Journal of Constructional Steel Research 62 (2006) 863871

www.elsevier.com/locate/jcsr

Distortional buckling of castellated beams

Tadeh Zirakian, Hossein Showkati
Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Urmia University, P.O. Box: 165-57159, Urmia, Iran
Received 15 August 2005; accepted 3 January 2006

Abstract
In previous studies of the structural behavior of castellated steel beams, different possible failure modes of these extensively used structural
members have been identified and investigated. On the other hand, during the past 25 years or so, a proliferation of research work has been
undertaken on the distortional buckling of steel members. Nonetheless, no studies are found in the literature on the distortional buckling of
castellated beams. Accordingly, tests of six full-scale castellated beams are described, in which the experimental investigation of distortional
buckling was the focus of interest. In addition to the test strengths, the accurate critical loads of the beams have been obtained using some
extrapolation techniques, and ultimately a comparison has been made between the obtained test loads and some theoretical predictions.
c 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Distortional bucklings; Castellated steel beams; Experimental investigation; Buckling loads; Theoretical predictions

1. Introduction
Modern techniques of fabricating steel members allow for
welded I-beams to be easily fabricated and it is often economical to produce such beams with equal flanges and slender
unstiffened webs using standard hot-rolled beams. Castellated
beams are such structural members, which are made by flame
cutting a rolled beam along its centerline and then rejoining
the two halves by welding so that the overall beam depth is increased by 50% for enhanced structural performance against
bending. Therefore, application of these structural members
may lead to substantial economies of material. Basically, the
reasons for fabricating castellated beams are as follows:
(a) the augmentation of section height that results in the
enhancement of moment of inertia, section modulus,
stiffness, and flexural resistance of the section;
(b) decreasing the weight of the profile which, in turn, reduces
the weight of the whole structure and economizes on
construction work;
(c) optimum utilization of the existing profiles;
(d) no need to plate girders; and
(e) the passage of services through the web openings.
Corresponding author.

E-mail addresses: tzirakian@yahoo.com (T. Zirakian),

h.showkati@mail.urmia.ac.ir (H. Showkati).
c 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
0143-974X/$ - see front matter 
doi:10.1016/j.jcsr.2006.01.004

The widespread use of castellated beams as structural

members in multistory buildings, commercial and industrial
buildings, warehouses and portal frames, has prompted several
investigations into their structural behavior. As a result
of various theoretical and experimental studies reported in
the literature over the last three decades, different failure
modes (i.e. the Vierendeel collapse mechanism, buckling of
a web post, web weld failure, etc.) have been identified and
investigated. In addition to earlier research concerned with
the in-plane behavior of castellated beams, lateral-torsional
buckling of these members was studied by Nethercot and
Kerdal in 1982 [5], in which they provided quantitative
data on the lateral-torsional buckling strength of castellated
sections, and the similarity in behavior of castellated and
plain-webbed beams was shown. Furthermore, web buckling of
castellated beams was studied theoretically and experimentally
by Redwood et al. In some cases [8,10] flexural deformation
of the web posts was shown through the measurement of web
strains.
On the other hand, distortional buckling of steel I-section
beams was identified in some of the relatively early work on
lateral stability. Apart from the early work, systematic studies
of distortional buckling have only been attempted during the
past 25 years or so, particularly due to the advent of digital
computers for accurate modeling of the phenomenon. The
majority of the work in the open literature has originated
from Australian research, mostly by M.A. Bradford et al.

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Notation
The following symbols are used in this paper:
2.95 + 4.070w 1.143w2;
flange width;
1;
equivalent moment factor for beams which
accounts for the effects of moment gradient and
end conditions of the beam [3];
Cw = warping section constant;
E
= Youngs modulus of elasticity;
Fy = yield stress;
G = shear modulus of elasticity;
h
= overall cross-sectional height;
= 1 (I y /Ix );
Ir
Ix , I y = second moments of area about the x, y axes;
J
= torsional constant;
L
= length;
M = bending moment;
M I = inelastic buckling moment;
M px = full plastic moment;
M yz = elastic uniform bending buckling moment;
P, Pcr = buckling load;
PElastic = elastic lateral buckling load;
PInelastic = inelastic lateral buckling load;
PMassey = extrapolated buckling load using Massey Plot;
PModified = extrapolated buckling load using Modified
Plot;
PSouthwell = extrapolated buckling load using Southwell
Plot;
PTest = test strength (maximum test load);
r
= radius of the gable-shaped web-flange junction;
s
= web thickness;
t
= flange
thickness;
w = (/L) ECw /G J ;
x, y = cross-sectional principal axes;
m = moment modification factor [6];

