DK1222_half-series-title

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Page 1

Hydraulics of
Spillways and
Energy Dissipators

Copyright 2005 by Marcel Dekker.

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Page 3

Hydraulics of
Spillways and
Energy Dissipators
R. M. Khatsuria

Marcel Dekker

Copyright 2005 by Marcel Dekker.

New York

Although great care has been taken to provide accurate and current information, neither
the author(s) nor the publisher, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be
liable for any loss, damage, or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused
by this book. The material contained herein is not intended to provide specific advice or
recommendations for any specific situation.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks
and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
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ISBN: 0-8247-5789-0
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Copyright 2005 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.
Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
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or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from
the publisher.
Current printing (last digit):
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Copyright 2005 by Marcel Dekker.

To My Parents

Copyright 2005 by Marcel Dekker.

Preface

The need for a comprehensive book dealing in hydraulics of spillways and energy
dissipators has been realized since long. Various topics pertaining to the spillways
and energy dissipators are available in the sources devoted mainly to the design
of dams, text books on hydraulics and open channel flow and handbooks of
hydraulics. However, advances in research and design, generally published
through papers presented at the specialty conferences and journals, are seldom
disseminated wide enough for application on a general scale. Consequently, the
rift between the advancements in knowledge and its formal documentation in the
books and treatise grows wider. Of the many examples illustrating this lag, a
typical one is the aerator on spillways to mitigate cavitation damage. Although,
the beneficial effects of aeration were known in the early fifties, considerable
research had been pursued, to understand hydraulics of the phenomenon, from
the sixties and aeration devices were installed on the existing structures in the
late seventies, it was not until the eighties that aeration devices became an integral
part of spillway design. It is noteworthy that no book on spillways published
until the late eighties included the topic of aeration, and reference sources remained scattered in journals and proceedings.
This practice of lag continues, as several topics of vital significance have not
been embodied comprehensively and coherently into any of the book literature. A
few to mention include: spillway construction stages, spillways serving dual purpose of flood as well as sediment disposal, overtopping protection of earth dams
used as spillways, prediction of and protection against detrimental forces such
as uplift, cavitation, scour etc. It is obvious that such a book would be the easiest
way for a reader to access the information on the latest developments in the field.
The present book is the outcome of such an attempt.
The book has been organized into four sections dealing with spillways,
energy dissipators, cavitation and air entrainment, and hydraulic modeling. Emphasis has been on discussing first the hydraulics of different types of spillways
and energy dissipators and to illustrate its application to practical design problems.
To this end, illustrative examples have been included at appropriate places.
v
Copyright 2005 by Marcel Dekker.

vi

Preface

The first two chapters in section I introduce the topic and broad design
philosophy. The chapter on spillway design flood defines two distinct aspects:
the estimation, which is hydrologists regime and the selection, which is the
responsibility of the designer. Subsequent chapters have been devoted to discussion on hydraulics and general design features of different types of spillways
such as ogee, chute and side channel, stepped, siphon, shaft, tunnel, labyrinth
and duck bill, free jet and fuse plug etc. Special features such as spillways for
flood and sediment disposal, inflatable rubber weirs and overtopping protection
of dams used as spillways have also been included. Separate chapters on spillway
crest gates and spillway construction stages have been written.
Discussions on the three most common types of energy dissipators for
spillways, viz. hydraulic jump stilling basins, trajectory buckets and submerged
roller buckets in section II, have been quite elaborate, obviously in view of the
large amount of information published during recent years. Energy dissipators for
shaft and tunnel spillways warrant a special chapter in view of peculiar hydraulic
conditions at the outfalls. Separate chapters have been devoted to the discussion
of impact type energy dissipators and some unconventional or special designs of
energy dissipators.
Section III includes chapters on the topics of cavitation and air entrainment
and aerators concerning the design of spillways and energy dissipators.
Hydraulic modeling of spillways and energy dissipators has been covered
in section IV. No attempt has been made to discuss the theory of similitude and
hydraulic models, found in many books. On the other hand, emphasis has been
placed on topics of scale effect; dynamic flow measurement and aspects of analysis and interpretation of model results. It is hoped that this will be useful, to not
only research engineers, but also to the designers and practicing engineers directing the model studies.
In the field of technology, a continuous stream of development and improvement adds to the knowledge. Therefore, nothing can be claimed as exhaustive or
final. Similarly, it is equally difficult to decide what is old or obsolete. The
difficult task was therefore to evaluate every piece of information from the standpoint of practical utility, be it for the researcher, designer, practicing engineer or
student. While this book is not intended to be a textbook to cater to any specific
curriculum, nor a handbook, it is expected to serve as a comprehensive reference
source for all concerned. It is hoped that the reader will be able to obtain an
extensive exposure of the topic, beyond which the references listed at the end of
the chapters will be useful for locating additional details.
Experience gained during my association, of nearly four decades, with the
Central Water and Power Research Station, Punean institution of international
reputation and discussions with several experts in the field of their own specialist
knowledge, have greatly contributed to writing of the book. Thanks are also due
to friends and colleagues for their help and encouragement which lent a strong

