1) A)

The OSI, or Open System Interconnection, model defines a networking framework to implement
protocols in seven layers. Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting at the application layer in
one station, and proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to the next station and back up the
hierarchy.
There's really nothing to the OSI model. In fact, it's not even tangible. The OSI model doesn't do any
functions in the networking process, It is a conceptual framework so we can better understand complex
interactions that are happening. The OSI model takes the task of internetworking and divides that up
into what is referred to as a vertical stack that consists of the following layers:
Physical (Layer 1)
This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal -- through the network at the
electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a
carrier, including defining cables, cards and physical aspects. Fast Ethernet, RS232, and ATM are
protocols with physical layer components.
- Layer 1 Physical examples include Ethernet, E1, Fiber optic, FDDI, B8ZS, V.35, V.24, RJ45.
Data Link (Layer 2)
At this layer, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It furnishes transmission protocol
knowledge and management and handles errors in the physical layer, flow control and frame
synchronization. The data link layer is divided into two sub layers: The Media Access Control (MAC) layer
and the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. The MAC sub layer controls how a computer on the network
gains access to the data and permission to transmit it. The LLC layer controls frame synchronization,
flow control and error checking.
- Layer 2 Data Link examples include PPP, FDDI, ATM, IEEE 802.5/ 802.2, IEEE 802.3/802.2, HDLC, Frame
Relay,
Network (Layer 3)
This layer provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths, known as virtual circuits,
for transmitting data from node to node. Routing and forwarding are functions of this layer, as well as
addressing, internetworking, error handling, congestion control and packet sequencing.
- Layer 3 Network examples include AppleTalk DDP, IP, IPX.
Transport (Layer 4)

This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is responsible for
end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data transfer.
- Layer 4 Transport examples include SPX, TCP, UDP.
Session (Layer 5)
This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications. The session layer sets
up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between the applications at
each end. It deals with session and connection coordination.
- Layer 5 Session examples include NFS, NetBios names, RPC, SQL.
Presentation (Layer 6)
This layer provides independence from differences in data representation (e.g., encryption) by
translating from application to network format, and vice versa. The presentation layer works to
transform data into the form that the application layer can accept. This layer formats and encrypts data
to be sent across a network, providing freedom from compatibility problems. It is sometimes called the
syntax layer.
- Layer 6 Presentation examples include encryption, ASCII, EBCDIC, TIFF, GIF, PICT, JPEG, MPEG, MIDI.
Application (Layer 7)
This layer supports application and end-user processes. Communication partners are identified, quality
of service is identified, user authentication and privacy are considered, and any constraints on data
syntax are identified. Everything at this layer is application-specific. This layer provides application
services for file transfers, e-mail, and other network software services. Telnet and FTP are applications
that exist entirely in the application level. Tiered application architectures are part of this layer.
- Layer 7 Application examples include WWW browsers, NFS, SNMP, Telnet, HTTP, FTP

b)

Understanding it through real life example is kind of difficult but i suppose to take one
example as were carrying large amount of goods from one place to other using number of
ships travelling in sea.
1. Physical Layer: Physical layer deals with the actual connectivity between the source and
destination. If you're transferring data to another machine through LAN, physical layer is
the Ethernet connection. The water in the sea connecting your place and destination is the
physical layer in our case.
2. Data Link layer: In this layer data is broken down into pieces. That is your goods will
be separated in various categories, say expensive goods, fragile and non fragile. This layer
deals with breaking the data being sent and transmitting it through the physical layer. So
goods being categorized and sent through the sea.
3. Network layer: Here the data being sent is organized. It also decides which protocols to
use, tcp or udp. So in our case the different compartments of ship where you'll keep these
goods is the network layer. It will also decide which generators and engines to be used while
travelling (protocols).
4. Transport Layer: Transport layer gives you the best route, security and safest path to
the destination. The transportation of data takes place here. So think of the coast guard as
transport layer. He'll look after the connection, inform you if there's any danger and tell you
the best route to your destination.
5. Session layer: The best way to remember a session is thinking of it as a Hangout or
Yahoo messenger chat. When two people start communicating a session is created, as soon
as one ends the chat or disconnects session is broken. Session layer creates a new session for
a pack of data. So the time when our ships leaves our docks and till the time it reaches the
destination is one whole session, assuming there are no problems during that interval. If
your ships gets hijacked by pirates, session is terminated. If the destination blows up,
session is terminated.
Session plays an important role in online transactions. In the very last step, where you need
to enter OTP or your secure password to authorize the transaction, if you sit idle for more
than 2-3 minutes without any activity, the session will terminate itself and the transaction
will be unsuccessful.
6. Presentation Layer: There are times you send various file formats through the
network like images or videos. Presentation layer deals with all this different files. It
converts this data into a readable format for the destination. Think of a captain who's in
charge of people from various races, countries and languages. He has to make sure everyone