= ratio of end moments; and

= lateral deflection.
A
b
B
Cbs

=
=
=
=

The phenomenon has generally been investigated in two

lateral-distortional (Fig. 1) and restrained distortional
(Fig. 2) modes of buckling, beside the two well-known local
and lateral-torsional buckles. A review paper on the work
undertaken prior to the early 1990s was published by Bradford
in 1992 [1]. Since then, extensive studies have been performed
and different analytical models have also been proposed in this
respect. In general, lateral-distortional buckling takes place in
intermediate length members with slender webs as a result of
the interaction between the two local and lateral buckles, and is
characterized by simultaneous distortion and lateral deflection
of the cross-section. In fact, web distortion allows the flanges
to deflect laterally with different angles of twist, reduces the
effective torsional resistance of the member, and consequently
reduces the resistance to buckling [7]. Restrained distortional

Fig. 1. Lateral-distortional buckling.

Fig. 2. Restrained distortional buckling.

buckling also happens due to applied restraints against rigid

cross-sectional movements of one of the flanges.
Ultimately, according to the authors knowledge, despite the
considerable volume of research on the structural behavior of
castellated beams and the distortional buckling of steel I-section
beams, distortional buckling of castellated steel beams has
remained untouched. Thus, experimental work reported in this
paper was undertaken with the aim of experimentally verifying
distortion in castellated sections. Six full-scale beam tests have
been conducted and, despite the experimental investigation of
the phenomenon, comparison has also been made between
the acquired experimental buckling loads and some theoretical
predictions.
2. Test program
2.1. Test specimens
In all, six tests were performed. These were on castellated
steel beams fabricated from the hot-rolled IPE12 and
IPE14 profiles in accordance with the German so-called
Estahl Standard. The specimens were designed in three 3600,
4400, and 5200 mm lengths and two types of cross-sectional
specifications. A typical configuration of the expanded beam
and the notation adopted are shown in Fig. 3, and the test
arrangement is shown in Fig. 4. The cross-sectional dimensions
are given in Table 1, using the nomenclature defined in Figs. 3
and 4. Further, the measured overall cross-sectional heights
of the specimens, given in the table, are the averages of the
recorded values at the 1/4, 1/2, and 3/4 points of the beams.
The test specimens were labeled such that the height and
length of each specimen could be identified from the label. For
example, the label C180-3600 indicates that the overall crosssectional height and nominal length of the test specimen are 180
and 3600 mm, respectively.

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865

Table 1
Test beam dimensions
Original hot-rolled profile

Test specimen

Nominal h (mm)

Measured h (mm)

b (mm)

t (mm)

s (mm)

r (mm)

L (mm)

IPE12

C180-5200
C180-4400
C180-3600

180
180
180

176.67
176.33
176.33

64
64
64

6.3
6.3
6.3

4.4
4.4
4.4

7
7
7

5200
4400
3600

IPE14

C210-5200
C210-4400
C210-3600

210
210
210

211.67
210.25
206.50

73
73
73

6.9
6.9
6.9

4.7
4.7
4.7

7
7
7

5200
4400
3600

Fig. 3. Beam and opening geometry.

Fig. 5. Overall view of the test setup.

Fig. 4. Test arrangement.