Copyright 2005 by Marcel Dekker.

Preface

vii

impetus toward the completion of this book. My wife Kala, daughters Pallavi,
Reshma, and son-in-law Praveen extended support throughout the writing of the
book.
I have pleasure in placing on record, my appreciation for the excellent
coordination by Mr. B.J. Clark, Executive Acquisitions Editor, Mr. E.F. Stannard,
Senior Production Editor and Ms. Kerry Doyle, Director, Book Editorial, Marcel
Dekker, Inc. at various stages of publication of the book.
Feedback from the readers in respect of any omission or error as also their
comments and suggestions to improve upon the contents of the book, shall be
gratefully appreciated.
R. M. Khatsuria
5/4, Krutarth Society
Behind Sharda Bank
Off: Satara Road,
PUNE - 411 037, INDIA
Email - rmkhatsuria@rediffmail.com

Copyright 2005 by Marcel Dekker.

Acknowledgments

The author acknowledges with thanks, the following institutions, organizations

and individuals who permitted to refer/reproduce their publications in this book.
The details of the materials have been listed in the appropriate reference sections
within the chapters.
American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, USA
Aqua-Media International Ltd, UK (Jnl of Hydropower and Dams)
Bacchiega, J.D, Fattor, C.A and Barrionuevo, H.C (INA, Argentina)
Back, Paul, Berks, UK
BHR Group Limited, Cranfield, UK
Canadian Society of Civil Engineers, Canada
Central Board of Irrigation and Power (CBIP), New Delhi, India
Chanson, H (The University of Queensland, Australia)
Damulevicius, V and Ruplys, B (LZUU, Lithuania)
Ervine, D.A. (The University of Glasgow, UK)
Gao, JiZhang, IWHR, Beijing, China
Hager, W.H., ETH, Switzerland
Iguacel, C.M, CEDEX, Spain
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
Indian Society for Hydraulics, Pune, India
Institution of Civil Engineers, London, UK
Institution of Engineers Australia, Melbourne, (XXI IAHR 1985)
Institution of Engineers (India), Kolkata, India
International Association for Hydraulic Research, (IAHR), Madrid, Spain
(Jnl of Hyd Res, VIVII IAHR, 1955, 1957)
International Congress on Large dams (ICOLD), Paris, France (ICOLD
Publications)
Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Tokyo, Japan
Jongeling, T (Delft Hydraulics), The Netherlands
National Hydroelectric Power Corporation Ltd, New Delhi, India
ix
Copyright 2005 by Marcel Dekker.

