International Journal of Economy, Management and Social Sciences, 2(3) March 2013, Pages: 37-43

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International Journal of Economy, Management and Social Sciences

ISSN
2306-7276

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Power and Teacherhood:

Student Teachers Perceptions of Teachers Power and Authority
Anniina Kyllnen 1, Kaarina Mtt 2, Satu Uusiautti 3
1,2,3

University of Lapland, Finland.

AR TIC LE INF O

AB STR AC T

Keywords:

Power is an inevitable part of teachers work. The purpose of the study was to dissect how student
teachers realize the power element that their prospective profession involves and how the nature of
teachers power can be described and illustrated. Student teachers (N=12) participated in the study
by writing an essay about power in teachers work. The following research questions were set for
this study: (1) How do student teachers perceive the nature of teachers power? (2) How does
power differ from authority in student teachers perceptions? (3) What kind of effects does the
exercise of power have according to student teachers perceptions? The data were studied through
existing theoretical framework, in this case, definitions of power and authority. Based on the
results, teachers power and authority were one the one hand connected to the values and
ontological ideas but on the other hand very concretely manifested in practice. Teachers power is a
multidimensional phenomenon that challenges teachers to deliberate their work and own action.
The concept of pedagogical authority is further discussed based on the findings.

pedagogical authority
authority
power
teacher
pedagogical love

2013 Int. j. econ. manag. soc. sci. All rights reserved for TI Journals.

1.

Introduction

Various forms of the exercise of power are part of teachers work. At its best, an educator can use his or her power to support childrens
holistic physical, mental, and morel development [1]. At its worst, exercise of power may turn into public humiliation in front of other
people, ridicule, and fear, leave life-long negative impressions about teachers [2] [3]. Indeed, teachers are expected to use their power
wisely. In order to do that, teachers must become aware of their own action, goals and influence on pupils [4].
There are numerous definitions for power, but most of them are connected with social relationships and maintaining order. Nuutinen states
that people use power in social interaction situations in order to control life and achieve their goals [5]. Power is also about making choices
by selecting the most suitable one for the purpose. In this situation, power has the ability to affect the course of events and the possibility of
controlling other peoples actions [6]. Power, and the exercise of power, has conscious, controlled, and target-oriented influences [7].
Likewise, Hersey and Blanchard understand power as a way of controlling or compelling: A has got power so much in relation to B that A
can make B do something that B would not do otherwise [8, pp. 195-196].
Several theorists consider authority to be based on power and in Webers opinion, it is within his or her rights that a person with authority
uses power [9]. The legitimacy of power is rational, traditional, or charismatic. According to Weber, rational legitimacy is grounded on
instructions and orders, based on the given laws and norms [9]. Traditional legitimacy is based on the prevailing traditions and authority
that they determine. Charismatic legitimacy depends on the integrity, heroism, exemplariness, or expertise of the one who uses power.
Weber emphasizes that the types of legitimacy are often overlapping [9].
Authority can be seen as a means of influence when it differs from compulsion and persuasion: Puolimatka calls this kind of influence
justified authority [10, p. 250]. Authority is often addressed in pedagogical points of view and it has been studied a great deal [11] [12]
[13]. Nevertheless, it has been understood in a contradictory way for education and teaching [14] [15] [16]. However, this depends on how
it is defined and what kind of meanings it has been given [17]. Nowadays, when people call for the restoration of teachers authority, it is
reasonable to ask what kind of authority people actually want to talk about [see 18].
The word authority may arouse negative images about teachers as disciplinarians and hence, authority may be considered authoritarianism
[19]. An authoritarian educator is believed to control childrens behavior and attitudes in a strict way, expecting the childrens will to
conform to the educators will, and punishing children for disobedience [20]. In this situation, educational work is directed by the teachers
power position, not by interaction or by explaining the decisions [19].
Authority can be based on the exercise of power and the teachers external position (the teacher as a dominating, defiant authority) or
emerge with respect and expertise (the teacher as a flexible professional) [21]. Authority that leans on the exercise of power has the role of
a dominating and defiant ruler [see 7, 8]. An expert-authority is respected because of his or her expertise and he or she does not have to
* Corresponding author.
Email address: anniina.kyllonen@gmail.com, Kaarina.Maatta@ulapland.fi, satu@uusiautti.fi

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struggle with mastery over the subject matter. In learning situations, flexible professionalism makes the teacher capable of bending
according to students needs and qualifications. This kind of teacher can notice, help, and support students in accordance with their starting
points. The question is about a sort of empathy, the ability to look at the information from the students point of view [22] [23].
This study focuses on student teachers perceptions of the nature of teachers power and how teachers exercise their power in the
classroom. Power is an inevitable part of all rearing and education, and therefore, a part of teachers work. The purpose of the study was to
dissect how student teachers realize the power element that their prospective profession involves and how the nature of teachers power can
be described and illustrated

2.