2.2. Test setup

In general, the tests were carried out on simply supported
castellated beams with central concentrated load and an
effective lateral brace at the mid-span of the top compression
flange. Figs. 4 and 5 give a good indication of the setup.
Loading was by means of a 608 kN jack with a hydraulic
system, and load was applied through a 100 100 100 mm
steel cube placed on the top compression flange of the beam.
The steel cube was fixed against lateral movements by means
of two restricting plates placed at both its sides and the contact
surfaces between the cube and the plates were well lubricated
to avoid any friction during downward movement of the cube
during the loading process. The loading point configuration is
shown in Fig. 6. Due to the influence of the shear developed
between the contact surfaces of the cube and the flange, lateral
deflections, twists, and rotations of the top compression flange
were effectively prevented at the mid-span. As was observed,
lateral deflections of the top flange were mostly prevented and
any small deflections were recorded. The rotations of the top
flange, on the other hand, were limited to some extent and were
especially evident when buckling took place at the two adjacent
spans, while the twists were fully prevented.
The end supports consisted of two 1.16 m long supporting
columns erected on a base plate which, in turn, was linked to

Fig. 6. Loading point configuration.

a steel deck by four bolts. The two supporting columns were

joined by an intermediate cylindrical member, which could
rotate around its axis by means of two ball-bearings located
at its two ends. The test specimens were initially placed on the
cylindrical member at each end and additional restraints against
lateral deflections and twists were applied later at an average
distance of 165 mm from the axis of the end supports. The
bracing system included two restricting members, each with
two ball-bearings, which were tied to the supporting columns at
two sides of the specimen. The ball-bearings could freely roll

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T. Zirakian, H. Showkati / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 62 (2006) 863871

Fig. 8. Measurement details.

Fig. 7. Configuration of end restraints.

on the rectangular plates tightly attached to the two sides of the

specimen. Fig. 7 shows the configuration of the end restraints.
In addition, at the end supports, appropriate stiffeners were
designed and welded to the web and the two flanges to ensure
that shear and web crippling problems would be avoided at
these locations.
2.3. Instrumentation
Considering the test setup, the two lateral-distortional and
restrained distortional modes of instability were expected to
occur at the two laterally unbraced adjacent spans and the midpoint, respectively. Accordingly, the lateral deflections and web
strains were measured at the mid-length (1/2 point) and middistance between the center and end support (1/4 point). The
lateral deflections were measured at the three top flange, midpoint, and bottom flange levels of section height using three
displacement transducers, which were fixed on a board in a
plane perpendicular to the plane of the web. In addition, two
strain gauges were stuck vertically to both sides of the web
between adjacent openings at the mid-height point in order
to record the developed strains of the web. Fig. 8 shows the
measurement details at the two measurement locations.
The load applied by the jack was monitored by a 100 kN
capacity ring load cell at the mid-span and the load cell was
instrumented by a displacement transducer with 0.001 mm
accuracy.
2.4. Test procedure
During the tests, the load was applied in a step-by-step
manner and, using a Kyowa UCAM-20PC type data logger,
the applied load and the readings of transducers and strain
gauges were monitored and consequently recorded at regular
intervals. Consistent with all the tests, unloading took place
when the lateral deflections were large at the two laterally
unbraced adjacent spans. Fig. 9 shows a typical beam which has

Fig. 9. Buckled shape (C210-4400).

undergone lateral buckling and, as is seen, the buckling mode

is a complete sine wave.
As mentioned before, castellated beams were fabricated
from the hot-rolled IPE12 and IPE14 profiles, so two tensile
coupons were generally taken from each CIPE12 and CIPE14
fabricated profile: one from the flange and one from the web.
Tension test results are given in Table 2.
3. Test results
3.1. Experimental verification of distortion
All of the test beams underwent lateral buckling which took
place at the two laterally unbraced adjacent spans. However,
considering the test setup, distortion was expected to occur
at the two laterally unbraced and the restrained mid-length
regions. Therefore, with respect to the main objective of
this research, which was the revelation and verification of
any possible distortion, proper measurements were made at
the two 1/2 and 1/4 points where the beam was prone to
undergo restrained distortional and lateral-distortional modes
of buckling, respectively. Furthermore, it should be pointed out

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867

Table 2
Summary of tension test results
Fabricated profile

Tensile coupon taken from

Yield stress (MPa)

Ultimate stress (MPa)

CIPE12

Flange
Web

279.31
233.93

894.35
892.23

CIPE14

Flange
Web

280.29
332.03

1002.91
671.16

Fig. 11. Loaddeflection curves (C210-3600).

