Heat. Vent.

Tutorial forside 17-07-98 13:59 Side 1

Heating and Ventilation Tutorial

TABLE OF CONTENTS

VENTILATION
1. UNITS, FORMULAE, CONVERSIONS 2
2 HEATING AND COOLING 3
3. HEAT RECOVERY 5
4. MOLLIER DIAGRAM FOR HUMID AIR 7
5. VENTILATION PRINCIPLES 8
6. FANS 13
7. ACOUSTICS 16
8. COMFORT CRITERIA 22
9. VENTILATION OF VARIOUS AREAS 24
10 ELECTRICITY 29

HEATING
11. BUILDINGS`POWER REQUIREMENT FOR HEATING 32
12. BUILDINGS' ENERGY REQUIREMENTS 40
13. RADIANT HEAT 43
14. AIR CURTAINS 53
15. FAN HEATERS 57
16. CONVECTION HEATERS 60
17. REGULATING TEMPERATURE 61
18. APPENDIX 63

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1
1. UNITS, FORMULAE, CONVERSIONS Pyrox
VOLUME FLOW
3 3 3
1.1 FORMULA 1 m /s = 3,600 m /h 1 m /h =
-3 3
SYMBOL DENOMINATION SI UNIT 0.278 x 10 m /s
3
V volume m
P,Q effect, output W-j/s-Nm/s
Cp specific heat kJ/kg°C 1.3 Example with calculation of effect
capacity
W energy J-Nm-ws In our case, the most relevant units for
3
h(i) enthalpy kJ/kg calculating effect are m /s and kW.
t time s The following formula is often used to
v velocity m/s calculate effect:
3
L volume flow m /s-l/s Q = 0.3 x T x L [kcal/h]
3 3
d density kg/ m 0.3 - kcal/m
2 3
P pressure N/m -Pa L - m /h
2
P pressure diff. N/m -Pa
F force N This formula applies at roughly 20ºC and is
I electric current A actually as follows:
U electric voltage V Q=Lxcxdxt
T temperature °C-K c - specific heat of air
T temp. diff. °C-K 0.24 kcal/kgºC
3
m length m d - specific weight kg/m
2
A area/surface m d - 1.293 at 0ºC and
F frequency Hz 1.205 at 20ºC
W/ m °C
2
k thermal
transmit-tance According to the SI system:
coefficient 1 kJ = 0.239 kcal
w/ m °C
2
a heat Q = 0.24 x 1.2 x L x t [kW at 20ºC]
transmission 0.239
3
coefficient L = m /s
W/ m °C
2
l thermal conduc- Q = L x 1.2 x t
tivity coefficient
3
L = m /h
1.2 Conversion factors Q = L x 1.2 x t [kW at 20ºC]
3,600
POWER
1 kW = 1,360 hp 1 hp = 0.736 kW
-3
1 kW = 860 kcal/h 1 kcal/h = 1.163 x 10
kW

ENERGY
1 kJ = 0.239 kcal 1 kcal = 4.187 kJ

ENTHALPY
1 kJ/kg= 1 kcal/kg = 4.187 kJ/kg
0.239kcal/kg

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

1 kJ/kgºC = 0.239 kcal/kgºC
1 kcal/kgºC = 4.187 kJ/kgºC

FORCE
1 N = 0.102 kp 1 kp = 9.807 N

PRESSURE
1 Pa = 0.102 mm 1 mm H2O = 9.807 Pa
H 2O
2 2
1 bar = 1,020 kp/cm 1 kp/cm = 0.981 bar

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2
2 HEATING AND COOLING Pyrox
1.2.1 HEATING COIL Water volume
When a certain volume of air passes a heating To calculate pressure drop on the water side
coil, air temperature is increased from t1 to t2. of the heating coil and determine the size of
This process takes place at constant air the shunt valve, the water volume in a heating
humidity. The effect of the heating coil is coil must be given.
calculated as follows:
This is calculated as follows:
Q = L 1.2 ∆t [kW], where: q = Q [kg/s], where
. .

Cp ∆t
.

L = air flow rate, [m /s]

3

∆t = increase in temperature across the coil, Q = heating coil effect, [W]

[ºC] t = temperature increase of water through the
Example on calculation of required heating coil heating coil, [°C]
effect: Cp = 4.175 j/kg°C at a water temperature of
t1 = 0°C, RH = 50% 50°C
t2 = 20°C
3
L = 1.4 m /s 2.2 COOLING COIL
. .
Q = 1.4 1.2 20 = 34 kW In calculating the required cooling effect, it is
important to consider that part of the effect is
The process is shown in the Mollier diagram: used to separate the water (latent heat) and
the remaining effect to lower the air
temperature (sensible heat). It is therefore
necessary to incorporate enthalpy differences
in the calculations to absorb the latent heat
part. The cooling effect is calculated as
t RH=50% follows:
t 2

RH=100%
Q = L 1.2 ∆t [kW], where:
. .

t 1
L = air flow rate, [m /s]
3

h = enthalpy difference for air through the coil,

X
THE PROCESS IN THE MOLLIER-DIAGRAM [kJ/kg]

Example on calculation of cooling coil effect:

3
L = 1.4 m /s
t1 = 25ºC, RH = 50%
Air velocity t2 = 12ºC, RH = 100%
The air velocity across the heating coil is
calculated as follows:
L

v = L [m/s], where: V = A
A
3
L = air flow rate m /s
A = gross area m
2 t1 t2

CALCULATION OF
COOLING COIL EFFECT

Enthalpy can be obtained from tables or

simply from a Mollier diagram:
h1 = 50 kJ/kg
h2 = 33 kJ/kg
. .
Q = 1.4 1.2 (50 - 33) = 28.56 kW

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3
The process is illustrated in the Mollier
diagram, from which the separated volume of
water x and the distribution of latent and
sensible heat can be derived.

Dx
t h1
t1 RH=50%

Latent heat
RH=100%
h2
t2 Sensitive heat

X
THE PROCESS IN THE MOLLIER-DIAGRAM

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4
3. HEAT RECOVERY
3.1 ROTATING HEAT RECOVERY
EQUIPMENT
There are two types of rotating heat-recovery
systems: those that transfer humidity
(hygroscopic) and non-hygroscopic. When
using rotating heat recovery equipment,
correct pressure conditions in the unit are
important to prevent transfer of pollutants from
the exhaust side to the fresh air side.
With correct pressure drops across the filter
and correct placement of the fan, leakage will
be so minor that this type of recovery is highly
suitable to most types of "comfort" systems.
However, this type of recovery should be used
with caution where there is a risk of odour from
the exhaust air being transmitted to the fresh
air.
Efficiency
This type of recovery has a high level of
efficiency, ranging from 75% to 85%
depending on operating conditions:
ηh = h2 - h1 = enthalpy efficiency h2 - h1
h3 - h1 h3 - h1
ηx = x2 - x1 = humidity efficiency x2 Ð x1
x 3 - x1 x 3 - x1
ηt = t2 - t1 = temperature efficiency t2 - t1
t3 - t1 t3 - t1
In a hygroscopic rotor: ηt = ηx = ηh
t1 = air temperature prior to heat recovery unit,
supply air side
t2 = air temperature after heat recovery unit,
supply air side
t3 = air temperature prior to heat recovery unit,
exhaust side
t3
t1 t2
ROTATING HEAT
RECOVERY EQUIPMENT
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5
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Example
The temperature of the supply air after the
heat recovery unit can be determined when
the following data are given:
t3 (exhaust air) = 22°C
t1 (supply air) = 15°C
ηt (efficiency) = 80%
Risk of frost
Frost problems are rare in connection with
rotating heat recovery equipment. However,
there is a risk of freezing at very low outdoor
temperatures (below -10°C) and humid
exhaust air (exceeding 40%). In ordinary
rooms, the relative humidity is usually
considerably lower in case of very low outdoor
temperatures. In reality, this means that frost
problems are very minor with the use of
rotating heat recovery equipment.
3.2 PLATE HEAT EXCHANGERS
In plate heat exchangers, fresh air and
exhaust air flow on each side of a number of
dividing plates. Plate heat exchangers yield
slightly lower efficiency than rotating heat
recovery units, but on the other hand, there
are completely separate air currents for supply
air and exhaust, and accordingly they have a
slightly wider application range.
Humidity from the exhaust air may condense
and the heat recovery unit must therefore be
equipped with a condensate collection pan
and outlet.
Efficiency
Efficiency lies in the range of 60% - 70%.
Risk of frost
In case of low outdoor temperatures,
condensed water from the exhaust air may
freeze and the exchanger will eventually be
covered with ice. A common defrosting
method is to run the external air in a by-pass
circuit past the exchanger when the pressure
drop across the exchanger has reached a
certain level. It is important for the defrosting
system to function properly as efficiency will
decline as the exchanger is covered by ice.

3.3 LIQUID COIL HEAT EXCHANGERS
Heat exchange using liquid coils is a fluid-
related heat recovery system with heating
(cooling) coils in the exhaust and fresh air
ducts, respectively. One of the advantages of
this system is that exhaust and fresh air ducts
do not need to be combined. The coils can, for
example, be located in the attic and basement
respectively. A frost medium, usually a mixture
of ethylene-glycol and water, is circulated
through the piping system.
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3.4 HEAT-PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER
A heat-pipe heat exchanger is a closed piping
system with a self-circulating cooling medium,
where liquid evaporates in the hot part of the
pipe. The vapour flows over to the cold side
(fresh air side), where it is condensed. The
advantage of this type of heat exchanger is
that it can be applied at high temperatures.
Efficiency
Efficiency lies in the range of 50% - 80%.

Efficiency
Efficiency lies in the range of 50% - 60%.

Risk of frost
The percentage of glycol should be roughly
30% to ensure that the liquid mixture does not
freeze. At low outdoor temperatures (below -
10°C), the exhaust coil may freeze. A common
method of defrosting the coil is to stop the
circulation pump in the fluid circuit when the
pressure drop in the coil has increased by
50% for example.
Defrosting only takes a few minutes.

Circulation pump
If a circulation pump is selected, pressure can
be increased by about 10% and the volume of
water/glycol by about 30% compared to a
water system only.

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6
4. MOLLIER DIAGRAM FOR HUMID AIR Pyrox

h = enthalpy for 1 g dry air kJ/kg, kcal/kg

x = water content of 1 kg dry air kg/kg
¿ = relative humidity
t = dry thermometer temperature °C
tv = wet thermometer temperature °C

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7
5. VENTILATION PRINCIPLES
5.1 AIR QUALITY CONCEPTS
In ventilating various premises, it is normal to
differentiate between two principles: ventilation
by diffusion and ventilation by displacement.
Before taking a closer look at these two types
of ventilation, the most common air quality
terms should be defined:
Ventilation efficiency
Ventilation efficiency is a measure of how fast
a pollutant can be removed from a room. It is
defined as the relation between the
concentration of pollution in the exhaust air
and the concentration of pollution in the room.
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can remove major heating effects and achieve
a high degree of ventilation efficiency. Before
this principle is described in further detail, the
following terms should be defined:
Occupied zone
The occupied zone is that part of the room
normally occupied by people. For offices,
schools, etc., it is normal to calculate with a
distance of 0.5 m from an outer wall with
window, 0.2 m from other walls and 0.1 m - 1.8
m above floor level.

εm =
.
ce 100% where:
cm

ce = Concentration of pollution in the exhaust

air
cm = Mean concentration of pollution in the
entire room
Ventilation efficiency is a frequently used
parameter to evaluate a system's ability to
provide good atmospheric comfort. ε m
depends on the geometry of the room, location
of the valve and distribution of pollution in the
room.
With ventilation by displacement, it is possible
to achieve ventilation efficiency exceeding
100%, while the goal with ventilation by
diffusion is to achieve εm of about 100%.
Air-change efficiency
Air-change efficiency is a measure of how fast
the air in a room is replaced. It depends on the
distribution of air in the room, i.e. location and
size of valves, room geometry, location of heat
sources, etc.
OCCUPIED ZONE
Near zone
This denotes the zone near a low-impulse
valve where there is a floor draft. Velocity v =
2.0 m/s is used as the draft limit for a low-
impulse valve in a comfort system. The goal is
to achieve the smallest possible near zone for
a low-impulse valve.
With ventilation by displacement, the supply
mechanism is located at a low level, and air is
supplied directly to the occupied zone at a low
velocity. Convection flows from potential heat
sources give the air an upward motion and the
hot/polluted air is removed via exhaust valves
located at the ceiling.