will reach to destination and can perform their work over there.
7. Application layer: Many people think of browsers as soon as they hear application
layer. But application layers isn't the browsers or application you're using. In our case if
browsers are taken then ships will be out application layer.
But application layer is not the browser but the common protocols used by the browsers. So
application layer are not the ships but the common fuels these ships are using.
C.) a)

Typically, the PCM scheme is refined using a technique known as nonlinear

encoding, which means, in effect, that the quantization levels are not equally spaced.
The problem with equal spacing is that the mean absolute error for each sample is the
same, regardless of signal level. Consequently, lower amplitude values are relatively
more distorted. By using a greater number of quantizing steps for signals of low
amplitude and a smaller number of quantizing steps for signals of large amplitude, a
marked reduction in overall signal distortion is achieved. See the below figure what
happen when use with and without nonlinear encoding to the both signals.

So, we can say nonlinear encoding can significantly improve the PCM SNR ratio. For
voice signals, improvements of 24 to 30 dB have been achieved.

b)

A variety of techniques have been used to improve the performance of PCM or

to reduce its complexity. One of the most popular alternatives to PCM is delta
modulation (DM).
With delta modulation, an analog input is approximated by a staircase function that
moves up or down by one quantization level (0) at each sampling interval
(Ts)' An example is shown in below figure, where the staircase function is overlaid
on the original analog waveform. The important characteristic of this staircase
function is that its behavior is binary: At each sampling time, the function moves up
or down a constant amount o. Thus, the output of the delta modulation process can
be represented as a single binary digit for each sample. In essence, a bit stream is
produced by approximating the derivative of an analog signal rather than its amplitude:
A 1 is generated if the staircase function is to go up during the next interval; a

0 is generated otherwise.

c)
The signal-to-noise ratio is important in the transmission of digital data because it sets the upper bound
on the achievable data rate. Shannon's result is that the maximum channel capacity, in bits per second,
obeys the equation
C = B log2(1 + SNR)
where C is the capacity of the channel in bits per second and B is the bandwidth of the channel in Hertz.
The Shannon formula represents the theoretical maximum that can be achieved. In practice, however,
only much lower rates are achieved. One reason for this is that the formula assumes white noise
(thermal noise). Impulse noise is not accounted for, nor are attenuation distortion or delay distortion.
The capacity indicated in the preceding equation is referred to as the error-free capacity. Shannon
proved that if the actual information rate on a channel is less than the error-free capacity, then it is
theoretically possible to use a suitable signal code to achieve error-free transmission through the
channel Shannon's theorem unfortunately does not suggest a means for finding such codes, but it does
provide a yardstick by which the performance of practical communication schemes may be measured.
d)

Digital to Digital -
The equipment for encoding digital data into a digital signal is less complex and less expensive than
digital-to-analog modulation equipment.

Digital signal is a sequence of discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses.

Each pulse is a signal element.

Binary data are transmitted by encoding the bit stream into signal elements.

In the simplest case, one bit is represented by one signal element.

