UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN KIMIA

SEPARATION PROCESS ll (CBE682)
NAME

NURWANI BINTI HUSSIN (2012862664)

AMANINA MAHFUZAH BINTI JAMALUDDIN (2012483034)
SHAIRAH ADIBAH BINTI HUSAIN (2012852942)
AINUL JAMILAH BINTI AZMAN (2012292622)

GROUP

5A

ASSIGNMENT

DIALYSIS

DATE

4 DEC 2014

PROG/CODE

EH242

SUBMIT TO

MDM NURUL ASYIKIN BINTI MD ZAKI

A. INTRODUCTION
Dialysis is needed when a patients kidneys stop working properly. Dialysis is one form of renal
replacement therapy (RRT) and transplantation is the other. Dialysis will make patients feel better but it
does not make them feel normal or return the blood test results to normal, as hope will happen
with transplantation. Dialysis is used until transplantation is possible. Dialysis does the job that is
normally carried out by the kidneys. That is, it takes away the substances that the body does not need
that would otherwise build up in the blood and make someone ill. Dialysis also removes salt and water
from the body if the kidneys have reduced the amount of urine they are making. (NHS, 2011)
There are two types of dialysis: peritoneal dialysis and haemodialysis. Both methods have their
advantages and one type may be more appropriate for your child than the other. In both types, the
principal is the same: a cleaning fluid called dialysate is used to take the impurities, salt and water away
from the blood. The impurities pass from the blood into the cleaning fluid. There has to be a barrier
between the blood and the cleaning fluid for this to happen. In haemodialysis, the barrier is the filter in
the dialysis machine that the blood passes through and in peritoneal dialysis, the barrier is the layer of
cells that lines the abdomen and covers the intestines (peritoneum). (Fresenius Medical Care, 2014)
Haemodialysis

Peritoneal dialysis

Takes blood from the body to be filtered

Does not take blood from the body to be filtered

Uses a synthetic filter in a dialysis machine to filter

blood

Uses the lining of the abdomen (peritoneum) to

filter blood

Is usually done in hospital but can be at home in

bigger children

Is flexible as it can be done almost anywhere

Whenever there is plastic inserted into the body (central venous haemodialysis
catheters and peritoneal catheters), there is a chance of them becoming infected. Also as the kidneys
are working so badly, there is a risk of the blood potassium becoming high if care is not taken with diet,
and this can make the heart rate abnormal. In the long term, there is a very high risk of cardiovascular
disease, such as heart attacks and strokes, due to high phosphate, BP (blood pressure) and PTH
(parathyroid hormone) levels. There is a chance of death for children on dialysis, although this is low at
about one per cent a year. There is also a chance of dying with a transplant, but overall the rate of death
is lower. (NHS, 2011) (Hamilton)

B. PRINCIPLE OF DIALYSIS
There are two types of dialysis: hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. In hemodialysis, blood is passed
through an artificial kidney to clean it. Peritoneal dialysis uses a filtering process similar to hemodialysis,
but the blood is cleaned inside the body rather than in a machine. In hemodialysis, blood is removed
from the body and circulated through an extracorporeal fluid circuit hemodialyzer (outside the body),
then returned to the patient. (Rockwell Medical, 2014).The hemodialyzer contains a selectively
permeable membrane, which is a filter that allows fluids and waste to pass through, but prevents the
exchange of blood components, microorganisms and the dead endotoxins. This circuit includes a
hemodialyzer, which is where the blood is cleaned. The fluid used to clean the blood (dialysate) flows in
the opposite direction to the blood on the opposite side of the membrane, while waste and extra fluid
are removed from the blood and end up in the dialysate by controlling three processes: Diffusion, ultrafiltration and osmosis. (Hamilton)
In this process, toxins and body waste are transported, by a concentration gradient, out of the blood
through a membrane into an isotonic salt solution. The membranes used in this case have open pores. In
diffusion dialysis, the potential of a concentration difference is also instrumental for mass transfer but
pore-free ion exchange membranes are used in this case. Hence, free strong acids can be recovered by
using anion exchange membranes and free strong bases by using cation exchange membranes.
(Hamilton) (Rockwell Medical, 2014)

Reference from web site (BWT Group, n.d.) and (TOLTEC International. Inc, 2006)
The dialysis process is applied for the recovery of free acids or bases from treatment bath
solutions in surface finishing and textile processes. The bath solution is separated in a chamber in
counter-current flow and via an ion exchange membrane and is then routed to a second chamber
through which water flows. The free acid or base is able to permeate while the salts are retained.
Depending on the process design, up to 95% of the free acid and up to 80% of the base can be recovered
in this way and returned to the production process, thus saving chemicals needed for the finishing baths
or wastewater treatment. (BWT Group, n.d.) However, the important advantage is that process
efficiency in production is increased. The individual parameters for the bath solutions are stabilized
which results in a constant uniform effect of the bath solution on the work pieces. These aspects have
particular significance for example in anodizing baths (surface optics) or in alkaline baths for the
aluminum chemical milling. (Baxter Renal, 2006)