εa = τn
.
100% where:
2 τm
.

τn = volume of fresh air supplied/room volume

τm = average "age" of air in the room

With ventilation by displacement, it is possible

to achieve εa of between 50% and 100%, while
full ventilation by diffusion yields εa of
approximately 50%.

5.2 Ventilation by displacement

Ventilation by displacement is a ventilation
form that has traditionally been applied for
ventilation of industrial premises. It can also be
used to advantage for many types of so-called
comfort ventilation. If properly dimensioned, it
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8
 Pyrox
Suggestions for sensible ventilation of
Air is supplied to the occupied zone at a auditoriums:
temperature of 1 - 5°C below the room
temperature. It is important that the
temperature is not too low below the room
temperature since this will yield a so-called
convection draft from the cold surface.
Temperatures of more than about 2°C below
the room temperature place special
requirements on the air-supply fittings.
VENTILATION OF AUDITORIUMS
Properly designed systems for ventilation by
displacement yield air of very good quality.
However, the principle has obvious restrictions
such as:
1. Ventilation by diffusion with air supplied
* The supply valves are large and require a lot from the ceiling/rear by, for example, vortex
of wall space diffusers. Outlet at the rear.
* The supply valves are often covered
* The near zone, where velocity exceeds
0.2 m/s, becomes too large
* The vertical temperature gradient becomes
too large; should not exceed 2-3°C.

It should also be mentioned that several heat

sources at various levels and with different
temperatures complicate matters. Combined
VENTILATION OF AUDITORIUMS
with movement in the room, this causes
displacement of air from the upper layer to the
lower zones. In practice, this will lead to
"ventilation by diffusion." 2. Diffuse supply of air under or in front of
seats. Supply of air beneath the seats has not
Ventilation of auditoriums other significance except that it is often
A common method of supplying air to practical to use the space below the seats as a
auditoriums is to supply air under the seats in supply chamber.
the belief that the air will float slowly upwards,
thus achieving a displacement effect. This is
not correct however. The air behaves like
water and "flows" downwards where it collects
before it flows slowly upwards towards the rear
outlet. The supply air mechanisms could just
as easily be installed at the front of the
auditorium.
Regardless of the location of supply air
mechanisms, experience shows that is difficult VENTILATION OF AUDITORIUMS
to achieve any real displacement effect.
Measurements and computer simulations for a
solution as outlined above indicate a
ventilation efficiency of roughly 100%, which 3. In addition to the above, the rear of the
entails complete agitation of the air. auditorium should be ventilated separately.
This is particularly the case when it serves as
Tests have also been carried out for traditional an entrance area so that users are not met by
ventilation with (vortex) diffusers in the ceiling. a "wall" of hot, polluted air.
This works satisfactorily, provided the outlet is
located towards the rear. Locating the outlet in
other spots may easily result in full short-
circuiting.

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9
 Pyrox
Design of the supply air systems in ventilation Example
by displacement The following data have been specified for an
office:
2
For displacement-type ventilation at premises Floor area 10 m
with normal heat sources in the form of Surplus heat 500 W
people, light, etc., experience shows that the Height to ceiling 2.7 m
temperature change between floor and ceiling Supply air mechanism K = 0.5
is roughly as shown in the figure below: The vertical temperature gradient must be less
than 3°C per m
3 2
a) Volume of supply air 5 m /h per m
3 2
b) Volume of supply air 10 m /h per m
Hm 3 2
t
D tot
c) Volume of supply air 15 m /h per m

Case a:
Room height

t
1.1m

D o

0.1 t °C
∆ttot = 500 = 30°C
ti tg tR tu .
50 1.2 . 1,000
TEMPERATURE CHANGE
BETWEEN FLOOR AND CEILING
3,600

∆to = 0.5 30 = 15°C

.

This yields a vertical temperature gradient of

15/2.6 = 5.8°C per m, which is too high.
∆ttot = tu - ti = Q
L ?C p Case b:

∆ttot = 15°C

∆to = 0.5 15 = 7.5°C

.
tu = temperature at ceiling, °C
ti = supply air temperature, °C
Q = addition of heat in the room, W This yields a vertical temperature gradient of
L = amount of air supplied, kg/s 7.5/2.6 = 2.88°C, which is satisfactory with
cp = specific heat capacity of air, 1,000 respect to the requirement.
Ws/kg°C
Room temperature is often defined as the
In the following, the conditions when heat is temperature 1.2 m above floor level. If in this
added in the form of pollution are reviewed. case there is a supply air temperature of 15°C,
The temperature difference between floor and the temperature at the outlet becomes 30°C,
ceiling is given by: and 0.1 m above floor level, the temperature
becomes 15 x 7.5 = 22.5°C. Furthermore:
∆to = tg - ti, where:
∆tR = tg + 1 . (tu - tg)
tg = temperature 0.1 m above floor level 2,6
ti = supply air temperature
∆tR = 22.5 + 1 . (30 - 22.5) = 25.4°C
Depending on the type of supply air 2,6
mechanism, this yields:
This is usually an acceptable maximum
∆to = K ∆ttot
. temperature.

K = 0.25 for supply air mechanisms with low

induction, such a filter mat or perforated plate
K = 0.50 for supply air mechanisms with high
induction.Furthermore:

∆ttot = tu - ti =

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10

Case c
If the supply air flow rate is increased to 15
3
m /h, the temperature gradient becomes
1.9°C/m and the room temperature 1.1 m
above floor level becomes 21.9°C.
These are excellent conditions.
If the supply air temperature is increased to
17°C, the temperature gradient remains the
same as before.
The room temperature rises to 24°C, which is
adequate in most cases.
In conclusion, it is possible to say that 15 m3/h
2
per m yields excellent conditions.
Since outdoor temperatures during summer
only rise above 17°C a few days of the year
most places in Norway, artificial cooling is not
normally required.
Proposed ventilation for industrial premises
Ventilation by displacement is well suited to
industrial premises with substantial pollution
and high heat loads.
The measurement of dust concentrations in
welding shops with displacement-type
ventilation indicates that the dust content of air
at floor level is 1/3 of the dust content under
the ceiling.
y Air throw l0.2
COANDA EFFECT
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5.3 VENTILATION BY DIFFUSION
Ventilation by diffusion involves the injection of
one or several air jets outside the occupied
zone. The jet absorbs large amounts of indoor
air and the velocity gradually decreases. The
occupied zone lies in the return flow and the
velocity here is about 0.7 times the final
velocity of the jet. In practice, there is often a
combination of the aforementioned conditions.
Definition of terms:
Coanda effect
If an supply valve is installed sufficiently near a
surface, the air jet will cling to the surface. Air
between the surface and the jet is carried
along, and since new air cannot flow from
above, a slight under-pressure occurs at the
surface and the jet is subjected to an upward
motion. For the jet to cling to the surface, Y
must not exceed 30 cm.
y
COANDA EFFECT
Air throw is defined as the distance from the
diffuser to the point in the jet where central
velocity has dropped to 0.2 m/s. Examples on
how large the air throw should be for typical
injection valve locations are shown below:
Rear injection l0.2 = 0.7 L
Injection from ceiling l0.2 = 0.5 L
L
H
VENTILATION BY DIFFUSION
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Indoor air velocity
Suitable air velocity in the occupied zone
depends on such conditions as activity,
cladding and air temperature. Empirical data
indicate that draft can be avoided in the
temperature range of 20 - 22°C if the air
velocity is less than 0.18 m/s.

Induction
A diffuser's ability to mix indoor air with the air
jet from the diffuser.
As an example, a high degree of induction
when supplying air at temperatures below
room temperature is favourable in avoiding
draft problems.

Jet drop in case of obstruction

The change of direction of air jets under the
ceiling when obstructed by girders, light
fittings, etc. Lights must be installed at a
distance from the ceiling to maintain a Coanda
effect.

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12
6. FANS Pyrox
The fan is an important part of any system for
transportation of air and gas.
Some of the central points regarding fan
properties are reviewed below.

The most common wheel shapes are:

1) Radial wheel
2) Francis wheel
3) Screw wheel
4) Axial wheel/propeller wheel

b>90°
b=90°
b<90°

Forward-curved blades Straight radial blades Backward-curved blades

WHEEL SHAPES

The wheels in groups 2 and 3 have blades

with double-curved surfaces which increases
production costs. Wheels in groups 3 and 4
are therefore the most common. Fans in group
1 have backward-curved blades, straight
blades or forward-curved blades.

Fan characteristics
The fan characteristic that denotes the
correlation between a fan's supply of air in
3
m /s and total pressure increase in Pascal
(Pa) can be illustrated with a diagram.
Depending on the wheel shape, the fan L10 x
Pd
characteristics will vary according to the angle
of the blades. Pt
The actual characteristic will deviate because
of losses as shown in figure 6.2.

Pa
b>90°

b=90°

b<90°

m 3/s
FAN CHARACTERISTICS

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13
The characteristics of fans with backward-
curved and forward-curved blades,
respectively, are roughly as shown in figure
6.3.

Pa Backward-curved blades

Forward-curved blades
(drum wheel)

m 3/s
FANS WITH BACKWARD-CURVED BLADES
AND FORWARD-CURVED BLADES

Choke lines
In addition to the fan characteristics, so-called
throttle regulation (choke) lines or operating
lines are included in the diagram. These are
parabolic, but because a logarithmic axis
system is often used, the choke lines are
shown as straight lines. The lines are
numbered from 1 to 10 as shown in fig. 6.4
The choke line number (l) can be calculated as
follows:

Pd = dynamic pressure at fan outlet

Pt = the fan's total pressure increase

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14

Fan efficiency
The efficiency is constant along a choke line.
Diagrams often show efficiency instead of
choke lines, fig. 6.4.
A fan's efficiency can also be shown as a
function of the choke line number, fig. 6.5.
Fans with backward-curved blades have the
highest maximum efficiency, up to 85% and
the operating point should lie within the area
between lines 1 and 2. Fans with forward-
curved blades have a lower maximum
efficiency, approximately 70%, and this is
achieved in the area between lines 4 and 5,
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Fan selection
Fan selection is based on the calculated total
pressure increase required (sum of pressure
losses) and desired air flow rate per time unit.
Normally, the desired operating point can be
achieved with several fan sizes. If a small fan
is selected, the operating point will lie far to the
right of the diagram, fig. 6.4. The result will be
low efficiency. If a larger fan is selected, the
operating point will lie further to the left of the
diagram and greater efficiency will be
achieved. The initial cost of a larger fan is
therefore often offset by lower operating costs.

Fig. 6.5 shows that fans with forward-curved

blades have higher efficiency at higher choke
line numbers.
Pa If because of space problems it is necessary
(90%)
1
2
(85%) to choose a small fan (for example in
3 (80%)
4 (75%) aggregates) that functions at a high choke line
5 (65%)
number, a fan with forward-curved blades will
often be a correct choice.
10

m 3/s
FAN EFFICIENCY

z%
Backward-curved blades
100

thus further to the right in the diagram.

80
Forward-curved blades

m 3/s
2 3 4 5

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15
7. ACOUSTICS
7.1 BASIC CONCEPTS
Definitions
Sound is the term for audible pressure
oscillation in an elastic medium. The sound
pressure oscillates around the atmospheric
pressure in a sinus-shaped sound movement,
provided the tone is pure.
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The power the sound exerts on a surface at a
right angle to the sound's spreading direction.
A logarithmic scale has been introduced to
obtain more manageable figures. The
correlation between the numeric values on this
scale better express how the human ear
perceives sounds of various strength. The
sound power level and sound pressure level
are therefore defined as follows:

Sound power level (LW):

N
= 10 ?log(
Sound pressure

)(dB )
P No
Pa

Tid
Atmospheric
pressure

T N = effect produced by sound sources (W)

-12
No = reference effect (W) (10 W)

Sound pressure level (LP):

P2 P
= 10 ?log( 2
) = 20 ?log( )
The following values can be defined on the Po Po
basis of the above:
P = the instantaneous value of the sound 2
pressure p = sound pressure (N/m = Pa)
-5
Peff = sound pressure efficiency po = reference pressure (Pa) (2*10 Pa)
Peff = Pa/2 - the value registered by sound
meters Different manufacturers operate with different
f = 1/T = frequency (Herz - Hz) references. It is therefore important for the
c = sound velocity (m/s) manufacturer to specify the reference used in
= wavelength (m) presenting sound data.