Method

This was a qualitative study conducted among student teachers at the University of Lapland, Finland. Twelve student teachers (one man
and eleven women) participated in the study. The participants were asked to write an essay about power in teachers work. They had five
guiding questions that they could use when starting to write their essays. These questions were: What is power in a teachers work / in a
classroom? How is power manifested in a teachers work? What types of power does education involve? What kinds of effect
does/can the exercise of power have? In what situations do teachers use their power? The questions did not tie essays in any way as the
student teachers knew that they could write about other issues related to teachers power. The purpose was to allow them to define the
essence of power in teachers work and, thus, to highlight their perceptions.
The nature of teachers power in student teachers perceptions was studied through the following research questions:
(1) How do student teachers perceive the nature of teachers power?
(2) How does power differ from authority in student teachers perceptions?
(3) What kind of effects does the exercise of power have according to student teachers perceptions?
The data analysis resembled qualitative content analysis which was ultimately based on the pre-determined themes [24] [25]: the essay data
were analyzed through theory-based content analysis. The data were studied through existing theoretical framework, in this case,
definitions of power and authority [26] [27]. The analysis was structured so that student teachers perceptions were organized in predetermined categories that represented these forms of power and authority. Excerpts from essays were therefore arranged according to these
categories (e.g. quotations that described expert authority were grouped together, etc.). Essays included therefore descriptions of various
forms of teachers power as the participants had discussed the phenomenon from multiple points of view. When analyzing their essays, it
became obvious that some excerpts could resemble many categories depending on the perspective they were looked at. However, this was
not considered a problem since the phenomenon of power and its various manifestations are overlapping and to increase the reliability of
analysis, this is clearly brought out also in Results section. In addition, quotations from the data are included to support the analysis and to
bring out the participants voices.

3.

Results

3.1. The nature of teachers power

First, student teachers perceptions were analyzed through three perspectives on power: power as supremacy, empowering power, and cooperation-based power.
Power as supremacy resembles the popular definition of power referring to dominance over another person [26] and power refers to a
relationship where the educator can, for example, subjugate, control, force, and forbid children [28]. In this study, student teachers
described power as supremacy as the teachers control and command over pupils in the classroom. At its extreme form, the power could be
arbitrary and random subordination and humiliation of children. However, supremacy did not only appear negatively in essays but it was
also described as the teachers duty to take care of childrens health and security that sometimes required the use of the most extreme forms
of power.
At the end, the teacher decides everything. (Sole)
Often, small children have little say about issues concerning teaching and schoolThe teacher decides his or her teaching and chooses the
topics. (Eela)
The teacher has the power to mold individuals and direct their growth and development. (Kille)
Empowering power refers to power as enabling or ability to achieve self-fulfilling results and therefore it is sometimes referred as
authorizing power. It usually has positive effect [26] [27]. Empowering power includes the idea of a child possessing the power of deciding
for himself or herself and of opposing the authority [26]. The experiences of empowerment are a crucial part of this form of power as the
individual who is the target of the exercise of power can make decisions, too [29]. The student teachers essays emphasized the demand on
pupils participation. They saw that the teacher has a power to let pupils participate in making decisions that concern themselves and thus
learn necessary civic skills. Teachers could direct pupils actions so that they realize their responsibility in their choices and action.
[The teacher] can let the pupil be responsible for something that the pupil is good at. For example, a pupil who is good at gymnastics
could teach somersaults to other children. (Enna)
Guiding in the right direction, intervening in childrens doings only when necessary. (Sole)

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At their best, teachers can support and encourage --- act with respect and encouragingly and have trust in children. (Liia)
To guide pupils to make independent decisions and cope in life. (Riska)
Cooperation-based power refers to the ability to work with others. This type of power is not possessed by any individual but it is socially
shared and valid only among this particular group [30]. The strength of cooperation-based power is the possibility of acting for the common
goals through reciprocal trust and respect among the members of the group [26]. A school and an individual classroom can be seen as a
social community of this kind where power is shared between its members and by cooperation, the group can achieve their shared goals.
However, cooperation-based power does not have only positive features but it involves exclusion: each group excludes some certain
individuals or groups. [26] [31] In the school context, this type of negative cooperation-based power can be seen for example in bullying. In
this research, the teacher students did not write much about cooperation-based power. Mostly, they took sides against bullying and wanted
to enhance the creation of common rules for the class
Both the pupils and the teacher respect each other but the teacher keeps a rein. (Asse)
Often, teacher use their power to make everyone follow common rules and enhance cooperation in the classroom. (Eela)

