Physics Motors and Generators 2

Formulae
*not all these are given in the exam
F = qvBsin

F = BI l sin

B=

kI
d

F kI1I 2
=
l
d

= Fd
= BIAn cos
between loop and magnetic
field

= BIAn sin
between normal and
magnetic field

= BA
= BA cos

F
q
v
B

F
B
I
l

B
k
I
d
F
l
k
I1
I2
d

F
d

B
I
A
n

B
I
A
n

B
A

B
A

Force
Charge : 1.6 x 10-19
Velocity
Magnetic Field
Angle from (+ve)
Force
Magnetic Field
Current
Length of wire
Angle from (+ve)
Magnetic Field
Current
Distance
Force
Length of wire section
Current 1
Current 2
Distance between wires
Torque
Force
Perpendicular distance
Torque
Magnetic Field
Current
Area
Number of coils
Angle to the field
Torque
Magnetic Field
Current
Area
Number of coils
Angle to the field
Magnetic Flux
Magnetic Induction
Area
Magnetic Flux
Magnetic Induction
Area
Angle to the Induction

Newtons
Coulombs
Tesla
Degrees
Newtons
Tesla
Amperes
Metres
Degrees
Tesla
2 x 10-7
Amperes
Metres
Newtons
Metres
2 x 10-7
Amperes
Amperes
Metres
Newtons
Metres
Tesla
Amperes
Degrees
Tesla
Amperes
Degrees
Webers
Tesla
Webers
Tesla
Degrees

N
C
m s-1
T

N
T
A
m

T
A
m
N
m
A
A
m
Nm
N
m
Nm
T
A
m2

Nm
T
A
m2

Wb
T
m2
Wb
T
m2

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Physics Motors and Generators 2

= n
t
= |V|
d
|V| =
dt
Uniform Magnetic Field

|V| = B

dA
dt

Uniform Area

|V| = A

dB
dt

V = IR
P = IV
P = I2R
Vp
Vs

Is np
=
I p ns

P = Primary
S = Secondary
np

t
|V|
d
dt
|V|
B
dA
dt
|V|
A
dB
dt
V
I
R
P
V
I
P
I
R
Vp
Vs
Ip
Is
np
ns

Induced EMF
Number of Conductors
Change in Flux
Change in Time

Volts

Webers
Seconds

Wb
Sec

Voltage
Change in Flux
Change in Time
Voltage
Magnetic Field
Change in Area
Change in Time
Voltage
Area

Volts
Webers
Seconds
Volts
Tesla

Change in Magnetic Field

Tesla
Seconds
Volts
Amperes
Ohms
Watts
Volts
Amperes
Watts
Amperes
Ohm
Volts_
Volts
Amperes_
Amperes

V
Wb
s
V
T
m2
s
V
m2
T
s
V
A

W
V
A
W
A

V_
V
A_
A

Change in Time
Voltage
Current
Resistance
Power
Voltage
Current
Power
Current
Resistance
Voltage_
Voltage
Current_
Current
Number of Turns_
Number of Turns

Seconds
Volts

This is the turns ratio

ns

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Physics Motors and Generators 2

1.
!
!
!
!

Motors use the effect of forces on current-carrying

conductors in magnetic fields.
Stationary electric charges exert an electric force on each other.
Magnets exert a force on each other. Like poles repel, and Unlike poles attract.
A current carrying wire is surrounded by a magnetic field.
Moving charges experience a force in a magnetic field.

kI
B=
d

B
k
I
d

Magnetic Field

Tesla
2 x 10-7
Amperes
Metres

Current
Distance

T
A
m

! A force acts on a current carrying wire in a magnetic field. A motor effect.

! The direction of the force depends on the direction of the current and the direction of the
magnetic field. (Right Hand Rule)
! The force is perpendicular to both the field and the current.