E.g., 1 is represented by a lower voltage level, and 0 is represented by a higher voltage
level

Terminologies-

Unipolar
If all signal elements have the same algebraic sign (all positive or all negative), then the
signal is unipolar.

Polar

 One logic state represented by positive voltage, the other by negative voltage

Data rate
Rate of data transmission measured in bps: bits per second

Duration or length of a bit

Time taken for transmitter to emit the bit

Modulation rate
Rate at which the signal level changes
Measured in baud: signal elements per second

Mark and Space

Mark: Binary 1
Space: Binary 0

Interpreting Signals at the Receiver

The receiver needs to know

The timing of each signal element, i.e., when a signal element begins and ends
signal levels
These tasks are performed by sampling each element position in the middle of the
interval and comparing the value to a threshold.

Factors affecting successful interpreting of signals

Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
Data rate
Bandwidth

Some principles:
An increase in data rate increases bit error rate (BER)
An increase in SNR decreases BER
An increase in bandwidth allows an increase in data rate

Another factor that can improve performance:

 Encoding scheme: the mapping from data bits to signal elements

Encoding Schemes-

Nonreturn to Zero (NRZ)

Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
Nonreturn to Zero Inverted (NRZI)

Multilevel Binary
Bipolar-AMI
Pseudoternary

Biphase
Manchester
Differential Manchester

Scrambling techniques
B8ZS
HDB3

ii)Analog to Digital

Digitization
Conversion of analog data into digital data

Digital data can then be transmitted using NRZ-L

Digital data can then be transmitted using code other than NRZ-L

Digital data can then be converted to analog signal

Analog to digital conversion done using a codec (coder-decoder)

Two principle codec techniques

Pulse Code Modulation

Delta modulatio

Digitizing Analog Data-

Pulse Code Modulation

Sampling Theorem: If a signal is sampled at regular intervals of time and at a rate higher than
twice the highest signal frequency, then the samples contain all the information of the original
signal.

For example, voice data are limited to below 4000Hz

8000 samples per second is sufficient to characterize the voice signal.

Samples are analog samples, called Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) samples.

To convert to digital, each analog sample must be assigned a binary code.

Each sample is quantized into some level

The original signal is now only approximated and cannot be recovered exactly
This effect is called quantizing error or quantizing noise

For example, 8 bit sample gives 256 levels

8000 samples per second and 8 bits per sample gives 64kbps, for a single voice signal.

PCM Example-

Nonlinear Encoding -

Typically, PCM scheme is refined using nonlinear encoding.

Quantization levels are not equally spaced.

The problem of equal spacing:

The mean absolute error for each sample is regardless of signal level.
Lower amplitude values are relatively more distorted.

Nonlinear encoding:
Use a greater number of quantizing steps for signals of low amplitude, and a smaller
number of quantizing steps for signals of large amplitude
Reduces overall signal distortion

Delta Modulation --

Modulation:

 An analog signal is approximated by a staircase function that moves up or down by

quantization level at each sampling interval.
If the value of the sampled waveform exceeds that of the staircase function, 1 is
generated, otherwise, 0 is generated.

Two important parameters:

The size of the step.
The sampling rate

iii) Digital to Analog

E.g., Public telephone system

Designed to transmit analog signals in 300Hz to 3400Hz (limited by the central office,
not the twisted pair cable)
Use modem for digital data (modulator-demodulator)

Modulation involves operation on one or more of the three characteristics of a carrier signal
Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
Frequency shift keying (FSK)

Binary FSK (BFSK)

Multiple FSK (MFSK)

Phase shift keying (PSK)

Binary PSK (BPSK)

Four-level PSK (QPSK)

Multilevel PSK (MPSK)

QAM: a combination of ASK and PSK

Amplitude Shift Keying-

Values are represented by different amplitudes of the carrier frequency

Usually, one amplitude is zero

i.e. presence and absence of carrier is used

Inefficient: up to 1200bps on voice grade lines

ASK is used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.