3.2. The relation between power and authority

Student teachers named five types of authority that were connected to the way teachers exercise their power in the classroom: legal and
expert authority, traditional authority, charismatic authority, moral authority, and ontological-existential authority.
Teachers are legalized experts and therefore authorities in schools [32] [33]. This type of authority is strongly connected with
organizational hierarchies. Teachers are impersonal experts who have an authoritative position in relation to pupils. Teachers were
described to have right to comprehensive decision-making because of their expertise and legalized position.
The public administration (the municipality, state) has given a task to teachers that they have to fulfill (teach and raise) --- the means are
up to teachers themselves. (Liia)
Surely teachers have power in classrooms as authorities; it is possible to see teachers above pupils for example because of their age and
the system. (Nikki)
Based on the results, teachers as legalized experts were expected to provide support for learning and define pupils actions. Teachers have
the right to give and check homework and make up rules. These rights are connected to their legal authority that involves the responsibility
of making sure that pupils learn.
The teacher defines, for example, classroom rules, sitting order, homework, grades, and punishments for offences against rules.
At its best, the legalized authority position provides teachers with the possibility of promoting civic activities inside classrooms but at its
worst, the position can let them withdraw from the moral responsibility [34]. Teachers have to find balance between societal demands and
responsibilities and pupils needs and expectations:
Our society demands a certain order and adjustment to rules. (Kille)
In this study, legalized position was closely connected to teachers role as educational experts: in education, teachers expertise can be
based on knowledge (about education and/or about a certain school subject), experience, societally legalized position, or a combination of
all these. Some student teachers thought that a teacher as an authority can advance learning, on the other hand, pupils are dependent on
teachers expertise [35]:
Pupils respect --- the teachers expertise so much that they want to listen and do as the teacher wishes and they trust in the teacher. (Asse)
Basically, the student teachers considered teachers legalized expertise as the possibility of deciding, determining, having the right to
set up the practical framework of schoolwork and the relationship with pupils and their learning. If pupils do not find their teachers
expertise relevant to their learning, the teachers authority is questioned. Then, the authority can lean more on the legalized position [cf.
35].
Traditional authority is one of the forms that justify a certain individuals position. For example, certain professions include inherited
authoritative position that is not usually questioned [34]. A teachers profession is one of these traditional professions including the
authoritative position: the past, present, and future create a continuum that is regarded as significant [26]. School as a societal institution
involves plenty of traditions that teachers maintain and renew. By repeating certain traditions at school, social cohesion and unity not only
at the school level but also at the classroom level can be advanced. Pupils transmit their experiences from one grade to another and thus,
norms and beliefs are regenerated. Societal rules and norms function as the basis of teachers traditional authority. Student teachers
described teachers traditional authority as follows:
Perhaps, an example of strict leadership is more common at school because our society requires certain order and adjustment to rules.
(Kille)