Whether a sound is audible to the human ear Example (fan):

depends on its frequency and volume. The The produced sound power from a fan is
-4
human ear can hear sounds in the 20Hz - N = 10 W
20,000 Hz frequency range. -12 . -4 . 8
The lowest sound pressure the human ear can LNref10 W = 10 log ( 10 ) = 10 log10 = 80
5
perceive lies at 2_10 Pa at 1,000 Hz. dB
-12
10
Sound that is perceived as undesired or -13 . -4 . 9
uncomfortable is usually considered NOISE. LNref10 W = 10 log ( 10 ) = 10 log10 = 90
dB
-13
Measuring units for noise 10
Sound power (N):
The quantity of energy per time unit which is These examples show that results may vary
generated in the form of sound from a sound depending on the reference used.
source.

Sound intensity (l):

The sound energy per time unit that flows
through a flat surface at a right angle to the
sound's spreading direction.

Sound pressure (p):

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Noise criteria NR/dBA
NR criterion:
This specifies the permissible sound pressure
level as a function of the frequency.
dBA criterion:
This furnishes the sound meter with an A filter
to attenuate sound with frequencies of less
than 1,000 Hz. There are also B and C filters.
An A filter is usually used in connection with
ventilation.
It can often be of interest to determine the
relationship between dBA and NR values.
This can be calculated roughly as follows:
dBA = NR + 5 (dB)
Addition and subtraction of dB values
Example:
There are two sound sources of respectively:
LW1 = 40 dB and LW2 = 38 dB
The resulting sound power level can be
derived mathematically by logarithmic addition.
However, it is more practical to use the
diagram below for addition and subtraction of
dB values, respectively. As can be seen from
the diagram, a sound level of LWR = 42 dB
results from the two sound sources.
ADDITION
Difference to be added to the highest dB value
Difference between dB values to be added
SUBTRACTION
Value to be subtracted from the highest dB
value Difference between dB values to be
subtracted
________________________________________________________________________
17
Pyrox
7.2 SOUND POWER AND SOUND
PRESSURE LEVEL
The connection between sound power level
and sound level
Sound power:
This is independent of the location of the
measuring point and the characteristics of the
surroundings.
Sound pressure:
This decreases with increasing distance to the
source. It depends on the room's acoustic
properties.
Note: If the sound pressure level has been
specified, additional information is required on
the acoustic properties of the room where the
measurements were taken. To avoid
uncertainties with respect to the interpretation
of sound data, it is therefore more appropriate
that the manufacturer specifies the sound
power level for his equipment.
Sound measurements normally entail
recording the sound pressure level. It is
therefore necessary to be aware of the
connection between sound power level and
sound pressure level. The total sound picture
in a room is affected by the location and
opening cross section of the sound source, as
well as the room surfaces' ability to absorb or
reflect sound.
In addition, direction factor Q can be defined
as a function of the size of the valve's cross
section, the measuring point's location
compared to the opening cross section, the
valve's location in the room and, finally, the
frequency at which the sound is measured. It
is then possible to set up the following
correlation between sound pressure level LP
and sound pressure level LW:
. .
LP = LW + 10 log ( Q + 4 n)
4πr
2
R
The Q/4πr fraction represents the direct
2
sound from the sound source, while 4/R
represents the reflected sound.
r = distance from sound source to measuring
point
Q = directional factor
R = room constant
 Pyrox
The room constant R is an expression of the Near zone and reverberation field
room's acoustic properties and can be defined The distance from a sound source to a point
as follows: where direct sound and reflected sound
equally contribute to the resulting sound
R = A [m Sabine]
2
pressure level is given by:
1α
_
2
A = the room's absorption (m Sabine) Q 4
= mean absorption coefficient of the room = ? r1 = 0,14 ? Q ?R
4πr 2
R
The following is normally understood by
absorption coefficient:
Near zone
α = la + lt At r <r1, the direct sound dominates and little is
li achieved by altering the room's acoustic
properties.
I = sound energy emitted
It = energy that penetrates the wall Reverberation field
Ia = energy that is absorbed by the wall When r>2 x r1 , the sound pressure is
practically independent of the distance, and
For an infinitely hard wall: = 0 only the reflected sound has any impact.
For an open window: = 1
Reverberation time
This implies that the absorption coefficient will This is the time it takes for the sound pressure
lie between 0 and 1. to drop to 60dB after the sound source has
been switched off.
The table below shows some typical mean
values for Ð, depending on type of room: Rooms with several sound sources
It is of interest to note how conditions develop
in a room with several sound sources. As an
Type of room a
example, it is quite common to have several
Sound studio, music 0.30-0.45 ventilation apertures in one room. As a first
rooms step, it is then necessary to specify where in
Housing, offices, hotel 0.10-0.15 the room measurement will take place.
rooms, conference Only the direct sound then affects one of the
rooms valves, while the others contribute reflected
Classrooms, hospital 0.05-0.10 sound. The correlation between sound
rooms pressure level and sound power level can then
be written as:
Factories, indoor 0.03-0.05
swimming pools . .
LP = LW + 10 log ( Q + 4 n)
4πr
2
Value A has previously been defined as the R
room's absorption. This value is derived from
the product of surface F and absorption factor n = number of valves
_. This value is thus called the room's
2
absorption and is actually measured in m . To
emphasise that an acoustic value is involved,
2
m Sabine is used.

________________________________________________________________________
18

Calculation example
A suitable valve to supply air to a room is to be
selected. You have the choice of a valve from
Pyrox or a valve from another manufacturer
called X. A comparison of the two with respect
to sound is to be performed.
Sound level requirement for the room:
NR30 (or close to 35 dBA)
According to manufacturer X's catalogue, the
sound pressure level is 30 dBA for the
applicable air flow rate. It is further stated that
this value applies to the reverberation field of a
2
room corresponding to 10 m Sabine.
For Pyrox's valve, a sound power level of 32
dBA is quoted for the corresponding air flow
rate.
Unless you know the correlation between, and
importance of, sound pressure level and
sound power level, it is easy to be misled into
believing that manufacturer X's valve has a
lower sound level than the corresponding
Pyrox valve. As will be demonstrated, the
circumstances are a bit more complex.
The sound data specified for manufacturer X's
valve apply to a room with a clearly defined
measuring point and clearly specified acoustic
properties. Before the valves can be
compared, the specified sound value must be
converted to a form where it is independent of
the measuring point and acoustic properties of
the room. It is therefore necessary to calculate
the sound power level of the valve.
.
LW = LP - 10 log ( Q + 4)
4πr R
2
The first fraction within the parenthesis equals
0, since measurement was performed in the
reverberation field. Furthermore, R_A = 10
2
m Sabine since this is a relatively hard room,
so that Ð can be set at approximately 0. This
will subsequently yield:
LW = 30 x 4 = 34 dBA
________________________________________________________________________
19
Pyrox
Accordingly, a sound pressure level of 30 dBA
corresponds to a sound power level of 34 dBA
for manufacturer X's valve. The sound data
from both manufacturers are now available in
a general form and it can be noted that in this
case the Pyrox valve came out ahead.
However, to determine whether the valves
meet the specified sound requirement, it is
necessary to calculate sound pressure on the
basis of the sound power level for the actual
room where the valve will be located. In this
case, the following data have been specified:
2
Room constant R: 38 m Sabine
Direction factor Q: 2 (generally applies to
ceiling-mounted
valves)
No. of valves: 2
Measuring point: The sound
requirement
applies to 1 m below
one of the valves
The actual sound pressure level using a Trox
valve in the relevant room can now be
calculated as follows:
. .
LP = 32 + 10 log ( 2 + 4 2) =
28dBA
4πr
2
38
This shows that the valve for the room in
question ends up well below the 35 dBA
requirement. Furthermore, it is important to
note that it is not possible to compare sound
data from various manufacturers unless the
manufacturers operate with the same
references.
As a general guideline in comparing the
specified sound data for Pyrox valves with
valves for which the sound pressure level is
2
specified at 10 m Sabine, 4 dbA can be
subtracted from the specified sound power
level to obtain the sound pressure level and
thus obtain comparable values.

7.3 Sound reduction
Sound reduction can basically be achieved in
two ways: by absorption and by reflection.
There are various stages of sound reduction
in a ventilation plant, including:
* Sound reduction in straight ducts
* Sound reduction in ducts with internal sound
insulation
* Sound reduction in bends and branch ducts
* Sound reduction in connection with exhaust
into
the chamber
* Sound reduction through changes in cross-
section
* Sound reduction through end reflection. At
the
point where a duct enters a room, part of the
sound is reflected back to the duct. This acts
as
a sound reduction for the room.
* Sound reduction through room absorption.
The difference between LW - LP can be
considered
as a sound reduction due to room
absorption.
* Sound reduction through sound absorbers. If
the
natural attenuation in a system is not
sufficient,
sound absorbers must be added.
The degree of sound reduction as a result of
the aforementioned stages can usually be
derived from tables, diagrams and the
manufacturer's data.
The following will examine sound reduction in
ducts with internal insulation since this a
simple method of reducing noise. Sound
reduction can roughly be estimated as follows:
D=K O α [db/m]
. . 1.4
A The sum of the values in 5 and 6 (standard
K = correction factor, approx. 0.7 at 250 Hz
O = absorbing circumference (m)
A = free duct area
_ = absorption coefficient
Q/A will vary with the shape of the valve's
cross section, and sound reduction can be
enhanced if the cross section is divided into
several ducts. This phenomenon serves as a
basis for inserting so-called bafflers in sound
absorbers to enhance sound reduction.
________________________________________________________________________
20
Pyrox
7.4 Sound calculations
Sound calculations to determine the required
sound reduction in the main sound absorber
installed after a fan or, for example, after a
damper. As a basis, use the room assumed to
be most exposed. This is usually the room with
the shortest main duct stretch from the fan to
the room. The following sound calculations
must then be performed item-by-item as
shown in the example below for an injection
system.
1. Use the room's permissible sound pressure
level from the injection system as a basis.
2. First, check that the selected valves meet
the requirement of item 1. If this is in order,
proceed to the next item.
3. The permissible sound pressure level from
the duct system can now be determined by
subtracting the value of item 2 logarithmically
from the value of item 1. As previously shown,
a diagram is used for this purpose.
4. Add sound reduction due to room
absorption to the value of item 3. (Standard
addition)
5. Add sound reduction due to end reflection to
the value of item 4. (Standard subtraction)
Having now proceeded from the room , past
the valve and into the duct system, the value
of item 5 corresponds to the permissible sound
power level in the ducts right after the valve
(since room absorption has been included).
Continue with the following:
6. Sound reduction in the duct, bends,
branches, etc. until the sound source is
reached.
addition) yields the permissible sound power
level just after the sound source.
 Pyrox
7. Find the sound source's sound power level
in the manufacturer's catalogue.

8. The difference between the values in item 7

and item 6 yields the sound reduction required
in the sound absorber.

A calculation as shown above must be

performed for each individual octave band.
Sound is normally most critical at frequencies
of 250 Hz and 500 Hz. Accordingly, it usually
suffices to perform calculations for these
frequencies.

There is user-friendly software program

available for these types of calculations,
which greatly facilitates the work.

