal spreading
out from a transmitter. It will move away from the source spreading out in the form of a sphere.
As it does so, the surface area of the sphere increases. As this will follow the law of the
conservation of energy, as the surface area of the sphere increases, so the intensity of the signal
must decrease.
As a result of this it is found that the signal decreases in a way that is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance from the source of the radio signal in free space.

Whilst the free space path loss is taken to be inversely proportional to the square of the distance,
in most terrestrial (non-free space) cases this basic formula has to be altered because of the
effects of the earth and obstacles including trees, hills, buildings, etc.. In these cases the exponent
value is typically in the range of 2 to 4. In some environments, such as buildings, stadiums and
other indoor environments, the path loss exponent can reach values in the range of 4 to 6. In
other words for the very worst case scenarios the signal may fall as the distance to the power six.
Tunnels which can act as a form of waveguide can result in a path loss exponent values of less
than 2.
As an example many cellular operators base their calculations for terrestrial signal reduction
around the inverse of the distance to the power 4.

Free space path loss formula

The free space path loss formula or free space path loss equation is quite simple to use. Not only
is the path loss proportional to the square of the distance between the transmitter and receiver,
but the signal level is also proportional to the square of the frequency in use for other reasons
explained in a section below.

Where:
FSPL is the Free space path loss
d is the distance of the receiver from the transmitter (metres)
is the signal wavelength (metres)
f is the signal frequency (Hertz)
c is the speed of light in a vacuum (metres per second)
The speed of light is 2.99792458 x 10^8 metres per second, although for most practical purposes,
this is taken to be 3 x 10^8 metres per second.
The free space path loss formula is applicable to situations where only the electromagnetic wave
is present, i.e. for far field situations. It does not hold true for near field situations.

Free space loss formula frequency dependency

Although the free space loss equation given above seems to indicate that the loss is frequency
dependent. The attenuation provided by the distance travelled in space is not dependent upon the
frequency. This is constant.
The reason for the frequency dependence is that the equation contains two effects:
1. The first results from the spreading out of the energy as the sphere over which the energy is
spread increases in area. This is described by the inverse square law.

2. The second effect results from the antenna aperture change. This affects the way in which any
antenna can pick up signals and this term is frequency dependent.

As one constituent of the path loss equation is frequency dependent, this means that there is a
frequency dependency within the complete equation.

Decibel version of free space path loss equation

Most RF comparisons and measurements are performed in decibels. This gives an easy and
consistent method to compare the signal levels present at various points. Accordingly it is very
convenient to express the free space path loss formula, FSPL, in terms of decibels. It is easy to
take the basic free space path loss equation and manipulate into a form that can be expressed in a
logarithmic format.

Where:
d is the distance of the receiver from the transmitter (km)
f is the signal frequency (MHz)

Effect of antenna gain on path loss equation

The equation above does not include any component for antenna gains. It is assumed that the
antenna gain is unity for both the transmitter. In reality, though, all antennas will have a certain
amount of gain and this will affect the overall affect. Any antenna gain will reduce the "loss"
when compared to a unity gain system. The figures for antenna gain are relative to an isotropic
source, i.e. an antenna that radiates equally in all directions.

Free space path loss parameters

Where:
Gtx is the gain of the transmitter antenna relative to an isotropic source (dBi)
Grx is the gain of the receiver antenna relative to an isotropic source (dBi)
Normally the transmitter and receiver gain levels will incorporate any feeder losses which are
subtracted from the antenna gain. In this way performance between the transmitter and receiver
interfaces are provided.
The free space path loss equation or formula given above, is an essential tool that is required
when making calculations for radio and wireless systems either manually or within applications
such as wireless survey tools, etc. By using the free space path loss equation, it is possible to
determine the signal strengths that may be expected in many scenarios. While the free space path
loss formula is not fully applicable where there are other interactions, e.g. reflection, refraction,
etc as are present in most real life applications, the equation can nevertheless be used to give an
indication of what may be expected. It is obviously fully applicable to satellite systems where the
paths conform closely to the totally free space scenarios. .......