Binary Frequency Shift Keying---

The most common form of FSK is binary FSK (BFSK)

Two binary values represented by two different frequencies (near carrier frequency)

BFSK is less susceptible to error than ASK.

Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines

Also used for high frequency (3 to 30MHz) radio

Multiple FSK--

MFSK: More than two frequencies are used

Each signalling element represents more than one bit

More bandwidth efficient

But more prone to error!

Phase Shift Keying-

In PSK, the phase of the carrier signal is shifted to represent data.

Binary PSK
Two phases represent two binary digits

Differential PSK
Phase shifted relative to previous transmission rather than some constant reference
signal

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation ---

QAM is used in the asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) and some wireless standards.

Combination of ASK and PSK

A logical extension of QPSK

Send two different signals simultaneously on the same carrier frequency

Use two copies of the carrier, one shifted by 90

 Each carrier is ASK modulated

Two independent signals over same medium
Demodulate and combine for original binary output
QAM Levels -

Two level ASK

Each of two streams in one of two states
Four state system
Essentially QPSK

Four level ASK

Combined stream in one of 16 states

64 and 256 state systems have been implemented

Improved data rate for given bandwidth

Increased potential error rate

iv) Analog to Analog --

Modulation:
Combine an input signal m(t) and a carrier frequency fc to produce a signal s(t) whose
bandwidth is usually centered on fc

E.g., voice signals are transmitted over telephone lines at their original spectrum.

Types of modulation
Amplitude modulation: AM
Angle Modulation

Frequency modulation: FM

Phase modulation: PM

Analog Modulation -

Analog Modulation Key points --

Analog data are modulated by a carrier frequency to produce an analog signal in a different frequency
band, which can be utilized on an analog transmission system. The basic techniques are AM (Amplitude
Modulation), FM (Frequency Modulation), and PM (Phase Modulation).

3)
(a) Protocols defined specifically for LAN and MAN (metropolitan area network)transmission address
issues relating to the transmission of blocks of data over the network. In OSI terms, higher-layer
protocols (layer 3 or 4 and above) are independent of network architecture and are applicable to LANs,
MANs, and WANs. Thus, a discussion of LAN protocols is concerned principally with lower layers of the
OSI model.
Below figure relates the LAN protocols to the OSI architecture. This architecture was developed by the
IEEE 802 committee and has been adopted by all organizations working on the specification of LAN
standards. It is generally referred to as the IEEE 802 reference model.1 Working from the bottom up, the
lowest layer of the IEEE 802 reference model corresponds to the physical layer of the OSI model and
includes such functions as
Encoding/decoding of signals
Preamble generation/removal (for synchronization)
Bit transmission/reception
In addition, the physical layer of the 802 model includes a specification of the transmission medium and
the topology. Generally, this is considered below the lowest layer of the OSI model. However, the
choice of transmission medium and topology is critical in LAN design, and so a specification of the
medium is included. Above the physical layer are the functions associated with providing service to LAN
users. These include the following:
On transmission, assemble data into a frame with address and error detection fields.
On reception, disassemble frame, and perform address recognition and error detection.

 Govern access to the LAN transmission medium.

Provide an interface to higher layers and perform flow and error control.
These are functions typically associated with OSI layer 2. The set of functions in the last bullet item are
grouped into a logical link control (LLC) layer. The functions in the first three bullet items are treated as a
separate layer, called medium access control (MAC). The separation is done for the following reasons:
The logic required to manage access to a shared-access medium is not found in traditional layer 2 data
link control.
For the same LLC, several MAC options may be provided.
Higher-level data are passed down to LLC,
which appends control information as a header, creating an LLC protocol data unit (PDU). This control
information is used in the operation of the LLC protocol. The entire LLC PDU is then passed down to the
MAC layer, which appends control information at the front and back of the packet, forming a MAC
frame. Again, the control information in the frame is needed for the operation of the MAC protocol. For
context, the figure also shows the use of TCP/IP and an application layer above the LAN protocols.

(b)