________________________________________________________________________
21
8. COMFORT CRITERIA Pyrox
8.1 TOTAL HEAT LOSS PER PERSON 8.2 COMFORTABLE INDOOR AIR
DEPENDING ON TYPE OF WORK/ACTIVITY TEMPERATURE RANGE
The following premises show how humans
Activity Type of activity Total heat experience comfortable indoor temperatures,
level loss per depending on the outdoor temperature.
person, With increasing outdoor temperatures,
estimated increasing room temperatures are
value in W recommended.
I Working in a sitting
position, such as 100
reading and writing
II Light work standing,
laboratory work, 150
typing
III Moderate physical 200
labour
IV Heavy physical more than
labour 250

8.2 HEAT CONDUCTIVITY RESISTANCE OF

CONDITIONS:
CLOTHING
* Activity levels 1 and 2
* Medium to light clothing
TYPE OF CLOTHING HEAT
* Air temperature close to the surface
CONDUCTIVITY
temperature of the surrounding surface.
RESISTANCE,
2
R in m K/kW
Without clothing 0
5. INTERNAL AIR TEMPERATURE
Light summer clothing 80
TOLERANCE
Medium clothing 160
Air-conditioning plants for ventilation and
Warm clothing 240
heating only should not have overall local
deviations in room temperature of more than
Note: The approximate value of heat
±2.0K in the horizontal measuring zone of the
conductivity resistance is about r = 160
2 occupied area.
m K/kW = 1 clo.
For air-conditioning plants with cooling, these
deviations must not exceed ±1.5K, with the
exception of impact from heat sources.

________________________________________________________________________
22
 Pyrox
4. ROOM AIR VELOCITY
The validity of this penetration curve is subject
to the specified conditions.
A shift in change of conditions may occur.
Accordingly, the overall assumption of a room
air velocity of 0.2 m/s is often incorrect. To
determine the limit value of air velocity, it is
necessary to be familiar with the room, the
room's functions and the activities of the
people in the room.

THE CURVE APPLIES FOR:

* Activity level 1
* Medium clothing
* Air temperature close to the surface
temperature of the surrounding surfaces
* With a 50W increase, the critical curve can
be increased by 0.04 m/s
* With higher/lower heat conductivity
2
resistance of clothing than 80 m K/kW, the
critical curve may be transposed
correspondingly by 0.04 m/s.

________________________________________________________________________
23
9. VENTILATION OF VARIOUS AREAS
FOR VENTILATION OF VARIOUS AREAS,
REFERENCE IS MADE TO THE 1987
BUILDING GUIDELINES WHICH STATE:
47:52 PUBLIC BUILDINGS, PROFESSIONAL
BUILDINGS
Necessary ventilation must be calculated
taking the following factors into account:
* human load
* pollution from building materials, furniture
and
equipment
* pollution from special pollution sources
The volume of outdoor air that must be
supplied because of pollution is usually the
sum of the above items.
* Human load
Ð In rooms occupied by people for lengthy
periods, air must be supplied at a rate of
minimum 7 l/s per person
Ð For rooms occupied by people on and off
(e.g. schools, nursery schools), this volume of
air can be reduced according to the time the
premises are occupied.
Ð In rooms with limited user time (assembly
halls), air must be supplied at a rate of
minimum 4.5 l/s per person.
* Pollution from building materials, furniture
and equipment
Building materials, furniture and equipment
give off odour and other irritating effects, and
air must therefore be supplied at a rate of
2
minimum 0.7 l/s per m floor space. This value
has been established on a somewhat
uncertain basis and assumes that acceptable
"good" materials are used.
This calculation basis also applies to corridors,
auxiliary rooms and common areas. High room
temperatures and unfortunate selection of
materials may increase the need for ventilation
due to increased discharge of waste gases to
the internal air.
________________________________________________________________________
24
Pyrox
A temperature of less than 22°C is
recommended and has been used as a basis
for the calculations.
Experience dictates that emission of waste
gas and particles from building materials may
necessitate considerably more air to achieve
an acceptable dilution. In the first year of
operation, the air-conditioning plant should
therefore run 24 hours per day at full capacity.
The same applies after extensive renovation.
To avoid a high level of pollution at the start of
the day's work, the air-conditioning plant
should also run outside of working hours (if
necessary at reduced capacity or switched on
early enough for the pollution to be sufficiently
diluted before work begins in the premises).
* Pollution from special pollution sources
Extraction by hoods and/or encasing should
be used in areas with special, local pollution
sources to limit dispersion in the room. If it is
not possible to sufficiently limit dispersion, the
air flow rate required to dilute the pollution
must be calculated.
Normally, the air flow rate will depend on the
number of people. For rooms where the
number of people cannot be determined in any
other way, the values in table 47:521 can be
used as a guideline.
To obtain a proper indoor climate, the outdoor
air flow rates must be limited in each case on
the basis of pollution in a), b) and c). Table
47:522 shows examples of air flow rates in a)
and b) for various premises. In addition to
mechanical ventilation, there should be
windows that can be opened.
The law on protection against the harmful
effect of tobacco contains regulations that may
be of importance to the design of the air-
conditioning plant.
As an example, air supply to separate,
enclosed offices with air transfer to an exhaust
arrangement in the corridor will not be
acceptable in buildings where smoking is
permitted in individual, enclosed offices. In
addition, pollution from tobacco smoke will in
itself require greatly increased air flow rates,
see table 47:522.
9. VENTILATION OF VARIOUS AREAS Pyrox
REFERENCE IS ALSO MADE TO THE table 47:522
FOLLOWING GUIDELINES IN THE PREMISES External air flow rates due to Vents
WORKING ENVIRONMENT ACT ISSUED BY pollution from
a) b) c)
THE DIRECTORATE OF LABOUR peopl building special
INSPECTION: e and pollution
furnitur sources
* Administrative standards for pollution in e
l/(s equip)
a working environment l/(sp) l/(sm )
2

Offices and 7.0 0.7 Copying

* Climate and ventilation at indoor premises for Welding
workplaces light and Soldering
average work

table 47:521 Sales premises 7.0 0.7

Educational 5.5 0.7 Chemistry

PREMISES No. of people per
2 premises and rooms
100 m floor space activity rooms in Welding/So
Assembly halls 150 nurseries ldering
Gymnasiums 30
Gymnasium 7.0 0.7
Educational facilities 50
facilities
Offices 10
Sales premises 30 Assembly halls 4.5 0.7
Restaurant premises 100
Hotel rooms 7.0 0.7
No. of people Restaurants 7.0 0.7 Kitchen
The number of people (number of people per
2
m of floor space in the room) is determined Patients' 7.0 0.7
on the basis of the assumed function of the rooms/resident
rooms at
room. If the number of people cannot be hospital and
determined in any other way, the values in the health
table can be used as a guideline. institutions

Showers 17
Examples of air flow rates
Notes: WC, urinals 17
Air flow rates are specified in litres per second
per person for column a), in litres per second In rooms where smoking is common, the
2
per m floor space for column b), and in litres external air flow rate should normally be at
per second per shower/WC/urinal for vents. (1 least 20 l/s per person.
3
l/s 3.6 m /h).
47:43 HOUSING
The figures in column b are based on the use The above evaluations on pollution from
of building materials, equipment and furniture building materials, equipment and furniture
of acceptable "good" quality with respect to also apply to housing.
odour and other irritating effects.

Air for showers and washrooms can be taken

from adjacent rooms if this air is of relatively
high quality.

________________________________________________________________________
25
9. VENTILATION OF VARIOUS AREAS
47:531 GENERAL
There are no requirements with specific
figures for outdoor air supply in connection
with housing. Ventilation is based on a certain
venting, natural or mechanical, from rooms
with greater air pollution or humidity loads,
such as kitchens, bathrooms and WCs.
An outdoor air flow rate corresponding to the
overall venting is supplied to the housing unit
via a separate supply air unit, through outdoor
air valves, windows that can be opened,
building irregularities, etc.
Total venting from the kitchen, bathroom, WC
and laundry room according to table 47:53 will
normally secure an outdoor air flow rate
corresponding roughly to 0.5 air changes per
hour. This is considered the minimum
requirement for housing ventilation. See also
under 47:533.
To always ensure that indoor air of adequate
quality, ventilation should be maintained even
when the house or rooms are not in use.
For laundry rooms with openings to the
kitchen, the ventilation requirements will
normally be met if the kitchen has ventilation
as specified for kitchens.
When the basement is partly above ground,
the ventilation for basements can be met by
vents in several outer walls so that the
basement is provided with a draft.
In housing exposed to radon, it is important for
the ventilation plant to cause as little under
pressure as possible. Balanced ventilation
should therefore be used for these houses.
See "NBI Building Details, sheet A 520.706
Radon" Construction measures/details. ?
Radon is crucial in housing and particularly for
the floor at ground level. In accordance with
the law on municipal health services, the
health authorities must procure an overview of
health-related problems. This also includes
radon occurrences, including a duty to make
sure radon occurrences are surveyed in
connection with new buildings.
________________________________________________________________________
26
Pyrox
The World Health Organization (WHO), has
3
recommended 200 Bq/m as the maximum
limit for radon concentration in housing.
Concentrations above this limit provide
reasons for simple measures such as a
sealing layer against the ground.
3
Concentrations of 800 Bq/m should not occur.
If this is the case, measures such as
ventilation of the ground in addition to the
sealing layer must be implemented. The
National Institute of Radiation Hygiene has
published various information with guidelines
on building surveys, measurement in existing
housing and on health hazards and preventive
measures.
47.532 SUPPLY OF EXTERNAL AIR
The supply of outdoor air to individual rooms
should be adapted to the rooms' outdoor air
requirement and arranged in such a manner
that it does not create uncomfortable draft
problems.
In buildings with mechanical ventilation,
special precautions must be taken to avoid
under pressure in the rooms. Fireplaces and
other open hearths that require extensive
smoke suction capacity call for air supply of
3
150-300 m per hour (42-84 l/s), which
corresponds to overall external air vents of at
2
least 300 cm , preferably distributed
throughout the various rooms of the house.
47:533 EXHAUST ARRANGEMENTS
Table 47.53 gives the recommended duct
diameter, air flow rate, etc. for rooms where an
exhaust arrangement is required. For smaller
houses where the sum of the specified
exhaust air flow rate yields unduly high
background ventilation, it should be possible to
reduce the exhaust air flow rate, provided it
can be increased according to need, e.g.
during cooking, taking a batch, etc.
The kitchen should have a suction hood over
the cooker to keep cooking smell from
spreading throughout the building.
9. VENTILATION OF VARIOUS AREAS Pyrox
Table 27.53
ROOM Natural Mechanical Air supply, valves,
ventilation ventilation Air diffusers, ducts
Duct cross volume rate in
2
section in cm l/s
Living room, - - Window that can be opened and/or
bedroom adjustable valve with a valve with a free
2
aperture of 100 cm in the outer wall

Kitchen 150 17 As for the living room, or with diffuser above,

in or beneath the door from adjacent rooms
2
with an aperture of 100 cm

Bathroom with/without WC 150 17 Diffuser above, in or beneath the door from

an adjacent room, with an aperture of 100
2
cm

Separate shower or WC 100 11 Diffuser above, in or beneath the door from

an adjacent room, with an aperture of 100
2
cm
2
Laundry room for 150 22 150 cm diffuser/valve from adjacent room
2
individual apartments 150 cm adjustable valve in outer
wall/window that can be opened and adjusted
Common laundry room
assumed used by:
a) one family per day 30 33 Duct for supply of external air must have a
b) several families per Not 55 cross section that is 80% of the duct section
day but not recommende required for ducts in natural ventilation c)
simultaneously d 44
c) several families Not
simultaneously recommende
? per family d
2 2 2 2
Basement with windows 3 cm pr m 0.3 l/s per Valve cross section of 3 cm per m floor
2
that cannot be opened floor space m floor space
space
2
Lift shaft 50 cm per 0.5 l/s per Cross section for external air supply:
2 2 2 2
m of shaft m of shaft 50 cm per m of shaft area
area area

Garbage chute and Exhaust and supply must be designed to avoid under pressure
related refuse room
Storage rooms/attics Adequate ventilation