Fading
When signals are propagated over extended distances as a result of enhanced tropospheric
propagation conditions, the signals are normally subject to slow deep fading. This is caused by
the fact that the signals are received via a number of different paths. As the winds in the
atmosphere move the air around it means that the different paths will change over a period of
time. Accordingly the signals appearing at the receiver will fall in and out of phase with each
other as a result of the different and changing path lengths, and as a result the strength of the
overall received signal will change.
Any terrestrial signals received at VHF and above will be subject to the prevailing propagation
conditions caused by the troposphere. Under normal conditions it should be expected that signals
will be able to be received beyond the normal line of sight distance. However under some
circumstances these distances will be considerably increased and significant levels of
interference may be experienced.

Radio Signal Path Loss

Radio signal path loss is a particularly important element in the design of any radio communications
system or wireless system. The radio signal path loss will determine many elements of the radio
communications system in particular the transmitter power, and the antennas, especially their gain,
height and general location. The radio path loss will also affect other elements such as the required
receiver sensitivity, the form of transmission used and several other factors.
Accordingly, path loss calculations are used in many radio and wireless survey tools for determining
signal strength at various locations. These wireless survey tools are being increasingly used to help
determine what radio signal strengths will be, before installing the equipment. For cellular operators
radio coverage surveys are important because the investment in a macrocell base station is high. Also,

wireless survey tools provide a very valuable service for applications such as installing wireless LAN
systems in large offices and other centres because they enable problems to be solved before
installation, enabling costs to be considerably reduced. Accordingly there is an increasing importance
being placed onto wireless survey tools and software.

Signal path loss basics

The signal path loss is essentially the reduction in power density of an electromagnetic wave or
signal as it propagates through the environment in which it is travelling.
There are many reasons for the radio path loss that may occur:

Free space loss: The free space loss occurs as the signal travels through space without
any other effects attenuating the signal it will still diminish as it spreads out. This can be
thought of as the radio communications signal spreading out as an ever increasing sphere.
As the signal has to cover a wider area, conservation of energy tells us that the energy in
any given area will reduce as the area covered becomes larger.
Absorption losses: Absorption losses occur if the radio signal passes into a medium
which is not totally transparent to radio signals. This can be likened to a light signal
passing through transparent glass.
Diffraction: Diffraction losses occur when an object appears in the path. The signal can
diffract around the object, but losses occur. The loss is higher the more rounded the
object. Radio signals tend to diffract better around sharp edges.
Multipath: In a real terrestrial environment, signals will be reflected and they will reach
the receiver via a number of different paths. These signals may add or subtract from each
other depending upon the relative phases of the signals. If the receiver is moved the
scenario will change and the overall received signal will be found vary with position.
Mobile receivers (e.g. cellular telecommunications phones) will be subject to this effect
which is known as Rayleigh fading.
Terrain: The terrain over which signals travel will have a significant effect on the
signal. Obviously hills which obstruct the path will considerably attenuate the signal,
often making reception impossible. Additionally at low frequencies the composition of
the earth will have a marked effect. For example on the Long Wave band, it is found that
signals travel best over more conductive terrain, e.g. sea paths or over areas that are
marshy or damp. Dry sandy terrain gives higher levels of attenuation.
Buildings and vegetation: For mobile applications, buildings and other obstructions
including vegetation have a marked effect. Not only will buildings reflect radio signals,
they will also absorb them. Cellular communications are often significantly impaired
within buildings. Trees and foliage can attenuate radio signals, particularly when wet.
Atmosphere: The atmosphere can affect radio signal paths. At lower frequencies,
especially below 30 - 50MHz, the ionosphere has a significant effect, reflecting (or more
correctly refracting) them back to Earth. At frequencies above 50 MHz and more the
troposphere has a major effect, refracting the signals back to earth as a result of changing
refractive index. For UHF broadcast this can extend coverage to approximately a third
beyond the horizon.

These reasons represent some of the major elements causing signal path loss for any radio
system.

The Fundementals
Introduction Maxwell's equations Plane waves Free space loss Gas Loss Refraction Diffraction
Reflections Troposcatter Rain effects Vegetation Statistics Link budgets Noise Multipath
Measurements Models

Beyond the Horizon

You might imagine waves travel along straight lines for ever, or until they hit something. For a
transmitter on the ground, any power radiated above the horizon will go into space. Horizontally
beamed signals will travel to the horizon and then be absorbed, signals below horizontal will be
absorbed or scatter into space.