Acknowledgments

National University of Singapore (IX APD-IAHR, 1994)

Rathgeb, A (Wasser-und Schiffahrtsamt, Stuttgart), Germany
SAF Laboratory, University of Minnesota, USA
Sardar Sarovar Narmada Nigam Ltd (SSNNL), Gandhinagar, India
Schleiss, A, EPFL, Switzerland (XXII IAHR 1987)
Swets and Zeitlinger Publishers, (Balkema Publishers), The Netherlands
Technische Akademie Esslingen (TAE), Germany (IAHR Symp 1984)
Thomas Telford Publishing, London, UK (XXVI IAHR 1995)
Plate, E, University of Karlsruhe, Germany (XVII IAHR 1977)
United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), USA
UNESCO Publishing, Paris, France
United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR), USA
United States Society on Dams (USCOLD), USA
Virginia Polytechnic Institute, USA
Wang, Lianxiang IWHR, China (XXIX IAHR 2001)
Wilmington Publishing, Kent, UK (Jnl of Water Power and Dam Construction)
Wilmington Publishing, Kent, UK (Dam Engineering)
Yugoslav Association for Hydraulic Research (YAHR), Belgrade, Serbia
Yasuda, Y (Nihon University), Japan

Copyright 2005 by Marcel Dekker.

Contents

Preface ..........................................................................................................
Acknowledgments .........................................................................................

v
ix

Section I: Spillways
1.

Spillways: Functions and Classification .............................................

1.1.
Introduction .............................................................................
1.2.
Necessity of a spillway ...........................................................
1.3.
Functions of a spillway ...........................................................
1.4.
Classification of spillways ......................................................

1
1
1
2
5

2.

Spillway Design: An Overview ..........................................................

2.1.
Introduction .............................................................................
2.2.
Analysis of existing structures ................................................
2.3.
Various aspects involved in a spillway design ......................
2.3.1. Hydrology ....................................................................
2.3.2. Topography and geology ............................................
2.3.3. Utility and operational aspects ...................................
2.3.4. Constructional and structural aspects .........................
2.4.
Economic analysis ...................................................................

7
7
7
9
9
10
10
12
13

3.

Spillway Design Flood: Estimation and Selection .............................

3.1.
Introduction .............................................................................
3.2.
Estimation of spillway design flood .......................................
3.3.
Methods based mainly on flow data ......................................
3.3.1. Historical method ........................................................
3.3.2. Empirical and regional formulas ................................
3.3.3. Envelope curves ..........................................................
3.3.4. Flood frequency analysis ............................................

15
15
16
16
16
17
17
18
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xii

Contents

3.4.

3.5.

3.6.

Methods based mainly on rainfall data ..................................

3.4.1. Development of the PMS and PMP ...........................
3.4.2. Unit hydrograph method .............................................
3.4.3. Hydrologic modelling .................................................
3.4.4. Gradex method ............................................................
Flood estimation methods: Critical analysis ..........................
3.5.1. Estimation of design flood for the Sardar Sarovar
Dam on River Narmada, India ...................................
Selection of spillway design flood .........................................
3.6.1. Economic risk analysis (ERA) ...................................
3.6.2. Comments on ERA .....................................................
3.6.3. Design flood standards and regulations .....................
3.6.4. Comments on design standards ..................................
3.6.5. Quantitative risk assessment .......................................
3.6.6. Incremental hazard evaluation ....................................

19
20
22
22
24
24
25
27
28
29
30
34
34
35

4.

Ogee
4.1.
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
4.5.
4.6.
4.7.
4.8.
4.9.

or Overflow Spillways ...............................................................

Introduction .............................................................................
The spillway crest profile .......................................................
Discharge characteristics .........................................................
Discharge coefficient versus crest pressures ..........................
Determination of design head .................................................
Crest piers ................................................................................
Downstream slope or rear slope .............................................
Water surface profile ...............................................................
Spillway toe .............................................................................

41
41
41
48
55
57
59
59
59
60

5.

Chute
5.1.
5.2.
5.3.
5.4.
5.5.
5.6.

and Side Channel Spillways .....................................................

Introduction .............................................................................
Principal elements ...................................................................
Approach channel ....................................................................
Spillway structure ....................................................................
Side channel spillway-trough and control section .................
Chute ........................................................................................
5.6.1. Contraction and Expansion .........................................
5.6.2. Curvature in plan ........................................................
5.6.3. Special layouts ............................................................
5.6.4. Longitudinal profiles ...................................................
5.6.5. Tail channel .................................................................
Numerical and physical modeling ..........................................