Force on a Current Carrying Conductor

This force depends on:
1.
The strength of the magnetic field (B)
2.
The magnitude of the current in the conductor (I)
3.
The length of the conductor (l)
4.
Angle between the positive direction of the conductor and the magnetic field. ( )
F = BI l sin

F
B
I
l

Force
Magnetic Field
Current
Length of wire
Angle from (+ve)

Newtons
Tesla
Amperes
Metres
Degrees

N
T
A
m

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Physics Motors and Generators 2

Forces on Long Parallel Conductors

When two long parallel wires are near each other and a current passes through the wires, a
force of attraction or repulsion is observed between the wires. This force is attractive if the
currents flow in the same direction and repulsive if they flow in opposite directions.

F kI1I 2
=
l
d

F
l
k
I1
I2
d

Force
Length of wire section
Current 1
Current 2
Distance between wires

Newtons
Metres
2 x 10-7
Amperes
Amperes
Metres

N
m
A
A
m

This relationship is very important. When two straight infinitely long wires are 1m apart,
carrying a current of 1Ampere, the force between them in a vacuum is 2 x 10-7Nm-1.
When using this formula
! If the wires are of different lengths, the shorter length is taken.
! If the currents are at right angles, the force is 0.

Torque
Torque is the turning effect of a force.
Torque is a maximum when the coil is parallel to the field; or when = 0
= Fd

F
d

Torque
Force
Perpendicular distance

Newtons
Metres

Nm
N
m

Torque
Nm
B
Magnetic Field
Tesla
T
I
Current
Amperes
A
Area
m2
between loop and magnetic A
n
Number of coils
field

Angle to the field

Degrees

Torque
Nm
B
Magnetic Field
Tesla
T
= BIAn sin
I
Current
Amperes
A
A
Area
m2
between normal and
n
Number of coils
magnetic field

Angle to the field

Degrees

! The force on the coil is constant as the coil turns, so as the coil turns in the magnetic field,
the torque decreases as the perpendicular distance decreases.
= BIAn cos

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Physics Motors and Generators 2

DC Electric Motors
The commutator DC Motor consists of:
1.
An Armature
2.
A Magnetic Field
3.
A Commutator
4.
Conducting brushes
Armature and Magnetic Field
The armature is made up of a large number of individual conducting coils wrapped around an
iron core that is free to rotate about a horizontal axis. These coils are arranged at angles to
each other. The field structure is made with permanent magnets, but it can be made from
electromagnets.
Split-ring Commutator
The split-ring commutator consists of a copper cylinder divided into two electrically
separated halves (commutator segments). Each half is connected to one side of the armature.
The split ring commutator allows the current/ force to reverse direction, having the effect of
reversing the direction of the input current with each half revolution, keeping the torque
positive.
Conducting Brushes
The brushes consist of the conducting material graphite. The brushes make contact with the
commutator as it rotates. Springs ensure that the brushes are held firmly against the
commutator.
Commutator in work
As the armature rotates, the two sides of the commutator make contact with the conducting
brushes. In this manner, arms 1 and 2 are connected to the positive and negative terminals
alternately, thus effectively reversing the current in the sides of the coil This ensure
continuous rotation of the armature.

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Physics Motors and Generators 2

Uses of the Motor Rule

! Electric Motors
! Electric Meters
! Loudspeakers

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Physics Motors and Generators 2

2.

The relative motion between a conductor and magnetic field

is used to generate an electric voltage.

Faraday
Michael Faraday (1791 1867), noticed that a changing magnetic field was needed to
produce electricity.
When a magnet is pushed into a coil of many turns connected to galvanometer, a current is
produced as long as the magnet is moving relative to the coil. If there is no movement
between the coil and magnet, no current is produced. When the magnet is removed from the
coil, a current of the opposite direction is produced.
Magnetic Flux Density The Magnetic Field strength