Rule of thumb distance to radio horizon (km) versus transmitter height (m) d = 4.12h

We know signals do propagate beyond the horizon and the major mechanisms are:

Refraction - bending of signals towards ground

Scattering - from eddies in the air, from rain , from reflecting surfaces and objects

Diffraction - from terrain, buildings and vegetation

Atmospheric Refraction

To understand refraction, which is the atmospheric bending of the radio path away from a
straight line, we need to remember Snell's law:

Willebrord Snel van Royen (15801626) was a Dutch astronomer and mathematician and is most
famous for his law of refraction, which is now known as "Snell's law". In 1617 he reported on an
experiment to measure the distance between Alkmaar and Bergen op Zoom which are separated
geographically by one degree with the aim of determining the radius of the Earth. He measured
one degree to be equal to 107.4 km, which was only 3km out. He also developed new method for
calculating . He discovered his law of refraction in 1621.
Refractive index vs Height
As we move to higher altitudes we have lower pressures and lower temperatures. As a result the
refractive index of the atmosphere usually falls with height.
Radio waves get bent downwards and are able to propagate beyond the geometric horizon,
which extends range.

To find out how much, we need to know how the refractive index of air varies with height. This
requires the introduction of a new "N" unit.
N - Units
The refractive index of air is very close to 1. Typically the refractive index n = 1.0003 at sea
level and this is most tedious - there are lots of decimals that must be used because the fine detail
is important, so we define a new unit, the "N" unit where:
N = (n - 1) x 1 000 000
N is typically 310 at sea level in the UK. The value of N can be calculated from this formula:

Where:
P = dry pressure, ~1000mb
T = temperature, ~300k
e = water vapour partial pressure ~40mb
The dry term depends only on pressure and temperature, the wet term also depends on the water
vapour concentration. The temperature, pressure and water vapour pressure vary with time and
space.
Pressure falls exponentially with height, the scale height, where it drops to 1/e of the sea level
value is around 8km. (This value of e is not the water vapour pressure, it is the constant e from
natural logs and has the value 2.718). Scale heights are used frequently in describing functions
that decrease exponentially.
Temperature usually falls by 1oC/100m in the first few km above sea level.
Water partial pressure is much more complex, it is strongly governed by the weather and is
limited to the saturated vapour pressure - the amount of moisture the air can hold. Once the
temperature drops below 0C the excess water vapour condenses out as clouds. The saturated
water vapour pressure is around 40 mbar at 300K (a warm day) and 6mbar at 273K (freezing).
The height above the ground where the air temperature decreases to zero C is called the zero

degree isotherm. It is typically at a few km in altitude, near the cloud base. Practically, in the UK
climate, the amount of water vapour above 2-3km is negligible.
The result of al this is that the refractive index normally falls exponentially with height in a
standard atmosphere. The scale height of the exponential is ~7.4km and as is shown below, in
the first 1000m we can approximate this pretty well with a straight line with a slope ~ -40 N/km.

Representing an exponential function as a straight line is cheating, but it is a good enough

approximation up to 1-2km or so. Beware of this cheat when planning systems on top of
mountains.

Super-refraction

If dN/dh exceeds -157 N units, signals will be refracted by more than the curvature of the Earth
and be trapped. We call this super-refraction.

Why the -157 figure? To explain, recall that N typically falls by 40 units per km of height. We
call this the lapse rate of N.
The rate of change of angle of the ray d/dh ~ dn/dh ~ dN/dh x106 which we find from Snells
law and through applying the small angle approximation sin()~tan()~() and

The radius of the Earth is ~ 6371 km. To just follow Earth curvature, d/dh needs to equal the
curvature of the earth, which is found to be -1.57x10-4 radians/km if you do the maths.
Remember N units are a million x ( refractive index - 1). So that is why dN/dh = -157 N units/km
is the figure required for a radio wave to just follow Earth.
The equivalent Earth radius
Many models are simpler if we can treat radio waves as if they were traveling along straight lines
in a standard atmosphere (dN/dh = -40)
We can achieve this by pretending the Earth has a larger radius which we call the equivalent
Earth radius Re.