63
63
64
64
67
69
78
79
86
89
89
91
91

Stepped Spillways ...............................................................................

6.1.
Introduction .............................................................................

95
95

5.7.
6.

Copyright 2005 by Marcel Dekker.

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6.2.
6.3.
6.4.

xiii

Historical background .............................................................

Flow regimes on a stepped chute ...........................................
Characteristics of the nappe flow ...........................................
6.4.1. Nappe flow occurrence ...............................................
6.4.2. Energy dissipation and residual head for nappe flow
6.4.3. Pooled step cascades ...................................................
6.4.4. Transition flow regime ...............................................
Characteristics of the skimming flow .....................................
6.5.1. Estimation of flow resistance .....................................
6.5.2. Air entrainment ...........................................................
6.5.3. Energy dissipation .......................................................
6.5.4. Pressure fluctuations and cavitation susceptibility ....
Guidelines for design of stepped spillways ............................
6.6.1. Crest profile and the transition ...................................
6.6.2. Step height ...................................................................
6.6.3. Freeboard for sidewalls ...............................................
6.6.4. Design of energy dissipator ........................................
Hydraulic model studies .........................................................

95
95
96
98
98
101
105
106
107
110
114
121
122
122
123
124
124
124

7.

Siphon Spillways .................................................................................

7.1.
Introduction .............................................................................
7.2.
Types of siphon .......................................................................
7.3.
Hydraulic action ......................................................................
7.4.
Hydraulic design considerations .............................................
7.5.
Discharging capacity ...............................................................
7.6.
Priming depth ..........................................................................
7.7.
Flow regulation .......................................................................
7.8.
Stability of functioning ...........................................................
7.9.
Effect of waves .......................................................................
7.10. Cavitation ................................................................................
7.11. Vibration ..................................................................................

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129
131
133
134
140
141
143
143
143
147

8.

Shaft
8.1.
8.2.
8.3.

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154
156
157
159

6.5.

6.6.

6.7.

Spillways ....................................................................................
Introduction .............................................................................
Types of shaft spillways .........................................................
Shaft spillways with axial flow ..............................................
8.3.1. Hydraulic action ..........................................................
8.3.2. Analysis of alternatives ...............................................
8.4.
Free shaft spillways .................................................................
8.4.1. Crest profile .................................................................
8.4.2. Transition from crest to shaft .....................................

Copyright 2005 by Marcel Dekker.

xiv

Contents

8.4.3. Discharge characteristics .............................................

8.4.4. Air entrainment in drop shafts ....................................
8.4.5. Air entrainment in tunnels flowing partly full ...........
Pressure shaft spillways ..........................................................
8.5.1. Devices to ensure pressurized flow in the shaft ........
8.5.2. Release of air in pressurized tunnels ..........................
The vortex drop .......................................................................
8.6.1. Configuration of vortex-flow intakes .........................
8.6.2. Standard scroll intake .................................................
8.6.3. Tangential vortex intake .............................................
8.6.4. Designs of drop shafts to increase discharge
capacity ........................................................................
8.6.5. Air entrainment and transport in vortex drops ...........
Shaft spillways with swirling flow in outlet tunnel ...............
Siphon-shaft spillway ..............................................................

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162
171
172
173
174
179
181
181
186

Labyrinth and Duckbill Spillways ......................................................

9.1.
Introduction .............................................................................
9.2.
General characteristics of labyrinth weirs ..............................
9.3.
Parameters affecting performance ..........................................
9.4.
Discharge characteristics .........................................................
9.5.
Design of labyrinth spillway ...................................................
9.6.
Duckbill spillway ....................................................................
9.7.
Designs relevant to existing and new structures ....................