Ultra-filtration, also referred to as convection, is fluid flow through the membrane, forced by a
difference in pressure on the two sides of the dialyzer (pressure gradient). The machines are generally
control the volume of fluid removed from the patient directly and allowing pressure to change.
Volumetric control is generally achieved either by controlling the flow of dialysate in and out of the
dialyzer at different rates with two flow controllers, or by having equal flow rates in and out of the
dialyzer and removing fluid between these equal flows. Volumetric control allows the doctor to take
advantage of more effective "high flux" dialyzers, which allow a great deal of fluid movement with very
little pressure differences. (TOLTEC International. Inc, 2006)

Reference from (TOLTEC International. Inc, 2006)

Osmosis is the net movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane driven by a
difference in the amounts of solute on the two sides of the membrane. In dialysis, this refers not to
water movement across the hemodialyzer membrane, but across cell membranes within the body-either
from within the red cells to the blood plasma, or from within cells of the various tissues in the body (like
muscles) to interstitial fluid (the fluid in between cells). Sodium profiling, as described in the diffusion
section, can be used to increase the rate of osmosis early in the treatment by increasing the sodium
level of the plasma (TOLTEC International. Inc, 2006)

Reference from (TOLTEC International. Inc, 2006)

C. Equipment involves in dialysis

The process of haemodialysis pumps the patients blood against dialysate may be generated by the
dialysis machine or at a central location. Commonly, the dialysis machine composed of pumps, monitors,
and alarms that allow safe proportioning of dialysate. Several components of proportioning ensure safe
dialysate that is monitored by a series of alarms, pumps, and monitors. Below are the main components
of dialysis device. (ASN, 2013)
Deaeration

Figure 1.1: Deaeration pathway

Heating treated water to 85C followed by cooling prior to proportioning can also de-gas purified water.
Water heated to physiologic temperatures is subjected to negative pressure to remove any air. Air in the
water can interfere with dialysate flow and cause air trapping
Dialysate proportioning and conductivity

Figure 1.2: Conductivity cell

To ensure that the proper mixing of heated and treated water to produce the appropriate dialysate
solution.

Monitors, alarms, and conductivity

Figure 1.3: Alarm device

PH: Range between 6.87.6
Temperature: 3542C
If temperature drop, it can cause shivering but if temperature rise, protein will denature.
Conductivity: 1216mS/cm (millisiemens per centimeter).
If the conductivity exceeds the limits, the alarm will stop the dialysate flow.

Ultrafiltration: Volumetric and flow-sensor control

Volumetric based ultrafiltration

Figure1.4: Volumetric control

Ultrafiltration is a process where the fluid is being removed by body which volume has
been measured accurately. Usually used balancing chamber that composed of 2 compartments
separated by a flexible membrane. One side allow the movement of fresh dialysate in, while the
other allows spent or used dialysate out. Valve has been connect to allow the fluid to enter one

side of the chamber then pushes an equal amount of fluid out of the other side of the chamber.
One chamber has been filled with used dialysate then pushes fresh dialysate to the dialyzer,
while the other chamber is filling with fresh dialysate and pushes used dialysate to the drain.

Flow control base ultrafiltration

Figure 1.5: Flow control in dialysis

Allow control of dialysate flow since there is flow sensor at the inlet and outlet dialyzer. A post-dialyzer
UF pump removes fluid at an UF rate calculated by the dialysis machine.