We define the k factor k such that Re = k R. Typically Re = 4/3 R in the UK, i.e. the k factor is
4/3.
Having done this we can then study paths for clearance by drawing straight lines rather than
curves across a terrain profile. The ability to draw straight lines is practically, very important. It
also simplifies propagation prediction software used in link planning. Nobody does it by hand
any more. The image shows a path profile where line of sight is blocked. The red ovals show the
Fresnel ellipsoids, in this case the first. These will be covered when we come on to study
diffraction, but for a link to be line of sight, no-terrain should enter into this Fresnel ellipsoid.

Example of a path profile

(note the red curves represent Fresnel zones, to be covered later)

Ducting and Inversions

Non-standard atmospheres can lead to anomalous propagation. Pressure tends to be quickly

restored to an equilibrium, so the most important are variations in the water vapour concentration
and temperature. Ducts tend to form when either Temperature is increasing, or water vapour
concentration is decreasing, unusually rapidly with height. For example:

Ducts can occur either at ground level or be elevated. Depending on the terminal height, the
signal may or may not couple into a duct. To couple into and remain in a duct the angle of
incidence must be small, typically less than 1o.

Duct depth and Roughness are also important. If the duct depth is small compared to the
wavelength, energy will not be trapped. If the roughness is large compared to the wavelength,
energy will be scattered out of the duct. Surface ducts have the ground as the lower boundary and
energy will be lost to the terrain, vegetation etc.

Elevated ducts can allow signals to propagate for very long distances beyond the geometric
horizon. It is possible for intermediate terminals to be below the elevated duct and not able to
couple into it resulting in non-monotonic path loss with range, rather similar to the skip zone at
HF. A good example of the temperature inversion occurred on 7th November 2006. Strong
inversions like this are unusual in the UK.

The refractivity profiles (http://weather.uwyo.edu/upperair/sounding.html) show a widespread

sharp decrease in N with height. This gave rise to strong super-refraction and caused some
interesting anomalous propagation effects with long range interference to services.

What causes conditions like this?

Causes of Ducting
Briefly the weather alters the temperature, pressure and humidity of regions of air as they are
moved about, mixed up, elevated and depressed by cyclones and anti-cyclones, and are heated by
the sun and cool down through radiation at night. There are several major ducting mechanisms:
Evaporation Ducts
There is usually a region extending for a few metres above the surface of the sea where the water
vapour pressure is high due to evaporation. This also occurs over large bodies of inland water,
for example the great lakes. The thickness of this evaporation duct varies with temperature,
typically it extends to 5m above the surface in the North sea, 10-15m in the Mediterranean and
often much more over warm seas as in the Caribbean and Gulf. These ducts have a significant
effect on Shipping and have been extensively researched. It is the reason that VHF/UHF
propagation over sea can extend to great distances causing all sorts of international frequency coordination problems. It is also why you might want to get your warships anti-aircraft radar
antenna nice and high.
Temperature Inversions
Usually, temperature falls with height by about 1 degree centigrade per 100m. On clear nights
the ground cools quickly by radiation and this can result in a temperature inversion, where the air
temperature rises with height. This happens when solar radiation during the day heats up the
ground and the warm ground raises the temperature of the air near to it. This warm air rises as
thermals. On clear nights the ground can cool very quickly, also cooling the air close to it. This
results in the situation just after sunset where there is cool air close to the ground with warm air
above it. This is a temperature inversion.
If the air is dry, the temperature term in the equation of N above becomes dominant and super
refraction and ducting can occur. This is effect particularly common in desert regions.
If there is significant water vapour the relative humidity can quickly rise to 100% and excess
vapour condenses out as fog. This condensation reduces the water vapour density near the
ground. There is then cold dry air near the ground, with warmer moister air above. This results in
sub-refraction which can lead to multipath on otherwise apparently perfectly good line of sight
links.
Subsidence
This is a mechanism that can lead to elevated ducts and is associated with high pressure weather
systems - anticyclones. Descending air that has been forced downwards by the anticyclone heats
up as it is compressed. Remember, air pressure always falls with height so air that is descending
must be compressed and compressing air causes it to heat up. This descending air may become
warmer than the air below it, leading to an elevated temperature inversion. This all happens at