197
197
197
199
202
207
209
213

10. Tunnel and Culvert Spillways .............................................................

10.1. Introduction .............................................................................
10.2. Tunnel spillways: Design considerations ...............................
10.2.1. Control structure .........................................................
10.2.2. Discharge tunnel .........................................................
10.2.3. Other forms of discharge tunnels ...............................
10.3. Culvert spillway ......................................................................
10.3.1. Full bore flow (Pipe culverts) ....................................
10.3.2. Box and MEL culverts ................................................
10.4. Conduit pressures ....................................................................

217
217
217
217
220
222
223
225
226
227

11. Free Jet and Straight Drop Spillways .................................................

11.1. Introduction .............................................................................
11.2. Free jet spillways: Design considerations ..............................
11.2.1. Overflow crest .............................................................
11.2.2. Stilling basin ...............................................................

231
231
231
232
232

8.5.

8.6.

8.7.
8.8.
9.

Copyright 2005 by Marcel Dekker.

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188
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Contents

11.3.
11.4.
11.5.
11.6.
11.7.

xv

Characteristics of the free falling jets ....................................

Guidelines for the design of a stilling basin ..........................
Nappe splitters and dispersers ................................................
Bottom outlets: Design considerations ...................................
Straight drop spillway .............................................................

232
241
244
248
254

12. Fuse Plugs and Fuse Gate Spillways ..................................................

12.1. Introduction .............................................................................
12.2. Fuse plug .................................................................................
12.2.1. Criteria for selection of fuse plug ..............................
12.2.2. Design considerations .................................................
12.2.3. Providing a fuse plug in an existing dam ..................
12.2.4. Hydraulics of flood discharge through fuse plug
opening ........................................................................
12.3. Fuse gates ................................................................................
12.3.1. Functioning of fuse gates ............................................
12.3.2. Stability of fuse gates .................................................
12.3.3. Design of fuse gates ....................................................
12.3.4. Recoverable fuse gates ...............................................

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261
261
262
262
266
266
269
269
271
274
280

13. Spillways for Flood and Sediment Disposal ......................................

13.1. Introduction .............................................................................
13.2. Reservoir sedimentation and flushing ....................................
13.3. Alternatives available ..............................................................
13.4. Flushing discharge ..................................................................
13.5. Gated overflow spillway .........................................................
13.6. Orifice spillways .....................................................................
13.7. Bottom outlets .........................................................................
13.8. Design considerations .............................................................
13.8.1. Discharge characteristics of spillway .........................
13.8.2. Waterway of the structures .........................................
13.8.3. Size and dimensions of structures ..............................
13.8.4. Energy dissipator .........................................................
13.8.5. Power intakes ..............................................................
13.8.6. Gates ............................................................................
13.8.7. Protection of flow surfaces .........................................
13.9. Mathematical and physical model studies ..............................

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283
283
284
284
285
286
286
288
288
289
289
293
295
295
296
297

14. Unlined Spillways ...............................................................................

14.1. Introduction .............................................................................
14.2. Unlined rock spillways ...........................................................
14.3. Unlined cascade spillways ......................................................

299
299
299
300

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Contents

14.4.
14.5.
14.6.

General considerations ............................................................ 300

Conceptual framework ............................................................ 301
Rock-fill spillways .................................................................. 307

15. Inflatable Rubber Weirs ......................................................................

15.1. Introduction .............................................................................
15.2. Principal elements of a rubber weir .......................................
15.3. Design considerations .............................................................
15.3.1. Hydraulic design .........................................................
15.3.2. Structural design .........................................................
15.4. Problems associated with rubber weir installation .................

313
313
313
315
315
320
321

16. Overtopping Protection of Dams Used as Spillways .........................

16.1. Introduction .............................................................................
16.2. Concrete dam overtopping protection ....................................
16.3. Embankment dam overtopping protection .............................
16.4. Design considerations .............................................................
16.5. Slope protection lining ............................................................
16.5.1. Cast-in-place concrete .................................................
16.5.2. Roller compacted concrete (RCC) ..............................
16.5.3. Precast concrete block system ....................................