Magnetic Flux
B
Magnetic Induction
= BA
A
Area

Magnetic Flux
Magnetic Induction
B
= BA cos
Area
A

Angle to the Induction

Webers
Tesla
Webers
Tesla
Degrees

Wb
T
m2
Wb
T
m2

EMF Electromotive Force

EMF is the electrical potential difference or voltage.
Induced EMF is proportion to the rate of change of flux through the circuit.
Faradays Law

Induced EMF
Volts
n
Number
of
Conductors

= n

Change in Flux
Webers
t
Change
in
Time
Seconds
t
= |V|
|V|
Voltage
Volts
Change in Flux
Webers
d
d
|V| =
Change
in
Time
Seconds
dt
dt
Uniform Magnetic Field
|V|
Voltage
Volts
dA
B
Magnetic
Field
Tesla
|V| = B
dt
Change in Area
dA
Change in Time
Seconds
dt
Uniform Area
Voltage
|V|
Volts
dB
A
Area
|V| = A
Change in Magnetic Field
dt
Tesla
dB
Change in Time
Seconds
dt

V
Wb
Sec
V
Wb
s
V
T
m2
s
V
m2
T
s

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Physics Motors and Generators 2

Separation of Charge

A the wire moves down, charge in the wire moves down

across the magnetic field. There is a force on the positive to
the right, but they can not move.
There is also a force on the negative side to the right,
allowing both charges to move making the left side (-ve)
and the right side (+ve).
Use right hand rule.

Although there is a separation of charge, no electrical energy is being used so no other form
of energy needs to be put in. Once the wire is set, moving it will keep moving at constant
speed.
If a current is completed externally, a conventional current will flow from the positive and
through the external circuit to the negative end. Electrical energy is now being used, coming
from the Kinetic Energy motion of the wire.
The current flow inside the wire generates a
force up which acts against the motion.

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Physics Motors and Generators 2

Lenzs Law
The direction of the induced current is such as to oppose the change that caused it.

Coil

Magnet
N

Repel
S
Attract
S

Repel

N
Attract
The arrow shows the direction of the magnet.

Back EMF
A back EMF will be produced in the coil to oppose the motion of the coil. This back EMF
helps limit the current in the coil and hence its speed. As the applied current increases, the
motor speeds up. This produces an increasing EMF that is in opposition to the applied
voltage.
When the core is inserted into the solenoid, a
large, changing magnetic field is produced.
The changing field generates an EMF, which
pushes a current through the coil in the
opposite direction. The total current is
reduced and the globe goes dim

Solenoid

Iron Core

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Physics Motors and Generators 2

Eddy Currents
An EMF is induced in a conductor whenever it is placed in a region of changing magnetic
flux. In the case of a solid conductor, circular eddy currents are induced. These eddy currents
are often used for electromagnetic braking since the induced currents flow in a direction to
oppose the change producing them.

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Physics Motors and Generators 2

3.

Generators are used to provide large scale power production

in isolated areas and as a backup in emergency situations.

Generator
Armature
Field Structure
Slip rings and brushes
Commutator

Energy Losses
Some of the mechanical energy used to drive the generator is converted into heat. This may
occur from:
! Friction in the bearings of the rotor
! Heat generation in the conductors due to current
! Energy losses in the iron core.
! Copper loss heat loss due to resistance in coils
! Flux leakage not all flux produced by the primary coil enters the second coil
! Eddy current loss eddy currents induced in the core due to changing flux causes loss in
the form of heat
! Generators are very efficient.
With power transmission, considerably long cable lengths can generate resistance. So to
minimise energy loss in the wires, the current needs to be kept low. This is achieved by
transmitting the energy at high voltages.

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Physics Motors and Generators 2

4.

Transformers allow generated voltage to be either increased

or decreased before it is used.

Transformers
Transformers are devices for transferring electrical energy from one circuit to another while
changing the size of an AC voltage. Transformers cannot operate on DC.
Transformers consist of two coils of wire, the primary and secondary, wrapped around an
iron core. Changing AC voltages in the primary coil sets up changing magnetic fields (flux)
in the iron core. These link with the secondary coil which has a changing magnetic field
through it and induces a voltage.