Fig. 10. Web deformations (C180-3600).

that web-post buckling did not occur in any case. Fig. 10 shows
the longitudinal web deformations of a typical test beam.
1/2 point: At this point, a concentrated load was applied on
the top effectively braced compression flange, so that the web
was subjected to significant compressive stresses, and thus it
might become unstable and deflect out-of-plane while pulling
the tension flange as it buckled. The result would be a web with
a distorted shape, and indeed a restrained distortional or web
lateral mode of buckling would occur [4]. On the other hand,
distortional behavior of the web at the mid-span was influenced
by various factors such as the initial geometric imperfections,
interaction of the two distortional modes, interaction between
the buckling behaviors of the two adjacent spans, web openings,
etc., so that, in some cases, a complex distortional behavior
was observed at this point. Overall, web distortion at the midspan has been revealed through the measurements. In Fig. 11,
unequal discrepancies in the amounts of lateral deflection of the
three section-height points are observed clearly, which indicates
that the three points have not remained on a straight line just
because of flexural deformation or distortion of the web. In
Fig. 12, on the other hand, flexural deformation or distortion
of the web is represented by divergence of the strains in the
gauges mounted on each side of the web at the mid-height
point. Ultimately, in Fig. 13 distortion of the web during the
loading process is shown in a typical beam, which has been
drawn on the basis of values of lateral deflections measured
at the three section-height points. In spite of the little lateral
displacement of the top restrained flange, it is observed clearly

Fig. 12. Loadstrain curves (C210-3600).

that, by continuation of the loading process, the web has been

distorted.
1/4 point: Similarly to the 1/2 point measurements and the
respective analyses of the experimental data obtained, web
distortion is revealed and verified through the loaddeflection
(Fig. 14) and loadstrain (Fig. 15) curves. In Fig. 16, distortion
of the web during the loading process is shown in a typical
beam, which has been drawn on the basis of values of lateral
deflections measured at the three section-height points. In the
figure, it is observed clearly that lateral deflection of the crosssection has been accompanied by web distortion, and this
has become more pronounced by continuation of the loading
process. Finally, as an example, the distorted shape of the web
has been shown with a little exaggeration in Fig. 17 at a loading
level of 18.61 kN and, in addition to presenting the trendline,

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T. Zirakian, H. Showkati / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 62 (2006) 863871

Fig. 16. Distortional behavior of the web at the 1/4 point (C180-3600).

Fig. 13. Distortional behavior of web at the 1/2 point (C210-3600).

Fig. 17. Distorted shape of the web (C180-3600).

with the lateral instability of the beam, the occurrence of lateraldistortional (or simply distortional) buckling is confirmed.
Fig. 14. Loaddeflection curves (C180-3600).

Fig. 15. Loadstrain curves (C180-3600).

which was fitted by using a least-squares-method regression

analysis, the respective second-order polynomial that was
obtained is also shown in the figure. As a result, through
revealing the web distortion that has occurred simultaneously

3.2. Test strengths and the extrapolated buckling loads

As was previously mentioned, failure of the beam became
evident when the lateral deflections were large and, after a
certain amount of loading (test strength or maximum test load),
the applied load indeed did not increase and consequently
unloading took place. These loads were considered to be
an inaccurate measure of the critical load, and extrapolation
techniques were used to obtain the critical loads. These are the
so-called Southwell, Modified, and Massey Plots, which were
developed for elastic buckling. Here, considering the inelastic
buckling behavior of the specimens, the inelastic buckling loads
representing the strength of the beam were extrapolated with
the assumption that these methods may be used for inelastic
buckling [2]. The Southwell Plot graphs /P against , where
is the lateral deflection. The Modified Plot [9], on the other
hand, graphs P against , while the Massey Plot graphs
/P 2 against . The critical load may be obtained from the
relevant straight lines of best fit from these. As an example,
Figs. 18 through 20 provide the Southwell, Modified, and
Massey Plots for test specimen C210-5200. Table 3 provides
the maximum test loads and the critical loads obtained using
the three extrapolation techniques.