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323
323
325
325
327
327
327
328

17. Spillway Crest Gates ...........................................................................

17.1. Introduction .............................................................................
17.2. Factors influencing the decision .............................................
17.2.1. Safety of the dam ........................................................
17.2.2. Cost economics ...........................................................
17.2.3. Operational problems ..................................................
17.2.4. Downstream conditions ...............................................
17.2.5. Special considerations .................................................
17.3. Types of gates .........................................................................
17.4. Mechanical gates .....................................................................
17.4.1. Radial gates .................................................................
17.4.2. Vertical lift gates .........................................................
17.4.3. Flap gates ....................................................................
17.5. Semi-mechanical gates ............................................................
17.6. Automatic type: fusible ...........................................................
17.7. Automatic type: restoring .......................................................
17.8. Vibration of gates ....................................................................
17.9. Stop log gates ..........................................................................
17.10. Some considerations on operating pattern of gates ...............

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333
333
334
334
335
335
335
336
337
337
343
345
346
346
346
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350
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Copyright 2005 by Marcel Dekker.

Contents

xvii

18. Spillway Construction Stages .............................................................

18.1. Introduction .............................................................................
18.2. Spillway construction program ...............................................
18.3. Construction flood ...................................................................
18.4. Reservoir levels during construction stages ...........................
18.5. Spillway construction stages ...................................................
18.5.1. Discharge characteristics of partly constructed
spillways ......................................................................
18.6. Flow downstream of partly constructed spillways .................

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359
359
360
360
361
364
366

Section II: Energy Dissipators

19. Energy Dissipators for Spillways .......................................................
19.1. Introduction .............................................................................
19.2. Classification of energy dissipators ........................................
19.3. Principal types of energy dissipators ......................................
19.4. Selection of the type of energy dissipator ..............................
19.5. Analysis of Parameters ...........................................................

371
371
371
372
373
375

20. Hydraulic Jump Stilling Basins ..........................................................

20.1. Introduction .............................................................................
20.2. Hydraulic jump characteristics ...............................................
20.2.1. Classification of hydraulic jump ................................
20.2.2. Length of the jump .....................................................
20.2.3. Conjugate depth and energy loss ................................
20.2.4. Turbulence characteristics of hydraulic jump ............
20.2.5. Air entrainment by hydraulic jump ............................
20.3. Hydraulic jump stilling basins ................................................
20.3.1. Basins with horizontal aprons ....................................
20.3.2. Basins with sloping aprons .........................................
20.4. Optimization of designs ..........................................................
20.5. Structural design problems .....................................................
20.5.1. Uplift ...........................................................................
20.5.2. Hydrodynamic forces ..................................................
20.5.3. Cavitation ....................................................................
20.5.4. Vibrations ....................................................................
20.5.5. Abrasion ......................................................................
20.6. Environmental considerations .................................................
20.7. Implications of various factors ...............................................

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387
387
388
390
390
392
399
401
401
409
411
411
411
423
428
431
432
433
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Copyright 2005 by Marcel Dekker.

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Contents

21. Trajectory Buckets ..............................................................................

21.1. Introduction .............................................................................
21.2. Types and classification ..........................................................
21.3. Design of bucket components .................................................
21.3.1. Shape of the bucket ....................................................
21.3.2. Invert elevation ...........................................................
21.3.3. Bucket radius ...............................................................
21.3.4. Lip angle .....................................................................
21.4. Hydraulic characteristics of trajectory buckets ......................
21.4.1. Pressures on buckets and sidewall .............................
21.4.2. Free trajectory and throw ............................................
21.4.3. Effect of submergence by tail water ..........................
21.5. Scour downstream of trajectory buckets ................................
21.5.1. Computation and prediction .......................................
21.5.2. Analysis .......................................................................
21.5.3. Scour control and remedial measures ........................
21.5.4. Protection against scour ..............................................
21.6. Special forms of buckets .........................................................

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22. Solid
22.1.
22.2.
22.3.
22.4.
22.5.

and Slotted Roller Buckets ........................................................