________________________________________________________________________
27
9. VENTILATION OF VARIOUS AREAS
47:54 SMALL HOUSES
47:541 General
See guideline for 47.531
Reference is made to "NBI Building Details"
sheet A 552.304 Ventilation of small houses.
Systems and components.
The regulation that mechanical ventilation can
be carried out by a separate fan and duct,
freely routed from each room, entails that the
exhaust duct above the roof can be eliminated
and replaced by an electrically driven exhaust
fan located in the outer wall. This regulation
applies first and foremost to detached houses.
For semi-detached houses, and small houses
in groups or rows, etc. exhaust through the
outer wall can cause annoying smells in
neighbouring apartments. As such, this type of
solution is particularly ill-suited to horizontally
divided houses.
47:55 GARAGES
To achieve efficient airing, air supply and
exhaust must be distributed as equally as
possible throughout the premises. Venting
facilities should be found at both floor and
ceiling level.
Air transferred from other premises can be
used to supply air to garages, provided it is of
adequate quality.
With respect to ventilation of service stations,
reference is made to Directorate of Labour
Inspection regulations.
________________________________________________________________________
28
Pyrox
AS A MINIMUM, GARAGES SHOULD BE
VENTILATED AS FOLLOWS:
2
1. UP TO 50 m FLOOR SPACE
With natural ventilation: outdoor air intake and
outlet, each with an area of minimum 2% of
the floor space.
2
2. MORE THAN 50 m FLOOR SPACE
* Garages in rows for 1 row of cars, as
specified in item 1.
Other garages should have mechanical
ventilation with the following capacity:
* Garages for long-term parking of private cars
and with persons present less than 1 hour/day:
2
q = 2 x M l/s, but minimum 0.85 l/s per m of
floor space.
* Other garages:
2
q = 4 x M l/s, but minimum 1.7 l/s per m of
floor space
q = air changes in l/s
M = exhaust in l/s emitted from engines in the
garage
For private cars, M is calculated according to
the following formula:
M = (20+0.1s1)n1+0.1n2s2)1/3.6 l/s where
n1 = number of parking spaces in the
garage/garage section.
n2 = number of other parking spaces with
entrance and exit through the garage section.
s1 = total average driving stretch in meters for
the entrance and exit of a car in the
garage/garage section.
s2 = average driving stretch in the garage
section for the entrance and exit of a car
whose entrance and/or exit takes place
through the garage section.
For trucks and buses in garages where there
is no need to count on traffic queues, n1 and n2
are specified as 1/25 of the area of the garage
in question.
x) A garage may have outer walls and these
may be arranged in such a fashion that the
garage is sufficiently aired without special
ventilation.
10 ELECTRICITY Pyrox
1.10.1 Ohm's law 1.10.1 Control of heating equipment
.
U=R I On/off thermostats
.
P=U I The simplest and cheapest method of
maintaining an even temperature in a room to
U = voltage in V (volts) be heated, is to use a thermostat that senses
R = resistance W (ohm resistance) room temperature and switches the hot air fan
I = current in A (Amperes) on or off. See figure
P = power in W (Watts)

°C
EXAMPLE:
How to control the amperage of an
25
electric battery, 1 phase
electric heating power, 3 kW
voltage 230 V 24

.
l = P l = 3,000 = 13.04 A 1
P T

U 230 0

ON/OFF THERMOSTATS

P = U ? 3 ?I

An important concept when discussing

For three-phase multiply by a factor of 3. thermostat control is the dead band. A
thermostat that switches on at 24°C and
EXAMPLE: switches off at 25°C has a dead band of 1°C.
How to determine the amperage of a fan A small dead band is often desired since it
motor: represents stable room temperature. See
figure
P = U I cosϕ
. .

COS = Loss factor for a motor; the value is °C

always less than 1.

25
P = 0.25 kW
24,5
U = 400 V
COSµ = 0.7
What is the amperage?
P T
1
0
I = 250 = 0.89A DEAD BAND
.
400 0.7

EXAMPLE:
What is the power? An excessively large dead band can cause
I = 10A temperature fluctuations. Several types of
U = 400 V thermostats are available. Capillary tube
400 x 1.73 x 10 = 6920 W thermostats, which exploit the principle that
liquid expands as temperature rises, are
accurate and inexpensive. Electronic
thermostats involve slightly higher costs but
have two advantages. They offer the
opportunity to set/adjust the dead band with a
high degree of accuracy. The dead band must
not be too small when heat is controlled by
contactors. The contactors will switch on and
off at short intervals, leading to wear and
noise.

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29
10. ELECTRICITY Pyrox
Multi-stage thermostats
For hot air systems with higher power values, switching full power on/off is seldom desired. The
common practice is to divide the power into two or several equal parts and switching on as much
power as required. The simplest way to control a hot air fan is to install a multi-stage thermostat
with three contactors. The thermostat functions in the following manner:
When the temperature drops below the set temperature, contactor no. 1 switches on 1/3 power.
When the temperature drops further, contactor no. 2 switches on another 1/3. If the temperature
continues to drop, contactor no. 3 switches on the remaining power. This yields a smaller network
load during control of higher output and a more even temperature from the hot air system. The
principle is shown in figure

°C
25
24
23
22

P T
P3 1
0
P2 1
0
P1 1
0

MULTI-STAGE THERMOSTATS

Program control
For higher effects/output it is possible to use program connection. The duct coil elements are then
divided into a number of groups. If group 1 is of 1 kW, then group 2 is of 2 kW, group 3 of 3 kW
and group 4 of 4 kW. These four power groups yield 7-stage power control. Power can be
adjusted according to 1kW stages from 1 to 7 kW.
This principle is illustrated in figure

P
1

2 2
1

1
4 4 4 4
2 2
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Stage
PROGRAM CONTROL

A program controller can be used for control of stationary hot air fans. With this type of
equipment, it is possible to control the power to each apparatus in the system, with up to 12
heating stages.
Night set-back of room temperature is a standard feature. Program controllers can also be
delivered with functions for control of damper motors in mixing dampers to control outdoor and
surrounding air, respectively.

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 Pyrox
Infinitely variable temperature control
Temperature controllers of the Pulser type or TTC are often used as an alternative to power
control with on/off or 3-stage thermostats. Pulser 220 and TTC use a Triac in the control circuit.
Triac is a semi-conductor that can switch power on/off to the electric heating elements without the
disturbing noise which would otherwise occur with contactor-type control. A connection and
disconnection cycle takes one minute or less. Output is increased by increasing the "on" time and
reducing the "off" time correspondingly.
The power controller is also equipped with a temperature controller and potentiometer. The
temperature sensor can be of the built-in or external type. Triac controllers cannot be used to
control contactors and can therefore not be used for control of control AVR hot air appliances and
LPX/LG air gates. On the other hand, they are well suited for control of ceiling-mounted heaters
and duct batteries.

1 min

1 min

TEMPERATURE CONTROLLERS

The principle is illustrated in figure

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31
11. BUILDINGS`POWER REQUIREMENT FOR HEATING Pyrox
General
The total power requirement for heating a building is determined by three factors:

VENTILATION

INFILTRATION

TRANSMISSION

HEAT LOSS IN A BUILDING

Transmission heat loss is caused by the stream of heat from inside the building going through the
building's structure. The greater the difference between indoor/outdoor temperature, the greater
this heat loss will be. Another determining factor is the building's thermodynamic properties.
Generally, efforts are made to reduce this kind of heat loss by insulating the building.

Air infiltration heat loss is due to cold outdoor air seeping in through leaks in the structure of the
building. The extent of this type of heat loss is difficult to calculate precisely. Normally empirical
data is used to calculate this type of heat loss for various types of building.

Finally, heat is required to heat ventilation air, either via direct application of heat to the heating
coil in a mechanically balanced system, or indirectly to the inside air in a building with natural
ventilation.

Heat loss due to transmission

Heat loss will occur through various components of the building such as exterior walls, windows,
floors and ceilings. This heat loss can be expressed by the following equation:

Φ = Σ U n ? An ?∆T [W ]

Un = total heat transfer coefficient for surface no. n, [W/m x K]

2

An = area of surface no. n, [m ]

2

∆T = difference in temperature at the building component, [K]

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32
 Pyrox
If we are familiar with the construction of the building, the U factor for a construction consisting of
several layers can be calculated using the following equation:

[W / m ?K ]
1
U= 2
Ri + Ry + R1 + R 2 +......+ Rn

U-FACTOR FOR A CONSTRUCTION

ROOM

OUT

Ri = internal heat transfer resistivity between the air and the building's construction
Ry = external heat transfer resistivity between the air and the building's construction
R1..Rn = heat transfer resistivity for each individual material layer

The following values can be used for Ri and Ry in the calculations:

Ri = 0.13 m ⋅ K/W
2

Ry = 0.04 m ⋅ K/W
2

Rn equals the heat transfer resistivity for each individual material used in the building's
construction, and is calculated on the basis of Rn = sn/λn where s stands for the thickness of the

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33
 Pyrox

layer and λ is the material's thermal conductivity. The λ values for most construction materials
can be found in Norsk Standard 3031 (NSÊ3031) as well as in technical manuals.

When we are required to calculate the transmission heat loss for a building in practice, we must
begin with the building regulations' U factor requirements. However, in older buildings, and in
some exceptional cases, it may be necessary to calculate the U factor.

The building regulations' requirements are shown in the following table:

2
Component U factor in W/m x K
Facades: Applies at tinside > 18°C
Exterior wall 0.30
Window 2.40
Door, entrance 2.00
Ceiling/roof: 0.20
Floor:
Above outside air 0.20
Above non-heated room 0.30
On ground 0.30

When the difference in temperature at the component is less than 5°C, transmission heat loss will
be negligible. This is usually the case at inside walls. The difference in temperature at a
component adjacent to outside air is calculated as ∆T = tr - t0, where:
tr = room temperature
t0 = dimensioning outside temperature

The room temperature is usually set at 20°C for rooms for normal living/working areas. In
swimming baths, operating theatres and treatment rooms, 25Ð30°C is often chosen. For special-
purpose rooms, it is important to discuss what the dimensioning temperature should be.

The dimensioning outside temperature is the lowest outside temperature measured over a 3-day
period in the course of a 30-year period. Dimensioning outside temperatures for various places in
Norway can be found in NS 3031 or in the Byggforsks Manual No. 33, VVS-tekniske klimadata for
Norge.

When calculating the heating requirement of a room adjacent to an unheated room, the
temperature in the unheated room must be estimated, or calculated by setting up a heating
balance for adjacent rooms.

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34
 Pyrox
Heat loss due to air infiltration

Outside air will infiltrate the building through leaks in the building's construction. This air then has
to be heated to room temperature. Calculating this type of heat loss is difficult because it will
depend on many factors such as how draught-proof the building is, wind pressure and air
temperature.

The volume of infiltrated air is calculated using the air change rate n, which expresses the ratio
3
between the volume of outside air L in m3/h and the volume of the room V in m . In a new
building, n can be calculated as 0.2, while in older buildings air change rates in the range of n =
0.3Ð0.8 have been measured.
In new buildings in particularly exposed locations, an air change rate higher than nÊ=Ê0.2 should
sometimes be used. NS 3031 stipulates the recommended values in such cases.

Heat loss through air infiltration is calculated using the following equation:

Φ = n ?cp ?V ?(tr − t 0) [W ]

n = air change rate, [h ]

-1

V = volume of room, [m ]
3

cp = the air's heat capacity = 0.335 Wh/m ⋅K

3

tr = room temperature
t0 = dimensioning outside temperature

Heat loss due to ventilation

Calculations of heat loss due to ventilation depend on what kind of ventilation is in use in the
building:

Natural ventilation (upthrust ventilation):

This kind of ventilation system is based on thermal currents and the volume of air is determined
by the difference in weight between outside air and inside air. For this reason, the volume of air
will vary, and it is therefore difficult to calculate the heat loss precisely.
-1
The regulations state that n = 0.4 h must be calculated without any addition for air infiltration.
This type of heat loss is calculated according to the same equation as for heat loss due to air
infiltration. The heat loss calculated is added to the heat loss due to transmission for each
individual room.