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869

Table 3
Test strengths, extrapolated buckling loads, and theoretical predictions
Test specimen

PTest (kN)

PSouthwell (kN)

PModified (kN)

PMassey (kN)

PElastic (kN)

PInelastic (kN)

C180-5200
C180-4400
C180-3600
C210-5200
C210-4400
C210-3600

25.92a

16.72
22.94
26.88
42.19
40.32

16.01
22.68
25.86
41.94
39.46

17.68
22.94
27.74
40.82
40.82

20.60
31.96
55.45
35.48
56.07
97.44

14.48
18.55
23.85
22.77
28.91
35.11

15.63
21.58
24.90
39.94b
37.22

a Due to the influence of initial geometric imperfections and interaction between the buckling behaviors of the two adjacent spans, failure of the beam has occurred
at a higher load than the expected amount. This was quite evident in loaddeflection curves of the 1/4 point, where the beam has suddenly undergone large lateral
deflections in the opposite direction to the pre-buckling direction of deflection.
b Because of some frictional restraint at the loading point, which was observed during the test, the test strength is high compared to those for the other C210
beams.

Fig. 18. Southwell Plot.

Fig. 20. Massey Plot.

discrepancy between the test strengths and the extrapolated

buckling loads is found in the case of the Modified technique.
4. Comparison with theoretical predictions
According to the authors knowledge, except for a few rules
for beams on seats and for beams with partial torsional restraint
provided in the Australian AS4100 code, no explicit formulas
are found that account for the effect of distortional buckling
in I-section beams. Accordingly, comparison is made between
the experimental results and theoretical predictions of some
equations developed for elastic and inelastic lateral buckling.

Fig. 19. Modified Plot.

The average discrepancy between the maximum test and

the extrapolated buckling loads obtained using the Southwell
technique is about 7%. This, on the other hand, is about 4%
for the Modified technique, while for the Massey technique
the average discrepancy is about 8%. As is seen, the smallest

Elastic lateral buckling: The elastic lateral buckling loads

of specimens have been calculated using Eq. (1), which is
presented for elastic lateral buckling of a simply supported
beam with a central concentrated load and lateral support at the
center [3]:
Pcr L
= Cbs M yz
4
where
M yz

=
L

E Iy G J 
1 + w2
Ir

(1)

(2)

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T. Zirakian, H. Showkati / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 62 (2006) 863871

Table 4
Some of the quantities used in the calculations of buckling loads
Test specimen

Measured L a (mm)

I y (mm4 )

Ix (mm4 )

J (mm4 )

Cw (mm6 )

M px (kN mm)

Cbs

C180-5200
C180-4400
C180-3600
C210-5200
C210-4400
C210-3600

4880.0
4073.5
3271.0
4875.0
4060.0
3269.5

275 415.50
275 579.02
275 579.02
447 860.63
447 856.48
447 845.75

6874 632.32
6845 584.37
6845 584.37
12 499 300.38
12 310 323.36
11 818 606.42

15 327.38
15 317.73
15 317.73
22 835.26
22 786.11
22 656.34

1997 355 990

1989 391 872
1989 391 872
4689 635 514
4624 819 449
4455 818 612

19 552.04
19 506.11
19 506.11
29 608.14
29 357.98
28 700.97

4.315
4.545
4.865
4.613
4.877
5.207

a Measured length between the end restraints of the specimens.

Ir = 1 (I y /Ix )

ECw
w=
L GJ

(3)

the theoretically predicted inelastic lateral buckling loads is

quite satisfactory.