D. Membrane Materials
As the dialysis is based on diffusion during which the mobility of solute particles between two
liquid spaces is restricted, mostly according to their size. Therefore, size restriction is achieved by using a
porous material, usually a semi-permeable membrane called dialysis membrane. This membrane is
permeable only for particles below a certain size. Synthetic and natural membranes are commonly used
for filtration applications. Membrane materials most often used include regenerated cellulose, cellulose
acetate, polysulfone, polycarbonate, polyethylene, polyolefin, polypropylene, and polyvinylidene
fluoride.
Cuprophane dialysis membrane (Seattle Artificial Kidney Supply Company, ultrafiltration of 0.27
ml/hr/in2) is a regenerated cellulose membrane made by the cuprammonium process. The material was
conditioned for use by soaking it for siz days in several changes of distilled water to remove all additives
(~13% by weight, consisting primarily of urea, diethylene glycol and glycerol) Copolyether-ester
membranes that are based on polyoxyethylene glycol were prepared by a modified solution
polymerization reaction. The copolyether-hydrocarbon membrane is based on polyacrylonitrile and
polyoxyethylene glycol while polypeptide membrane is based on polysacrosine. The polyethylene/NVP
membrane was prepared by radiation grafting N-vinyl pyrrolidone onto polyethylene film. Two modified
cellulose membranes, Cuenophane and Cadophane were prepared by regenerating cellulose from
cupriethylenediamine-hydroxide and cadmiumethylene-hydroxide. Nephrophane is a regenerated
cellulose membrane made by the sodium cellulose xanthogenate process. This material has been posttreated by a special stretching technique and uses sorbitol and glycerin as additives to the slurry from
which the membrane is case. DVF membranes that is also the Union Carbide membrane are fibre
reinforced cellulose membranes.
The regenerated cellulose from cotton as the cotton linters are dissolved in a solution and
spread into flat sheets or extruded into tubes. The material is treated with glycerin to prevent the pores
from collapsing and air dried at a certain temperature and pressure to form a rigid membrane. This
cellulose membrane has a symmetric pore structure which allows small molecules to migrate in either
direction, making it ideal for experimental purposes.
Nowdays, more than 30 different polymers or polymer blends are used as materials for dialysis
membranes. They can be categorized following the scheme of a family tree of haemodialysis
membranes. The trunk represents membranes from regenerated cellulose, major branches show either
synthetically modified cellulose membranes or membranes manufactured from synthetic polymers. As
the latter are standardly hydrophobic, small branches elucidate the technique on how these materials
have been rendered partially or completely hydrophilic.
However, complications may arise when membranes only comparing and following their
polymer names, such as polysulfone, polyacrylonitrile or polyamide. Membranes with the same polymer
names may differ in their haemocompatibility, flux properties and adsorption characteristics due to
varying polymer compositions. Adsorption of proteins like beta 2-microglobulin, fibrinogen and
coagulation factors, complement proteins, or hormones like parathormon and erythropoietin are
differently adsorbed by dialysis membranes and thus adsorption contributes to the removal
characteristics. Of central interest for membrane development and application is the question of how
these membranes can be sterilized, as a series of patient adverse reactions has been attributed to the
dialyzer sterilization procedures. Apart from the cellulosic membranes Cuprophan and Hemophan, the

majority of membranes cannot be sterilized by steam, as these materials degrade when exposed to
above their class-point temperature. Finally, future aspects of modern membrane development should
not neglect the needs of patient populations with specific blood properties, such as diabetics.

E. APPLICATION OF DIALYSIS: HEMODIALYSIS

Separation process by using membrane has become a way out to solve a separation problem in
industries. Especially biotechnological and pharmaceutical industries which involving many fragile or
sensitive heat chemical substances. (W.Rousseau, 1987) This is because, separation using membrane
does not need any heat but only need power supply to run the machine. The membrane has been
designated in various type according to their function. Separation process by using membrane can be
classified into gas diffusion in porous solid, dialysis, gas permeation in a membrane, reverse osmosis,
ultrafiltration, microfiltration and gas permeation chromatography. (Geankoplis, 2003) Every
classification of membrane processes has difference mechanism. For example, in the dialysis, small
solutes in one liquid phase diffuse readily because concentration differences through a porous
membrane to the second liquid phase.

Figure 1 : Hemodialysis machine

Many application had involved the dialysis in chemical processing separation such as separation
of sulphuric acid from nickel and copper sulfates in aqueous form, food processing and artificial kidney.
The artificial kidney or hemodialysis is the most common application of dialysis in our daily life.
Hemodialysis is mainly for those who suffering from kidney failure and has been practiced since 1960s
(Treatment Methods for Kidney Failure : Haemodialysis, 2006) . Healthy kidney clean the blood by
removing excess fluid, minerals, and wastes. They also make hormones that keep bones strong and
blood healthy. When kidneys fail, harmful wastes build up in our body, resulting to blood pressure may
rise, and body may retain excess fluid and not make enough red blood cells. When this happens,
treatment is needed to replace the work of failed kidneys which called as hemodialysis.