Introduction .............................................................................
Solid roller bucket ...................................................................
Slotted roller bucket ................................................................
Comparative performance based on prototype experience ....
Alternative designs for improvements ....................................

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23. Energy Dissipators for Shaft and Tunnel Spillways ..........................

23.1. Introduction .............................................................................
23.2. Full-bore pressurized flow ......................................................
23.2.1. Dissipation by friction ................................................
23.2.2. Dissipation by head loss .............................................
23.2.3. Swirling devices ..........................................................
23.3. Free surface flow .....................................................................
23.3.1. Flip buckets .................................................................
23.3.2. Hydraulic jump stilling basin .....................................

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24. Impact-Type Energy Dissipators .........................................................

24.1. Introduction .............................................................................
24.2. Classification of impact-type energy dissipators ....................
24.3. Baffled chutes ..........................................................................
24.3.1. Energy dissipation by induced tumbling flow ...........
24.3.2. Baffled apron drops ....................................................

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Copyright 2005 by Marcel Dekker.

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24.4.

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Energy dissipators for spillways and outlets .......................... 524

24.4.1. USER Basin VI ........................................................... 524
24.4.2. Bhavani-type stilling basin ......................................... 526

25. Unconventional Designs ......................................................................

25.1. Introduction .............................................................................
25.2. Dissipating part of the energy on a spillway slope ................
25.3. Interaction within the region of flow .....................................
25.4. Bifurcation/bypass of flow ......................................................
25.5. Hydraulic model studies .........................................................

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Section III: Cavitation and Air Entrainment

26. Cavitation in Spillways and Energy Dissipators ................................
26.1. Introduction .............................................................................
26.2. Cavitation ................................................................................
26.3. Cavitation index ......................................................................
26.4. Cavitation damage ...................................................................
26.5. Cavitation on spillway surfaces ..............................................
26.5.1. Inadequate design ........................................................
26.5.2. Misalignment ...............................................................
26.5.3. Surface roughness .......................................................
26.6. Cavitation in energy dissipators .............................................
26.6.1. Fluctuating pressure depressions ................................
26.6.2. Flow separation and reattachment ..............................
26.7. Cavitation due to sheared flow and vortices ..........................
26.8. Prediction of cavitation damage .............................................
26.9. Prevention of cavitation in spillways and energy dissipators
26.9.1. Design ..........................................................................
26.9.2. Construction ................................................................
26.9.3. Operation of structures ...............................................
26.l0. Remedial measures and repairs ..............................................

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27. Air Entrainment and Forced Aeration ................................................

27.1. Introduction .............................................................................
27.2. Air entrainment on spillways ..................................................
27.3. Location of point of inception ................................................
27.4. Properties of aerated flow .......................................................
27.5. The region of varied flow .......................................................
27.6. Effect of entrained air on stilling basin performance ............
27.7. Forced aeration ........................................................................

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27.8.
27.9.

Mechanism of aeration ............................................................

Design of an aerator system ...................................................
27.9.1. Location of the aerator ................................................
27.9.2. Types of aerators .........................................................
27.9.3. Volume of air entrained by an aerator .......................
27.9.4. Air supply systems ......................................................
27.9.5. Aerator spacing ...........................................................
27.10. Aerators for tunnel spillways and outlets ...............................
27.11. Aerators on existing structures ...............................................

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Section IV: Hydraulic Modeling

28. Hydraulic Modeling of Spillways and Energy Dissipators ................
28.1. Introduction .............................................................................
28.2. A review of dimensionless numbers ......................................
28.3. Hydraulic modeling and scale effect ......................................
28.3.1. Friction ........................................................................
28.3.2. Turbulence ...................................................................
28.3.3. Cavitation ....................................................................
28.3.4. Air entrainment and release ........................................
28.3.5. Fluid-structure interaction ...........................................
28.4. Dynamic-flow measurement ...................................................
28.4.1. Measurement ...............................................................
28.4.2. Analysis of results .......................................................
28.4.3. Interpretation of results ...............................................

Copyright 2005 by Marcel Dekker.

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