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Charisma refers to special and even superhuman features that justify someones position in relation to others. Typically, a strong
charismatic authority is not criticized and this type of authority is often associated with great leaders and religious leaders. At school,
charismatic authority is based on a teachers deviant personality, feature, or quality. [36] Scott specifies that charismatic authority also
involves beliefs of the authority being somehow special [37]. Students have their own belief in authority and define their own limits for
respecting it [38]. Raelin and Burbules describe how the teachers authority, at its best, means charisma that brings an enthusiasm and joy
for learning [39] [40]. Pupils like the teacher because of his or her qualities and care for the teacher and obey the teacher with pleasure [cf.
35]. One student teacher described a charismatic teacher from her past in the following manner:
In the middle school, this male teacher did not yell but his speech came across well. No major interruptions occurred in his lessons ever.
(Manta)
On one hand, a charismatic teacher has a positive influence on the work and atmosphere inside a classroom. On the other hand, charismatic
authority is connected with personality and heroism: it is dependent on pupils perception of the teachers excellence. [32] Certainly, a
teachers excellence can be based on expertise and then the charismatic authority is connected to expertise as well. Especially, among
younger pupils, a teachers knowledge may produce a charismatic authoritys position to a teacherwhich is, then, hardly distinguishable
from traditional or expert authority. The difference occurs in a teachers own perception and the level of his or her awareness of the
position and moral obligation versus manipulation.
Moral authority tries to teach children what is right and wrong, good and bad. On the other hand, an educator has a moral obligation to care
and nurture children. Therefore, moral authority is two-dimensional. The student teachers strongly emphasized the moral responsibility in a
teachers work: justice, equality, goodness, and love toward various pupils regardless of a teachers personal preferences.
Even if you did not like all the pupils, you should not show that in how your treat pupils. Manta)
A teacher should be able to work fairly and respectfully toward pupils. (Nunnu)
The adult merely is a supporter or a safe-keeper who stands by and whose decisions you can trust in. (Kille)
Authority means caring about and for the other. Moral authority includes these two dimensions and, for example, Noblit considers moral
authority as caring exercise of power that is ethically justified [41]. A teacher is responsible for childrens well-being [23] that can be
manifested through pedagogical love and caring teacherhood [21] [42].
A teacher has to explain children why the teacher does what she or he does. (Manta)
Teachers should be fair, honest, and encouraging. (Una)
A teacher has to learn how to exercise power for pupils good so that everyone (including the teacher) enjoys working in the classroom
and pupils would grow into skillful adults. (Asla)
When a teachers authority is connected to moral justification, it is likely to advance pupils holistic well-being and learning. However,
even that does not cover all aspects of educational authority. An ontological-existential authority covers questions of the existence of
relationships and the world and how they should be interpreted. [26] School as an educational institution has a significant role in extending
childrens knowledge and understanding about the themes of existence.
The dimension of love when considered from the viewpoint of education is not just a teachers responsibility for caring but especially a
feature that is based on a certain ontological worldview and basic values. When a teachers authority is grounded on love and caring,
children are the most likely provided with good and safe growing environment. Authority is used for the childrens best. In this study, the
emphasis on social and societal skills seemed to be connected to ontological-existential authority:
At his or her best, the teacher encourages and supports the development of a childs balance worldview, identity, and self-esteem through
respectful, encouraging, and trusting action. (Liia)
The way a teacher acts and takes pupils typifies the teachers real values, worldview, and idea of man. (Liia)
Caring that is included in moral authority can be seen as a teachers obligation toward pupils. Yet, experiences of love cannot be obliged.
Pedagogical love [see 42] does not only function as a teachers means to motivate pupils to learn and discover their strengths but it means
wider and more profound appreciation and idea of man.

3.3. The influences of teachers exercise of power

Student teachers discussed the possible influences that teachers way of using their power might have. Three themes emerged from the data:
childrens development and growth, childrens learning, and childrens cooperation skills.
In all, things that teachers say affect pupils self-perception. (Una)

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When teachers use their power in a positive manner, they are likely to create a secure environment, reliable relationship with pupils, and
enhance fairness and equality:
A teacher has a great effect on pupils development, self-esteem, and feelings of self-efficacy. (Nikki)
The data did not include descriptions of just positive power but negative as well. Student teachers mentioned arbitrary exercise of power
that results in pupils experiences of insecurity and fear, suppressing pupils own thinking, diminishing their self-esteem and selfconfidence, and other negative influences on childrens future. The participants emphasized teachers invisible negative exercise of power,
too.
You sort of ignite fear among pupils --- this easily causes insecurity among the authoritys followers. (Kille)
Having faced constant unfairness, a child can follow this manner in his or her adulthood. (Kille
Teachers hardly use physical means to achieve authority, but a negatively-toned mental edge over pupils is not any better. (Asse)
Student teachers also highlighted those reasons that a teacher gives to his or her action: the exercise of power was connected to the
development of a childs understanding. Giving reasons was considered relevant for the way a child perceives the power an educator uses
[43]. In order to do that, a teacher has to be aware of his or her own action and its goals.
Secondly, teachers exercise of power was connected to cooperation and creating beneficial conditions for out. A common goal and clear
rules that everyone is aware of were mentioned as basic manifestations of this type of effect. A teacher has the power to maintain order and
stick to agreed rules. In addition, cooperation included pupils social skills and teamwork abilities. A teacher has the power to direct pupils
into various groups that develop their social and citizenship skills. While being a target of exercise of power, a child grows into an
individual using power [see 5] [31].
In summary, teachers exercise of power and its influences seemed to be depended on situational factors. In each context and situation, the
way a teacher uses his or her power can be defined either positive or negative or something in between. Therefore, teachers have to reflect
constantly the reasons of using power and its possible effects into pupils growth and development.