Figure 2: Concentration gradient in blood and dialysate

Hemodialysis is a diffusion-driven process where the component diffuse through a membrane
due the difference in concentration between dialysate and permeates sides of the membrane.
(Separation Through Dialysis Model ID: 258) The process is affected by the temperature, viscosity and
mixing rate of the solution. (The Dialysis Process, 2009) In the process, small-molecular-weight
metabolic waste products are removed from a patients blood by dialytic transfer across a membrane
that is impermeable to normal blood proteins. The dialysate is formulated to normalize blood
electrolyte concentrations and acid-base balance by dialytic exchange between blood and dialysate.
Fluid balance is restored by superimposing a transmembrane hydrostatic pressure gradient.
(W.Rousseau, 1987)

Figure 3: Component of dialyzer

Membrane materials used in the hemodialysis commonly fibers based on synthetic and natural
membrane that stack in a layer. The choice of membrane for a particular application is dependent on
both separation required and the environment in which the membrane is to be operated. Below is the
table of membrane used the dialysis and its manufacturer. (W.Rousseau, 1987)

Membrane material

Manufacturer

Regenerated cellulose

Asahi Medical Co. Tokyo Japan

Enka AG, Wuppertal, West Germany
Terumo Corporation, Tokyo Japan

Cellulose acetate

Asahi Medical Co. Tokyo Japan

CD Medical, Miami, Florida

Ethylene-polyvinyl alcohol

Kuraray Co. Osaka, Japan

Polyacrylonitrile

Hospal, Lyon,France

Polycarbonate

Gambro, Ab Lund Sweden

Polymethylmethacrylate

Toray Industried Inc, Tokyo Japan

Polyperfluoro

E.I.Du Pont de Nemours, Wilmington, Delaware

polysulfone

Fresenius AG. Bad Homburg, West Germany

Table 1: Dialysis Membrane material (W.Rousseau, 1987)

Two needles are used to accessing or connecting the flow by putting one needle to a tube that
made the blood flow into one side of the filter in the machine. All waste and fluid in blood was pushed
to the other side by passing through a membrane or dialyzer for example cellulose acetate which is
consist of millions of hollow fibers and diffuse in the dialysate. All the larger cells like red blood cell
cannot pass through the membrane and stay behind. Cleaned blood then back into the body by the
other needle. The dialysate is cannot be reusable and thrown away after one using. (How does dialysis
clean my blood?)

Figure 4: Blood flow in hemodialysis

F. REFERENCES

1. ASN. (2013). ASN DIALYSIS CURRICULUM. Dialysis, 1-30.

2. Baxter Renal. (2006, May 1). How dialysis work. Retrieved November 29, 2014, from
http://www.renalinfo.com/us/treatment/end_stage_kidney_failure/dialysis/how_dialysis_work
s.html
3. BWT Group. (n.d.). Diffusion dialysis. Retrieved 2014, from fumatech:
http://www.fumatech.com/EN/Membrane-technology/Membrane-processes/Diffusion-dialysis/
4. Fresenius Medical Care. (2014). Helping you live a better life on dialysis. Retrieved 2014, from
Dialysis: http://www.ultracare-dialysis.com/treating-kidney-failure/about%20dialysis.aspx
5. Geankoplis, C. J. (2003). Transport Process and Separation Process Principles. Pearson.
6. Hamilton, R. W. (n.d.). Principles of Dialysis: Diffusion, Convection, and Dialysis Machines. 2-3.
7. How does dialysis clean my blood? (n.d.). Retrieved from Life Options Rehabilitation Program:
http://lifeoptions.org/catalog/pdfs/pics/pic2/pic2_05.pdf
8. NHS. (2011, November). Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children. Retrieved November 2014,
from Dialysis: http://www.gosh.nhs.uk/medical-information/procedures-andtreatments/dialysis-an-introduction-to-dialysis/
9. Rockwell Medical. (2014). Dialysis. Retrieved 2014, from Therapeutic Focus:
http://www.rockwellmed.com/therapeutic-chronic-kidney-disease-dialysis-hemodialysis.htm
10. Separation Through Dialysis Model ID: 258. (n.d.). Retrieved from COMSOL Inc.:
http://www.comsol.com/model/separation-through-dialysis-258
11. The Dialysis Process. (2009). Retrieved from Membrane FIltration Products, INC:
http://www.membrane-mfpi.com/home/dialysis_process
12. TOLTEC International. Inc. (2006). How Hemodialysis (Dialysis) Works. Retrieved November
2014, from http://www.toltec.biz/how_hemodialysis_works.htm
13. Treatment Methods for Kidney Failure : Haemodialysis. (2006, December). Retrieved from
National Kidney and Urologic Diseases Information Clearinghouse (NKUDIC):
http://kidney.niddk.nih.gov/Kudiseases/Pubs/hemodialysis/index.aspx
14. W.Rousseau, R. (1987). Handbook of Separation Process Technology. Wiley.