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 Pyrox
Mechanical exhaust ventilation:
This type of ventilation system sucks in the outside air through vents and the used air is extracted
through a system of ducting and a fan. The volume of air depends on the size of the fan. The
outside air which is drawn in must be heated to room temperature and the heat requirement is
calculated using the following equation:

MECHANICAL SUPPLY
EXHAUST AIR

TRANSMISSION

INFILTRATION

HEATER
HEATER

HEATER

HEAT LOSS DUE TO MECHANICAL EXHAUST VENTILATION

3
L = exhaust air flow rate in m /h.
The heat loss calculated is added to the heat loss due to transmission and air infiltration for each
individual room, since there are heating elements in each individual room which must
compensate for the heat loss.

Balanced ventilation:
In balanced ventilation systems, the fresh air is drawn in centrally and heated in a separate
heating coil, sometimes after a process of heat exchange with the exhaust air. The necessary
power supply to the heating coil is calculated using the following equation:
Φ = L ?0,335 ?(ti − t 0) ?(1 − η) [W ]

ti = the air temperature after the heating coil, usually equal to room temperature
η = heat return efficiency

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36
 TRANSMISSION

INFILTRATION
HEATER
HEATER

HEATER

HEAT LOSS DUE TO BALANCED VENTILATION

In this kind of system, there is no addition in each individual room due to the ventilation system.
The heat requirement for each room is therefore equal to the sum of the transmission heat loss
and the air infiltration heat loss.

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37
 Pyrox
Addition to/deduction from the heat loss:
It is not usual to make any deduction in the calculated power to allow for lighting and other heat
sources. This is partly because the building needs to be heated outside normal hours of use, and
partly because it is desirable to incorporate a certain security margin.
NS 3032 states the recommended values for power requirements for heating and ventilation in a
whole building for various types of building:

Max. simultaneous power requirement [W/m ]

2
Type of building
Low Medium High
Office building, new 35 40 50
Office building, existing 40 50 60
Nursing home, new 60 70 80
Nursing home, existing 70 80 90
Hotels, new 60 70 80
Hotels, existing 70 80 90
Bathrooms, swimming pools, new 100 140 180
Bathrooms, swimming pools, existing 120 160 200
Detached houses, new, + 20 cm insul. 55 70 85
Detached houses, existing 70 90 110
Blocks of flats, new 40 45 50
Blocks of flats, existing 45 50 60
Schools, new, with gymnasium 40 50 60
Schools, existing, with gymnasium 45 60 70

Example
You have been asked to calculate the necessary power requirement to heat a room in a detached
house. The house is in Oslo which has a dimensioning outside temperature of -20°C. The desired
room temperature is 20°C. The room is below an unheated attic (-20°C) and the floor is above a
basement (0°C). The house plans provide the following details:

2
Floor area: 44 m
2
Ceiling area: 44 m
2
Exterior walls: 29 m (less the window area)
2
Window area: 5m
3
Volume of room: 100 m

The house has a mechanical exhaust ventilation system. The total exhaust air flow rate is 150
3
m3/h. The exhaust air flow rate from the room in question is 50 m /h. It is assumed that the
building's construction complies with the statutory requirements in terms of U factor. This gives
the following data:

0.30 W/m ⋅K
2
Exterior wall:
Ceiling: 0.20 "
Floor: 0.30 "
Window: 2.40 "

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38
 Pyrox

This data generates the following calculations:

Transmission heat loss:

Exterior walls: Φ= 0.3 x 29 x 40 = 348 W

Ceiling: Φ= 0.2 x 44 x 40 = 352 W
Floor: Φ= 0.3 x 44 x 20 = 264 W
Windows: Φ= 2.4 x 5 x 40 = 480 W

Total transmission heat loss: 1,444 W

Air infiltration heat loss:

Calculated with n = 0.2 air changes

Air infiltration heat loss: Φ = 0.2 x 100 x 0.335 x 40 = 268 W

Ventilation heat loss:

3
Exhaust air flow rate 50 m /h

Ventilation heat loss: Φ = 50 x 0.335 x 40 = 670 W

Total power requirement for heating the room is 1,444 + 268 + 670 = 2,382 W.
2
This gives approx. 54 W per m floor area.

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39
12. BUILDINGS' ENERGY REQUIREMENTS Pyrox

General
When calculating the annual energy requirements of a building for heating rooms and heating
ventilation air, we must take the following into account:

_ transmission and air infiltration heat loss

_ ventilation heat loss

In the overall calculation we also need to take the building's heat gain into consideration, i.e.:

_ heat from the sun

_ heat from electric lighting
_ body heat
_ heat from machinery and equipment
_ heat from fans

This section demonstrates how to calculate the annual energy requirements of a building,
including how to take the above-mentioned factors into account:

Definition of central concepts in energy calculations

To be able to carry out an energy calculation, we need to know something about the climatic
conditions, and how they vary during the course of the year at the site of the building. Three
concepts are important to this process:

_ temperature duration curves

_ length of the heating season
_ number of degree days

The temperature duration curve is plotted by counting the number of days with a mean
temperature below a certain temperature. A temperature duration graph can be generated by
plotting consecutive values of the temperature and number of days. If this graph is plotted as a
mean graph covering ten years, it will give an approximately correct picture of the climate for the
place in question. An example of this kind of graph is given below:

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40
 Pyrox
Temperature duration graph:

TEMPERATURE DURATION
GRAPH

DAYS

TEMPERATURE DURATION GRAPH

The heating season means the part of the year when the building needs to be heated. The length
of the heating season is usually calculated as lasting until the mean outside temperature is 10°C.
If the temperature duration graph for the location is known, the length of the heating season can
be worked out. The diagram above shows that the length of the heating season will be approx.
240 days. The fact that it is generally unnecessary to heat the building outside this period, despite
the outside temperature being lower than room temperature, is due to internal supply of heat and
supplementary heat from the sun.

Degree days means the area which is delimited by the duration graph and an isotherm. The true
term is degrees multiplied by days, but is usually abbreviated to degree days.

The number of degree days if the desired room temperature is 20°C is shown by the area
delimited by the duration curve and the isotherm 10°C plus the rectangle marked between the
isotherms 10 and 20°C as shown in the figure above. For example, if the desired room
temperature is 17°C, the number of degree days would be the area below the isotherm 10°C plus
a rectangle delimited by the isotherms 10 and 17°C.
The number of degree days for different places can be found in tables of climatic data or may be
obtained on request from the Meteorological Institute.

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 Pyrox
Calculations of annual energy requirement for heating and ventilation
If the power requirement and the above figures are known, the annual energy requirement can be
calculated as follows:

ΦT ΦI ΦV
Q= ?G ?τ + ?G ?τ + ?G ?τ v ?τ s − [kWh ]
(t − to ) (t − to ) (t − to )
Qt
R R i

φT = transmission heat loss (kW)

φI = air infiltration heat loss (kW)
φV = ventilation heat loss (kW)
G = number of degree days (C x days)
τ = operative time for heating system, usually 24 hours
tR = dimensioning room temperature
to = dimensioning outside temperature
tI = inflowing temperature for the ventilation system, usually the same as tR
τv = operative time for the ventilation system, in the case of natural ventilation equal to τ
τs = takes into account non-operation of ventilation system at weekends. τs = 5/7 in
the case of 5 days operation.
Qt = heat from the sun, body heat, heat from equipment and other internal sources of heat.

If there is insufficient data to calculate Qt, it may be assumed that this quantity reduces the
calculated energy consumption by approx. 20Ð25%.

NS 3032 states the recommended values for the energy requirement in various types of building:

2
Type of building Energy requirement (kWh/m floor area)
Low Medium High
Office building, new 90 110 130
Office building, existing 120 150 180
Nursing home, new 190 220 250
Nursing home, existing 220 270 300
Hotels, new 210 240 270
Hotels, existing 240 280 320
Bathrooms, swimming pools, new 300 500 700
Bathrooms, swimming pools, existing 500 700 900
Detached houses, new, + 20 cm insul. 100 130 170
Detached houses, existing 150 190 240
Blocks of flats, new 100 120 150
Blocks of flats, existing 150 180 220
Schools, new, with gymnasium 100 120 140
Schools, existing, with gymnasium 100 140 180

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42
13. RADIANT HEAT Pyrox
Heat transfer
Transfer of heat always occurs from a higher temperature to a lower temperature. There are five
basic methods by which this transfer can take place:

_ conduction
_ convection
_ radiation
_ mass transfer
_ phase change

Conduction occurs when heat spreads during constant lowering of temperature from a hotter part
of a body to a colder part of the same body. Heat can also be conducted from one body to
another if there is close contact between the two.

Convection occurs when heat from a liquid or a gas is conducted to a solid body (or vice versa).

Radiation occurs when heat is transferred from one body to another without heating the medium
present between the two bodies, e.g. air. For instance, the sun heats the earth without heating
the atmosphere between the two.

Mass transfer occurs when the heat content of a fluid alters if it runs through surroundings with a
different temperature than the fluid itself.

Phase change occurs during evaporation and condensation. In the case of evaporation a certain
amount of heat must be applied for phase change to occur, while in the case of condensation a
certain amount of heat is released.

In practice, the heating elements used to heat rooms will transfer heat using a combination of
convection and radiation, depending on the surface temperature of the heating element.

In water-filled radiator systems convection will account for 70Ð80% of the heat output, while the
rest of the heating occurs through radiation. In radiant heaters, the ratio will be reversed, i.e.
radiation will account for more than 80% of the heat transfer.

General
In actual fact, radiant heat consists of electromagnetic rays like radio waves and visible light rays.
Heat radiation may or may not occur, depending on the wavelength of the electromagnetic rays.
Part of the electromagnetic spectrum is represented below, showing where temperature radiation
will take place:

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 Pyrox
The electromagnetic spectrum:

UV radiation Visible Temperature radiation Microwaves Radio waves

light (infrared heat)
1 nm 1 µm 1 mm 1m

Radiant heating elements are divided into groups according to how high the elements' surface
temperature is. One group includes short-wave radiation with temperatures of approx. 750°C, and
long-wave radiant heaters with a surface temperature of approx. 100°C are used in rooms with
low ceilings. In the middle is a group with temperatures of approx. 300°C, used for ceiling heights
of 2.5 to 20 m.

Heating with radiant heat can have many advantages over other types of heating. The radiated
heat passes unimpeded through the air and does not emit heat until it meets surfaces such as
floors and walls. These surfaces in turn emit convection heat to the air in the room, thereby
heating the entire living/working area. As such, it is possible to avoid heat collecting under the
ceiling. Some of the radiated heat will also be absorbed directly by the people in the room.

This effect makes it possible to tolerate an air temperature 2Ð3°C lower than with convection
heating, while experiencing the same degree of comfort.

These factors mean that correctly dimensioned radiant heating is energy-saving.

Definitions
In connection with planning of radiant heating and the use of catalogue data, it is important to
define what is meant by a number of concepts and quantities. We shall therefore offer definitions
of the following:

_ heat radiation
_ intensity of radiation
_ radiation temperature contribution/asymmetry of radiation
_ radiation temperature
_ air temperature
_ operative temperature
_ thermal gradient

Heat radiation from a radiant heating panel increases to the power of 4 of the absolute
temperature. This means that the radiant heating panels can be manufactured in very small sizes,
while still being capable of emitting considerable heat. The radiated heat emitted from a hot
surface can be calculated using the following equation:

Ps = A ?σ ?ε (Ts 4_ To 4 ) [W ]
2
A = surface area of the radiant heating panel, m
Ts = absolute temperature of the radiant heating panel, K
To = absolute temperature of the surroundings, K
ε = emissivity constant
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann's constant = 5.7 x 10 W/m K
-8 2 4

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 Pyrox
2
The intensity of radiation shows how much heat radiation a surface or a body receives per m . If a
person is exposed to heat radiation, the greater the intensity of radiation, the greater the rise in
temperature in the part of the body exposed to the heat will be. Those parts of the body in the
shade will not experience any rise in temperature. In mathematical terms, this can be expressed
as follows:

qs = (α s + α k )?∆t [W / m ]
2

2
qs = intensity of radiation perpendicular to the surface, W/m
αk = heat transfer coefficient in the case of convection, W/m °C
2

αs = heat transfer coefficient in the case of radiation, W/ m °C

2

∆t = rise in temperature caused by the extra radiated heat, °C

A flat radiant heating panel emits radiation in all directions within a 180° angle. The radiation is
strongest at a perpendicular to the heater, but a considerable amount of heat is also emitted to
the sides. If more concentrated radiation is desired, the heating panel can be fitted with a curved
reflector which is installed behind the radiant heater.