Discussion
In this study, it appeared that teachers exercise of power is based on their values and conception of a human being. Teachers authority is
one the one hand connected to these abstract ideas but on the other hand manifested in practice. A teacher earns a certain type of authority
position through those ideas that he or she applies in teaching practices. Eventually, the most visible side of teachers power is the concrete
actions. Thus, teachers power is a multidimensional phenomenon that challenges teachers to deliberate their work and own action.
Based on the results, teachers power and authority were connected together. Pupils were seen to accept a teachers authoritative position
for various reasons. Indeed, a teachers authority appeared a combination of different types of authority combining elements of expertise,
professional role and personality, care and love, ethics, and existence. The concept of pedagogical authority could illustrate the versatile
nature of teachers authority.
Pedagogical authority means intellectual, guiding, and moral authority being in interaction with pupils [19]. What becomes significant is a
teachers aspire to encourage and support pupils in their personal learning processes. Furthermore, pedagogical authority is manifested by a
trusting and functional interactional relationship between a teacher and a pupil. Thus, pedagogical authority combines intimacy and security
with feelings of capability and self-appreciation related to teaching and learning. Pedagogical authority also has time, place, and personbound manifestations. Mtt and Uusiautti include the concept of pedagogical love in pedagogical authority [21].
Illustrating pedagogical authority from the viewpoint of various types of authority gives a comprehensive picture of the dimensions of a
teachers authority. The star of pedagogical authority helps understanding the responsibilities and possibilities in teachers work and to
understand the range of dimensions in a teachers professional roles where just expertise or legalized position will not necessarily mean
good teacherhood.
How much does pedagogical authority have to do with how teachers exercise power in the classroom and in the relationship between a
teacher and a pupil? When a teachers authority is considered from the point of view of pedagogical authority it represents positive exercise
of power. Authoritative position based on trust, caring, and knowledge seems to be close to a teachers ethical and moral responsibility for
pupils growth, development, and learning. Then, the exercise of supremacy, empowering power, and cooperation-based power seems to be
justified when considered from teachers and pupils points of view.

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Figure 1. Pedagogical authority

4.

Conclusion

The core of the exercise of power and its justification is pursuing for the enhancement of pupils growth, development, and learning.
Instead of the means of using power, the values guiding teachers actions were seen the most significant. According to Hatt, the original
meaning of pedagogy is grounded in the relational and intentional responsibility of an adult to a child [44]. The vulnerability of the child
calls for a loving attitude from the educator, focusing on the students physical security and their social, emotional, and educational
wellbeing. More recently, Daniel called for teachers to have ability to develop higher-order thinking skills, meaning that they should be
able not only to clarify principles and educational goals but also to analyze them in a critical manner [45]. Teachers should have the
capacity to recognize and question the role of a teacher and the existing structures and power relationships. Indeed, according to Boyd and
Arnold, very little is known about how teachers think about the aims of education [46]. Yet, the success of education depends on how
teachers present their understanding about morality. According to Kohlberg and Mayer, the most important issue confronting educators
and educational theorists is the choice of ends for the educational process [47, p. 449]. Certainly, children do need guidance, and schools
should cultivate students natural moral sense [48]. Teachers as pedagogical authorities have the responsibility for enhancing this in the
classroom. This study was to contribute to this discussion by analyzing the level of student teachers understanding of the power factor in
teachers work.
According to Pauli Siljander, at the core of pedagogical love and pedagogical authority is the educators trust in the pupils ability to
become civilized and self-determined [49]. Yet, the relationship between a teacher and a student is asymmetrical because the teacher
possesses a quality that the pupil does not. According to Hare, the teacher does not have to think that the student is presently his or her
equal but does need to see the student as potentially equal [50]. The purpose of the learning relationship is to assist the pupil in developing
into an independent and responsible autonomous individual. However, the student does not achieve this goal alone; he or she needs the
educators help and guidance [6].
In practice, it is important that the teacher is able to determine whether the tension within the teacher-student relationship is constructive or
destructive, or colored by defiance of authority, trust, coldness, or expertise. A teacher can reflect and observe his or her way of teaching
and interacting with students and ask questions such as Do I listen to students opinions in an open manner?, Do I encourage students to
express their emotions or perceptions?, How do I take divergent opinions and tolerate criticism or feedback from students?, and Do I
treat students equally regardless of their background? [42].
Teachers self-awareness and self-reflection is the key. Kristjan Kristjansson describes the post-modern time as a time of missing values
and of uncertainty about what is ultimately good and worth pursuing [51] [see also 52]. Furthermore, it is worth noting that in practice,
various learners may benefit from various levels of love and authority. Sometimes, the teacher must be ready to use his or her authoritative
position to sustain order and discipline in the classroom, while some other times a more flexible and adjusting approach to the situation
may be more useful [21]. It is all about the teachers tact and capability to notice the various learners and personalities and have situational
flexibility when using the power the teacher as the authority in the classroom has.

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