around 1-2km above the ground, which is too high to affect anyone except highly elevated
stations, as the angle will be too large for a ground based station to couple into the duct. As the
anticyclone evolves the air around the edges subsides and this brings the inversion layer closer to
the ground. A similar descending effect can happen at night. In general, the inversion layer is at
its lowest close to the edge of the anticyclone and at its highest highest in the middle.
Anticyclones and consequently temperature inversions, often exist over large continents for long
periods.
Advection
This is the movement of air masses, typically occurring in early evening in the summer when air
from a warm land surface advects over the cooler sea. This warm air mixes with the cooler air
which will be relatively moist as it is close to the surface of the sea. This then extends the height
of the evaporation duct and can cause high humidity gradients together with temperature
inversion that forms a surface duct within the first few 100m above the sea. These ducts do not
persist over land and are a coastal effect. Typically in the UK they are associated with warm
anticyclonic weather over the continent of Europe and advection out over the north sea. They
tend to be weaker than subsidence ducts but they do occur relatively often over the North Sea
and can persist for many days. For example, it is relatively common for UHF signals to
propagate well beyond line of sight from the East coast of England across the North Sea into the
low countries.
The picture below shows what the ITU-R consider to be the global incidence of ducting. It
replaces an earlier model that only used Latitude.This really does still need to be tested some
more as it may be more of a reflection of Matlab plotting routines for sparse data than actual
reality. Use with care.

The original model was very crude:

Frequency of occurrence
Evaporation ducts - happen all the time around the UK and a widespread duct frequently forms
over the sea. Surface ducts occur for around 6% of time, they tend to be up to 300m in height and
cover ~100km. This is a fairly low incidence compared to other regions. Surface ducts occur for
around 50% of the time in the Gulf, so they are not considered as anomalous in that region.
Elevated ducts exist for around 7% of time, they occur up to 3km in altitude, and cover ~100km.
Again this is low incidence compared to other regions Elevated ducts happen for 40% of the time
in Gulf.

Next
Mike Willis May 5th, 2007

Tropospheric ducting occurs when a radio signal is reflected off of the troposphere and continues
on a path that allows the signal to travel much farther than it normally would. This occurs when
the temperature in the atmosphere experiences a shift called an inversion. When a temperature
inversion occurs, radio waves that would normally continue into space beyond the Earths
atmosphere are instead reflected and continue to follow the curvature of the planet. Radio waves
have been able to travel in excess of 1,000 miles (about 1,600 km) because of tropospheric
ducting.
The Earths troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. It extends from 4 to 40 miles
(about 6 to 60 km) above the surface. During normal conditions, this layer allows radio waves to
pass through into the upper atmosphere. Other layers, such as the ionosphere, prevent waves
from being reflected higher up and returning to the ground.
During times of meteorological instability, the properties of the troposphere can change. When
cold air that is low to the ground has a warmer air mass pass over top of it, it causes a condition
called a temperature inversion. The cool air near the ground is moving slower than the warm air.
This means radio waves that encounter a temperature inversion will be carried faster over the
cold mass, bending the path of the wave downward and allowing it to curve with the surface.
Periods of relatively calm weather with clear skies are when tropospheric ducting is most often
experienced, which is indicative of the high pressure fronts that can cause temperature
inversions. The air masses have a high refractive index at this time, causing the radio waves to
move more slowly and aiding in the bending of their trajectory. The actual landscape between
the source of the signal and the horizon also can affect the distance it can travel, with flat land
and water being the most effective.
There are other natural occurrences that can cause tropospheric ducting. Cool water coming off
of a body of water under sun-warmed upper air masses can be a cause. In some areas of the
Mediterranean, the effect can last for months at a time.
An entire branch of enthusiasts has developed around tropospheric ducting and, more broadly,
tropospheric propagation. People who attempt to receive signals from long distances via
tropospheric ducting are called DXers. The term comes from the radio code DX, which stands
for distance. DXers are classified by groups depending on the type of signal they are attempting
to detect. These signals can be radio, ultra-high frequency (UHF) or very-high frequency (VHF).