The intensity of radiation decreases with distance from the source. From a small source (a point
source such as a single radiant heater) the intensity decreases proportionately with the square of
the distance. For example, if the distance is doubled, the intensity decreases to one quarter.
From a long source (a line source such as a whole row of radiant heaters) the intensity decreases
linearly with the distance from the source. For example, if the distance is doubled, the intensity is
halved.

Asymmetry of radiation, or temperature contribution, is most easily explained using an illustration.

Imagine a person standing in a room in which all the surfaces and the air in the room have a
temperature of 20°C. A radiant heater is mounted on one of the walls and directed at the person.
At the distance from which the person is standing from the heater, the radiated temperature is
35°C. It is then correct to say that the person is being exposed to asymmetry of radiation of 15°C,
or that the radiant heater is providing a temperature contribution of 15°C at the point in question.

COLD

ASYMMETRY OF RADIATION

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45
 Pyrox
Acceptable asymmetries of radiation are discussed in the ASHRAE Applications Handbook for
1995, taking comfort requirements into account. This handbook concludes that asymmetry of
radiation of 12°C will not cause problems for people in normal working clothes. It is recommended
that the maximum limit is set at 15°C. The table below shows the correlation between asymmetry
2
of radiation and the recommended input radiation heat per m of floor area. Other studies show
that people accept varying levels of asymmetry depending on the cause of the asymmetry. It has
been demonstrated that most people's threshold is lowest for asymmetry of radiation caused by
heat from the ceiling. ISO 7730 contains a recommended maximum limit of 5°C for asymmetry
below a warm ceiling. On the basis of this recommendation, we suggest that, depending on the
type of building, an interval of 5Ð10°C be adopted for radiant heat installations.

2 o
Max. input radiated heat (W/m ) Asymmetry of radiation ( C)
25 3
40 5
80 10
120 15
200 25

This means that if the asymmetry of radiation is not to exceed 10°C, the maximum input radiated
2
heat can be 80 W/m floor area.

The air temperature is quite simply the temperature of the air, unaffected by the radiation
temperature.

The operative temperature is the temperature which a person feels, and is the combined effect of
the air temperature and the radiated temperature. In practice, the operative temperature is given
by the following equation:

tl + ts ∆ts
top = = tl +
2 2
top = operative temperature
tl = air temperature
ts = radiated temperature
∆ts = radiation temperature contribution

It is precisely this factor which is the key to saving energy when using radiation heating.
As the equation shows, it is possible to lower the air temperature while still maintaining
the desired operative temperature, thanks to the effect of the radiation temperature. As a
rule of thumb, it is fair to say that lowering the air temperature by 1°C leads to a 5%
reduction in the energy consumption for heating.

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 Pyrox
Further energy savings can be made since radiation heating produces a minor vertical thermal
gradient, i.e. the difference in temperature between floor and ceiling. In very high-ceilinged rooms
in which convectional heating systems often encounter problems with the heat collecting just
below the ceiling where it fulfils no useful purpose, radiated heat will pass unimpeded through the
air and emit warmth where it is needed, thus creating a small vertical thermal gradient.

CEILING HEIGHT

THERMAL THERMAL GRADIENT

GRADIENT DUE TO FAN HEATERS
DUE TO
RADIANT
HEATING

THERMAL GRADIENT

Planning Ð dimensioning the heating system for a factory or office building

Imagine that you are planing a heating system for a factory or office building, in which the
workstations are spread around the entire premises. The working area must therefore be defined
as the entire floor area and up to a height of 2 m above the floor. An operative temperature of
18°C is required, which applies 1 m above the floor at the various workstations. Between the
workstations a lower temperature is permissible. In the working area a maximum vertical thermal
gradient of 5°C is allowed, since it is a relatively rough environment.

The following data apply to the building:

Length: 40 m
Breadth: 20 m
Ceiling height: 4.0 m
2
Window area: 80 m
2
Entrances/doors: 30 m

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47
 FACTORY

The building is located in Oslo which has a dimensioning outside temperature of

-20°C. The building's construction is dimensioned in accordance with the statutory requirements
to U factor.

The building has a mechanically balanced ventilation system with diffuse ventilation.

Choice of system

In this case it would be wise to choose radiation heating, which is particularly advantageous in
combination with diffuse ventilation. Other types of heating in this case could easily lead to a
large vertical thermal gradient Ð i.e. the heat would collect just below the ceiling where it is of no
use.

A good choice in this case would be HeatLine ceiling-mounted radiant heaters, which are very
suitable for ceiling heights in the 3Ð20 m range.

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48
 Pyrox
Maximum requirements for asymmetry of radiation
To verify this, we must check the radiation temperature tables for the product in question. The
tables below show the radiation temperatures for HeatLine radiant heaters with the radiation
temperature contribution at various distances from the heater. This check will be the determining
factor in deciding the permissible output power per heater.

HLÐ12 0m 1m 2m 3m
HLÐ12 0m 1m 2m 3m
1m 17.2 8.9 2.9 0.6
2m 9.5 6.1 2.8 1.0
3m 5.8 2.9 1.0 0.8
4m 2.5 1.7 0.8 0.6

HLÐ17 0m 1m 2m 3m
1m 23.2 11.4 3.2 0.8
2m 10.8 7.2 3.0 1.6
3m 6.8 3.8 1.6 1.0
4m 3.1 2.1 1.2 0.8

We set the maximum permitted asymmetry of radiation (temperature contribution) at 10°C since
this is assumed to be a building in which people are constantly in motion and have modest
comfort requirements. The most critical point will be directly below each heater in the upper part
of the working area (2 m directly below the heater).

HLÐ17: From the table we see that at a distance of 1 m from the heater, the
temperature contribution directly below the heater is stated as being 23.3°C. At a
distance of 2 m, the contribution drops to 10.8°C. This is still in excess of our
requirement for 10°C.

HLÐ12: The corresponding figures for this heater are 17.2°C and 9.5°C,
respectively. This is below our requirement and the HLÐ12 is therefore a good
choice in terms of asymmetry of radiation.

Controlling the operative temperature

The operative temperature requirement in the working area was 18°C on average. A maximum
vertical thermal gradient of 5°C in the working area is permissible. To check this, we need to
check how the temperature contribution from the heater decreases as the distance from the
heater increases vertically and horizontally. This is important in determining the distance we can
allow between the heaters and what air temperature is permissible.

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 Pyrox
The least favourable situation would be with heaters placed at regular intervals of 6Êm, since at
this distance there would be no overlapping of the temperature contribution curves from the
heaters. The temperature contribution 2 m below the heater would therefore vary between 9.5
and 1.0°C. The correlation between the operative temperature, the air temperature and the
radiation temperature contribution is given by the equation:
∆ts
top = tl +
2
Test with an air temperature of 15°C:

2.0 m directly below the heater : top = 15 + 9.5/2 = 19.75°C

2.0 m below, 3.0 m to the side : top = 15 + 1.0/2 = 15.50°C
4.0 m directly below the heater : top = 15 + 2.5/2 = 16.25°C
4.0 m below, 3.0 m to the side top = 15 + 0.6/2 = 15.30°C

With heaters placed at 6 m intervals, the temperature in the working area would vary between
15.3°C and 19.75°C. The least favourable vertical thermal gradient would be 4.45°C, meaning
that the vertical thermal gradient requirement would be fulfilled. By placing the heaters directly
above the workstations, we see that we would be satisfying the requirement of 18°C at a height of
1 m above the floor. It would therefore seem sensible to use HLÐ12 ceiling-mounted heaters in
this case.

Calculation of power requirement

The above calculations showed that with radiant heat we can reduce the air temperature, thereby
achieving significant energy savings compared to other heating systems. In this case, it was
sufficient to heat the air temperature to 15°C.

Transmission heat loss:

Part of building Area (1) U factor (2) ∆toutside - inside (3) Output(1⋅2⋅3 )
2 2o
Exterior wall (net) 280 m 0.3 W/m C 35 2,940 W
2
Ceiling area 800 m 0.3 " 35 8,400 W
2
Floor (on ground) 800 m 0.2 " 35 5,600 W
2
Windows 80 m 2.8 " 35 7,840 W
2
Entrances 30 m 2.0 " 35 2,100 W
Total: 26,880 W

Air infiltration heat loss:

Let us assume that the building has the value n = 0.2 air changes per hour.

Qinf. = n x Cp ⋅ V x (tr - to) = 0.2 x 0.335 x 2880 x 35 = 6,566 W

Total heat loss: 26880 + 6566 = 33446 ≈ 33.4 kW

Pyrox
Installation

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50
To cover the combined output requirement, we need to install 28 HLÐ12 heaters each with an
output power of 1,200 Watt. The following positioning is recommended:

This means that there will be approx. 5 m between the heaters, which more than satisfies our
requirement for no more than 6 m between the heaters. Variation in the operative temperature
and the thermal gradient will therefore be somewhat less than the above calculations.

Zone heating

There are often many different temperature requirements in the same premises, due to different
working operations. With radiation heating it is possible to divide the premises into different
temperature zones as well as providing the opportunity for spot heating of especially exposed
workstations.

The air temperature can be kept low throughout the whole premises, at the same time as raising
the operative temperature in individual zones to the desired level by installing radiant heating
panels to suit requirements in each zone.

In this way the heating costs for the building as a whole are kept down, whilst ensuring the
necessary level of comfort in terms of heating.

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 ZONE HEATING

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52
14. AIR CURTAINS Pyrox

General
Open doors and entrances represent a huge loss of energy, in addition to creating problems with
draughts. Installing an air curtain can reduce the energy loss and improve the level of comfort.

Three factors contribute to the size of the air stream passing through an open door:

_ difference between outside and indoor pressure

_ difference between outside and indoor temperature
_ wind velocity against the opening

AIR STREAM PASSING THROUGH AN OPEN DOOR

The difference between outside and indoor pressure can be eliminated using balanced
ventilation.

Air stream due to differences in temperature

Hot air is less dense than cold air. This means that cold outside air will penetrate through the
entrance at the lower part of the opening, pressing warm indoor air out through the top of the
opening. This exchange of air is caused by thermal currents, and is due to the fact that the
masses of cold air and warm air have different densities. The air stream through the entrance can
be calculated using the following equation:

B ∆ρ
Lt = H 1,5 µ 0 g
3 ρm
where:

B = width of the entrance [m]

H = height of the entrance [m]
µ0 = flow coefficient (0.8Ð0.9)
2
g = coefficient of gravity (9.81 m/s )
∆ρ = the difference in density between the masses of air
ρm = the average density of the masses of air

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 Pyrox
Air stream due to effect of wind:
The air stream through the entrance is reinforced by the effect of the wind. Let us assume that the
wind will make the air stream uniform across the entire opening. After a while the premises will
have such a large overpressure that the air stream is limited to what leaks out through gaps in the
building. The air stream due to the effect of the wind is calculated using the following equation:

v10
Lv = B H 0,25
2 where:

v10 = the wind's mean annual velocity at a height of 10 m

0.25 = the wind direction's frequency factor
B = the width of the entrance [m]
H = the height of the entrance [m]

Example Ð calculating annual loss of energy through an entrance

Width of entrance: 4m
Height of entrance: 5m
Time entrance is open: 1 hour/24 hours, 5 days a week (5 min each time)
Mean annual outside temperature: 6.5°C
Indoor temperature: 18°C
Mean annual wind velocity v10 = 4 m/s
Price of energy: NOK 0.50/kWh

Air penetration due to thermal currents

1,5 9,81?0,06 / 1,24 3

Lt = 4/3 x 5 x 1.0 x = 10.26 m /s

Air penetration due to wind

Lv = 4 x 5 x 4/2 ⋅ 0.25 = 10 m /s
3

Total air penetration: ≈ 20 m /s

3

This represents an energy loss over the course of one year of:

Eloss = 20 x 1.24 x (18 - 6.5) x 1 x 260 = 74,152 kWh

On the basis of the above energy price, this results in an energy cost of
NOKÊ37,000 per year.