Soft Iron Core

Primary Coil

Secondary Coil

A step-up transformer produces a greater voltage in the

secondary than is in the primary coil.
A step-down transformer reduces the voltage in the secondary
coil.

Vp

n
I

= s = p
Vs I p ns
P = Primary
S = Secondary
np

Vp
Vs
Ip
Is
np
ns

Voltage_
Voltage
Current_
Current
Number of Turns_
Number of Turns

Volts_
Volts
Amperes_
Amperes

V_
V
A_
A

This is the turns ratio

ns

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Physics Motors and Generators 2

Transmission of Power
! Increased voltage results in decreased current which lessens the heating losses in the
transmission power lines.
! Transformers between the power station and the consumer, reduce energy losses and
gradually lower the voltage.
! The transfer of electricity over the power grid requires significant infrastructure of power
stations, sub-stations, power lines and the towers to support the line. These are expensive
to maintain.
! Transformers in electricity sub-stations step down the voltage to a reasonable amount,
where low currents can be transmitted with lesser energy losses. It is an efficient way to
move electricity over a large distance.
! By being able to move currents over larger distances, power can be supplied to a vast
area.
! Electrical appliances in the home that are connected to the main domestic power supply
use transformers so that they may receive the appropriate amount of voltage required.
Some need step-down (doorbells); others need step-up (TV).

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Physics Motors and Generators 2

5.

Motors are used in industries and the home usually to

convert electrical energy into more useful forms of energy.

AC electric Motor
AC motors do no need a commutator because the current in the armature coil is constantly
changing direction. If the rate of coil rotation is synchronized with the change in current, then
the torque will always be positive.
Magnetic Field and Armature
Slip Rings
Stator and Rotor
The stator (stationary) is the permanent magnet, allows the rotor (rotating) the armature to
rotate by the use of torque.
AC motors typically produce low power. Although suitably used for making power tools like
Drills and Screwdrivers, AC motors are easily damaged.
Induction Motors
Induction Motors are the most commonly used type of AC Motor.
By using magnets and coils, we know that a rotating magnetic field will exert a torque on a
stationary coil.
The rotor of an induction motor consists of a cylindrical soft iron core with copper rods
embedded in longitudinal slits in the coil. These rods are connected to a thick copper ring at
each end of the core. (Squirrel cage).
Alternating current in the field coils of the stator are arranged to produce a rotating magnetic
field. The changing magnetic field in the stator produces changing currents in the rotor by
induction. When the copper rods embedding in the rotor react with the outside field, torque is
applied, allowing the rotor to move.
Advantages of Induction Motors
Induction motors can be either single or three-phase, depending on what electricity supply
they use.
At home, single-phase is used. Heavy duty motors in industries tend use three-phase.
Induction motors are used because of:
! Simplicity of design. Induction motors have a very rugged rotor design that is simpler and
more economical to construct than motors with centrally wire-wound armature coils.
! High efficiency. The rotation after start up is uniform. Depends on the power of the input
current.
! Low maintenance. There are no slip rings or carbon brushes to wear out and need to be
replaced. The power is connected directly to the outside stator windings via wires.
! Low cost.

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Physics Motors and Generators 2

MOTOR Convert electrical energy into

mechanical energy
The current carrying coil in a magnetic field
will experience a force.

GENERATOR Produces electrical energy

from mechanical energy
A coil of wire in the magnetic field is rotated
by the mechanical energy. The cutting flux
lines induces a current in the coil, producing
electrical energy.

AC
! Squirrel cage
rotor
!
!

DC
! Armature (rotor)
! Magnetic field

AC
! Produces and AC
current

DC
! Produces a DC
current

! Split ring
commutator
! Conducting
carbon brushes
!
!
!

! Does not use a

commutator
! Uses slip rings

! Uses a split ring

commutator
! Uses split rings

!
!
!

!
!
!

!
!
!
!

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