(4)
5. Conclusions

and, for the upper flange loading case,

Cbs =

A(= 2.95 + 4.070w 1.143w2 )

.
B(= 1)

(5)

In theoretical calculations, the Youngs modulus E and the

yield stress Fy were taken as 206.01 GPa and 235.44 MPa,
respectively, and the shear modulus G was taken as 0.385E.
The values of the actual L between the end restraints, I y , Ix ,
J , Cw , M px , and Cbs , used in calculating the buckling loads
of the beams are given in Table 4. It should be pointed out
that, in both the elastic and inelastic cases, all cross-sectional
properties have been calculated for the cross-section at the
center of a castellation. The predicted elastic buckling loads
are given in Table 3, and as is seen, the disparity between the
experimental and theoretical results increases markedly as the
span length decreases, since instability is dominated by yielding
rather than by elastic buckling. In addition, the influence of
initial geometric imperfections, distortion, web openings, and
other factors should also be taken into consideration.
Inelastic lateral buckling: Using an approximate equation (6)
suggested by Nethercot and Trahair [6] for predicting the
inelastic buckling moments M I of statically determinate simply
supported I-beams with unequal end moments M and M, the
inelastic lateral buckling loads of the test beams have been
obtained by calculating M I for a beam length of half the span
under a linear moment diagram that increases from zero to the
mid-span value with m = 1.75, the value for this moment
diagram:
0.3(1 0.7M px /m M yz )
m M yz
MI
= 0.7 +
.

2
M px
M px
(0.61 0.3 + 0.07 )

(6)

The predicted inelastic lateral buckling loads of the beams

are also given in Table 3. Considering the inelastic buckling
behavior of the beams, good predictions are generally provided
compared with those for elastic buckling, in spite of the
influence of some factors that were not considered in theoretical
calculations, including initial geometric imperfections, the
virtual distribution of residual stresses, web distortion,
interactions between adjacent segments, etc.
As a consequence, considering the differences between the
behavior of the beams in reality and that of the theoretically
conceived perfect beams, agreement between the test loads and

In spite of extensive studies on various failure modes of

castellated beams and, on the other hand, the considerable
volume of research on the distortional buckling of steel Isection beams, the distortional buckling of castellated beams
has remained untouched. Accordingly, a series of six tests on
full-scale simply supported castellated beams with a centrally
concentrated load and an effective lateral brace at the midspan of the compression flange was performed, mainly with
the aim of experimentally verifying the web distortion in these
structural members.
Considering the test setup, the two well-known lateraldistortional and restrained distortional modes of instability
were expected to occur at the two adjacent segments and midlength point, respectively, so that appropriate measurements
were made at the 1/4 and 1/2 points of the specimens.
All of the test beams underwent lateral buckling, which was
accompanied by web distortion. In fact, web distortion was
revealed and demonstrated through the experimentally acquired
loaddeflection and loadstrain curves at both measurement
locations. As a consequence, the occurrence of the lateraldistortional mode of buckling was confirmed.
In addition to the test strengths, using the Southwell,
Modified, and Massey extrapolation techniques, the accurate
critical loads were obtained. On the average, the discrepancy
between the test strengths and the extrapolated buckling loads
was found to be 7% for the Southwell Plot, 4% for the Modified
Plot, and 8% for the Massey Plot. The smallest discrepancy was
found in the case of the Modified Plot.
Ultimately, comparison was made between the experimental
results and the theoretical predictions of the elastic and inelastic
lateral buckling loads. Considering the inelastic buckling
behavior of the beams, agreement between the test and the
theoretically obtained inelastic lateral buckling loads was quite
satisfactory, in spite of the disparities between test and theory.
Acknowledgments
The test program was supported by a grant from the Iranian
Ministry of Sciences, Researches, and Technology specified
for the postgraduate research. The funding was provided as
a result of great efforts made by Dr. Mirzayee, the Head

T. Zirakian, H. Showkati / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 62 (2006) 863871

of the Engineering Faculty of Urmia University, which are

gratefully acknowledged. Further, the experiments would not
have been possible without the help of the laboratory technician
Jaafar Azimzadeh. The authors are also grateful to Professor
M.A. Bradford, Professor N.S. Trahair, Professor T.M. Roberts,
Professor B.W. Schafer, Dr. Z. Vrcelj, Dr. H.R. Ronagh, and
Pedro Simao for their great help in providing articles and
presenting constructive comments regarding this research.
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