Installing air curtains

An air curtain creates an effective barrier in the entrance, preventing the penetration of cold
outdoor air. The air velocity from the air curtain must be so great that the resulting air velocity is
directed downwards. The air curtain should be set so that a small part of the air stream is directed
out of the opening, while the rest blows into the premises. In this way, the cold outside air is
borne out again with the barrier, while the warm indoor air is kept inside.

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 Pyrox
Installation

To achieve the best possible result, the air door units should be positioned as close to the
opening as possible, and they should extend over the entire width of the entrance.

air curtains

INSTALLATION OF AIR CURTAINS

Energy-saving potential

The energy-saving potential depends on the height of the entrance. Measurements show that
when used in entrances up to 3.5 m high, air curtains reduce energy loss by 90%. For entrances
higher than 3.5 m, the savings decrease approximately linearly in proportion to the height of the
entrance. For entrances which are 7 m high, the energy-saving potential is down to approx. 30%.

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55
 Pyrox
The following graph shows the correlation:
Normal energy saving with air door

100
90
80
70
60
Saving (%) 50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Hight (m)

In the above example with an entrance 5 m high, we see from the graph that it is possible to
reduce energy loss by approx. 75% by installing air curtains.

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15. FAN HEATERS Pyrox

General
Fan heaters are particularly suitable for heating industrial buildings and warehouses where rapid,
practical and economical heating of the premises is required. The installation costs for fan
heaters are lower per kW input than for MANY other heating systems.

To a achieve a good result, it is vital that the hot air jet reaches right down to the floor. This
means that this type of heating is not suitable for combination with diffuse ventilation or other
systems which are sensitive to air velocities in the working area.

The fan heaters can be fitted with a mixing unit for combining indoor and outside air so that the
fans also cater for the premises' need for ventilation.

Planning and installation

As described above, to achieve a satisfactory result it is essential that the jet of warm air reaches
right down to the floor. This means that we must calculate the maximum height at which the fans
can be mounted while still allowing the air jet to reach the floor. The jetÕs downthrust depth
depends on:

_ the difference in temperature between incoming air and air in the room
_ the incoming velocity and dimensions of the outflow outlet
_ the angle at which the jet of air is directed towards the floor

For a given angle, the jetÕs downthrust depth can be expressed as follows:

z = k z ?l where:

kz = the downthrust factor shown in the figure below

l = the square root of the outflow area
z = the centreline of the air jetÕs downthrust depth

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 Pyrox
The Archimedes figure expresses the relationship between the upthrust forces and the mass
forces in a jet of air. We define this figure as follows:

∆t g l
Ar =
T u0 2
where:

2
g = the acceleration of gravity = 9.81 m/s
∆t = the difference in temperature between the outflow air and the air inside the room
T = the absolute temperature in the outflow air
uo = the outflow velocity [m]

The air jetÕs downthrust depth can then be discovered by:

_ finding the Archimedes figure for the jet of air

_ reading the constant kz
_ finding the length of z= kz x l

Example of calculation

We shall calculate how high up the wall the fan in the diagram below can be mounted:

The fan heaters are to be mounted on the wall and set diagonally at an angle of 45° pointing
downwards in premises with the following specifications:

Room temperature: 10°C

Dimensions of the outflow opening. 0.5 x 0.5 m
Outflow velocity: 5 m/s
Output: P = 45 kW

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 MAXIMUM MOUNTING HEIGHT OF FAN HEATERS

Calculations
3
Volume of air: L = u0 x A = 5 x 0.25 = 1.25 m /s
Rise in temperature: ∆t = P/ (L ρ cp) = 30°C
Archimedes figure: Ar = 0.0196
Downthrust factor: Kz = 6

The downthrust depth z of the jet's centreline. approx. 3 m

The lowest point of the jet will then be clear, providing that we know the breadth of the jet, which
is expressed as b = s x 0.22, where s equals the distance along the centreline to the lowest point
of the jet. This distance will be approximately equal to z/sin 45° = 4.2 m.

It therefore follows that the breadth of the jet (the distance from the centreline to the outer edge)
is approximately 0.9 m.

Our conclusion must therefore be that the lowest point in the jet will be approximately 4Êm below
the fan. This means that, in this case, the fans should not be mounted any higher up the wall than
approx. 4 m.

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16. CONVECTION HEATERS Pyrox
General
Heating rooms using radiators is based on the principle of heat being transferred convectionally
from the heated surface of the radiator to the air inside the room. The circulation of air above the
radiator is due to thermal currents causing a rising stream of warm air from the radiator. The
radiators are usually installed beneath windows to eliminate cold draughts from these. The
primary heating effect (70Ð80%) is caused by convection, while the rest is caused by radiation.

In rooms with normal ceiling heights this heating principle will produce an even temperature
throughout the entire room. In rooms with very high ceilings, however, there is some danger of
the heat collecting just below the ceiling. This problem can be countered by installing fans on the
ceiling which cause the air to circulate, thus evening out the temperature in the room .

Calculation of power requirement

Radiators are selected on the basis of a calculation of the power requirement for the premises.
The principle of this process has already been outlined. It must be taken into account that
overhanging windowsills reduce the emission of heat by 2Ð5%, while casing which allows the air
to circulate gives a reduction of 15% since the emission of radiated heat is reduced.

Water-filled radiators
Radiators are selected from catalogues which normally state the output at a difference in
temperature of 60°C between the mean radiator temperature and the room temperature. This is
based on the ingoing and outgoing temperatures of
90Ð70°C, giving a mean temperature of 80°C. If you deduct a room temperature of 20°C the
result is 60K. It is interesting to see what the output of the radiator is when the difference in
temperature over the radiator is different to that on which the catalogue data is based.
Measurements show that with a temperature difference deviating from ∆T = 60°C, the new output
Φ = can be shown by the following equation:

Φ ∆t
1,33

= √
Φkat 60 ↵

Example

The radiators in an old building with a water-filled heating system are dimensioned for flow/return
temperatures of 90/70°C. In connection with the installation of a heating pump, the heating
system is adjusted to a low temperature system with flow/return temperatures of 55/45°C.

The catalogue data has been consulted to provide information about the existing radiators, which
are claimed to have an output 2000 W each. What will the new output figure for these radiators
be with the new flow/return temperatures stated above?

Φ = Φkat ⋅ (∆t/60) = 2000 x [ [(55+45)/2-20]/60]

1,33 1.33
= 795 Watt

This shows us that the output is more than halved by reducing the flow temperature to 55°C.

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17. REGULATING TEMPERATURE Pyrox

Thermostats
On/off thermostats

The simplest and cheapest method of maintaining an even temperature in a heated room is to
use a thermostat which is sensitive to room temperature and switches the heat source on or off
as necessary.

An important concept when discussing thermostatic control is the switching resolution. A

thermostat which turns itself off at 24°C and on at 25°C has a switching resolution of 1°C.

It is best to have a small switching resolution, since this reduces fluctuations in room temperature
so that it remains as stable as possible. There are many types of thermostat. In general, it is
possible to distinguish between mechanical thermostats, such as capillary tube thermostats, and
electronic thermostats.

Electronic thermostats are somewhat more expensive than mechanical ones, but they have the
advantage of having adjustable switching resolutions and extremely precise settings. The
switching resolution must not be made too small when controlling heating via contactors since
they may turn themselves on and off at very short intervals, causing a great deal of wear and
more noise.

Multistage thermostats

In systems with a large output it is better not to turn the whole power plant on and off. In this kind
of system it is usual to divide the output among two or more component parts and switch in as
much power as necessary.

This kind of temperature control leads to less wear on the network when large outputs are to be
controlled, as well as resulting in more even temperatures.

Pre-programmed control
With larger outputs, it is possible to use pre-programmed control. For instance, a channel battery
can be divided into a number of groups. If Group 1 is set at 1 kW, Group 2 is set at 2 kW while
Group 3 is at 4 kW. Various combinations of these three output groups allow 7-stage output
control.

Infinitely variable temperature control

Temperature control of the type Pulser or TTC is often used as an alternative to output control
with on/off or 3-stage thermostats. Pulser 220 and TTC use a triac in the control circuit. A triac is
a semiconductor which can connect and disconnect the current to electrical heating elements
without the disturbing noise which can occur with temperature control using contactors.

One whole connection and disconnection cycle takes approx. 1 minute or less. The output is
increased by increasing the on-time and reducing the off-time accordingly. The output regulators
are also equipped with a temperature regulator and a potentiometer. The temperature sensor can
be built-in or external. Triac regulators cannot be used to control contactors, and therefore cannot
be used to regulate fan heaters or air curtains. However, this type of regulator is extremely
suitable for use with radiant heaters and channel batteries.

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 Pyrox
Triac and binary switch
The most precise temperature regulation for large outputs is achieved by combining a
temperature regulator with a binary switch. The smallest output stage can then be controlled
using triac controls, while the rest of the stages are controlled by a binary switch.

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18. APPENDIX Pyrox
Documentation for radiant heat

HEATLINE RADIANT HEATERS Ð RADIATION TEMPERATURE CONTRIBUTION

These tables show the radiation temperature contribution at various distances horizontally and
vertically from the midpoint of the heater:

HL 08 0m 1m 2m 3m
1m 14.8 7.9 2.6 0.4
2m 9.5 3.8 2.0 0.5
3m 4.8 1.2 0.8 0.4
4m 2.5 0.8 0.2 0.1

HL 12 0m 1m 2m 3m
1m 17.2 8.9 2.9 0.6
2m 9.5 6.1 2.8 1.0
3m 5.8 2.9 1.0 0.8
4m 2.5 1.7 0.8 0.6

HL 17 0m 1m 2m 3m
1m 23.2 11.4 3.2 0.8
2m 9.8 7.2 3.0 1.6
3m 6.8 3.8 1.6 1.0
4m 3.1 2.1 1.2 0.8

HL 21 0m 1m 2m 3m
1m 25.6 14.7 4.2 1.2
2m 11.3 7.3 3.5 1.7
3m 6.9 3.9 1.9 1.3
4m 3.2 2.1 1.4 0.9

HL 32 0m 1m 2m 3m
1m 30.7 26.2 3.9 1.0
2m 14.4 9.5 6.7 2.9
3m 7.7 6.3 5.8 3.3
4m 4.9 3.7 3.1 1.0

HL 42 0m 1m 2m 3m
1m 35.9 30.7 4.7 1.2
2m 16.5 11.3 8.0 3.5
3m 9.2 7.6 6.9 3.9
4m 5.8 4.4 3.5 1.2

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 Pyrox
Measuring points for gauging radiation temperatures:

0m 1m 2m _________
3m

1m
s

2m

3m

4m

HEATLINE COMFORT Ð RADIATION TEMPERATURE CONTRIBUTION

These tables show radiation temperature contribution at various distances horizontally and
vertically from the midpoint of the heater:

CL 04 0m 1m 2m
0.5 m
1.5 m
2.5 m

CL 06 0m 1m 2m
0.5 m
1.5 m
2.5 m

CL 09 0m 1m 2m
0.5 m
1.5 m
2.5 m

CL 12 0m 1m 2m
0.5 m
1.5 m
2.5 m

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 Pyrox

Documentation for air curtains

These tables show air velocities measured at different distances from the outlet opening at
maximum and minimum fan speeds. These values apply to isothermal air supply.

LRX
Distance(m) Air velocity, max. (m/s) Air velocity, min. (m/s)
0.5 3.1 1.4
1.0 2.0 0.5
1.5 1.7 0.2
2.0 2.0 -

LG
Distance(m) Air velocity, max. (m/s) Air velocity, min. (m/s)
0 7.1 5.5
1.0 5.0 4.0
2.0 3.5 2.6
2.5 3.1 2.3

LGW
Distance (m) Air velocity, max. (m/s) Air velocity, min. (m/s)
0 5.6 3.8
1 3.0 2.1
2 2.0 1.2
2.5 1.9 1.0

MTV
Distance (m) Air velocity, max. (m/s) Air velocity, min. (m/s)
1 6.8 -
2 6.4 -
3 5.5 -
4 5.0 -
5 4.0 -
6 3.5 -

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