Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
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Chapter
17
BACKGROUND
Obturator Nerve
ANATOMY (FIG 1)
Pelvic Nerves
Sciatic Nerve
The sciatic nerve arises from L4, L5, S1, S2, and S3. The
nerve emerges from the pelvis through the greater sciatic notch
inferior to the piriformis muscle and enters the thigh lateral to
the ischial tuberosity. In 10% of patients, the sciatic nerve penetrates the substance of the piriformis muscle. The sciatic
nerve is accompanied by the inferior gluteal artery.
It is essential to protect the sciatic nerve early in most procedures. Inside the pelvis, the nerve should be identified distally at the greater sciatic notch. Proximally, it should be
picked up below the psoas muscle. The sciatic nerve is formed
at the junction of the lumbar sacral plexus where these two
trunks come together.
Great care must be taken as the nerve exits the pelvis at the
level of the greater sciatic notch not to injure the the accompanying inferior and superior gluteal nerves and arteries, because
these supply the abductors as well as the gluteus maximus
muscle. The gluteus maximus muscle is essential for closure of
most pelvic resections.
Femoral Nerve
The femoral nerve arises from posterior divisions of the ventral rami of L2 and L3 and passes inferolaterally between the
psoas and iliacus muscles. It passes over the superficial iliacus
muscle to enter the proximal thigh underneath the inguinal ligament, just lateral to the superficial femoral artery.
This nerve is almost always preserved during pelvic resections. It should be identified early during most procedures.
The femoral nerve is identified in the space between the iliacus
and psoas muscles as they exit the pelvis. The femoral nerve
lies just below the fascia, bridging the interval between the two
muscles, lateral to the femoral artery and vein.
Pelvic Vessels
Aortic Bifurcation
Descending the abdomen to the left of the vena cava, the
aorta bifurcates at the level of L4 into common iliac vessels at
the level of L4L5. The common iliac bifurcates into internal
and external iliacus vessels at the level of S1, the ala sacralis.
The level of these bifurcations may vary, especially if the vessels are pushed by a large adjacent tumor mass.
It is essential to identify two levels of bifurcations prior to
any ligation: the aortic bifurcation and the common iliac bifurcation. Even the best surgeons have ligated the wrong vessels
due to distorted anatomy. Such a misstep is especially possible
with tumors that cross the midline. Preoperative evaluation
with angiography is required for evaluation and preoperative
to avert such an occurrence.
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Ureter
The ureter originates from the renal pelvis at the level of L1
and courses in the retroperitoneum to the medial surface of the
psoas major muscle, crossed by spermatic or ovarian vessels.
The ureter crosses from lateral to medial on the surface of the
peritoneum at the level of the common iliac bifurcation. This
is a good landmark to identify the ureter during the initial
retroperitoneal dissection. The ureter then courses medially at
the level of the sciatic notch to insert into the trigone of the
bladder.
Corona Mortis
The corona mortis is an anastomosis of the external iliac, inferior epigastric, and obturator vessels located in the retropubic region approximately 3 cm from the symphysis pubis.
Laceration during an ilioinguinal approach can lead to extensive bleeding. The retroperitoneal space between pubis and
bladder is called the space of Retzius.
Inguinal Canal
The anatomic confines of the inguinal canal are described as
4 cm from the deep inguinal ring to the subcutaneous ring.
This deep ring is the direct inguinal space originating lateral to the epigastric vessels. Hesselbachs triangle is the indirect hernia space originating medial to the epigastric vessels.
The inguinal contents vary by gender:
In males, the spermatic cord contains the ductus deferens,
testicular artery, pampiniform plexus, lymphatics, autonomic nerves, the ilioinguinal and genital branches of the
genitofemoral nerve, the cremasteric artery and muscle, and
the internal spermatic fascia.
In females, the inguinal contents include the round ligament and the ilioinguinal nerve.
The anterior inguinal wall is formed by the aponeurosis of
the external oblique and internal oblique (lateral) muscles.
The posterior inguinal wall runs medial to lateral and is
formed by the reflected inguinal ligament, the inguinal falx,
and the tranversalis fascia.
The superior or cephalic inguinal wall is formed by
arched fibers of the internal oblique muscle and the transverse muscle of the abdomen.
The inferior or caudal inguinal wall is formed by the inguinal and lacunar ligaments.
FIG 1 The bony pelvis and its relation to the major blood vessels, nerves, and visceral organs. (Courtesy of Martin M. Malawer.)
into the femoral triangle, where it is a useful landmark in identifying neighboring structures.
Internal Iliac Artery
The internal iliac (hypogastric) artery descends from the
lumbosacral articulation to the greater sciatic notch and
branches into several arteries. The internal iliac artery and vein
often are difficult to identify or ligate. The internal iliac artery
lies on top of its vein, which often is large and is easily injured.
The hypogastric vessels are routinely ligated in performing
modified hemipelvectomies as well as many pelvic resections.
ANTERIOR BRANCHES
The obturator artery exits the pelvis via the obturator canal
(beneath the superior pubic ramus).
The inferior gluteal artery curves posteriorly between the
first and second or second and third sacral nerves, then runs
between the piriformis and coccygeus muscles or through the
greater sciatic foramen into the gluteal region below the piriformis muscle.
POSTERIOR BRANCHES
The iliolumbar artery ascends posterior to the obturator
nerve and external iliac vessels to the medial border of the
psoas. It then divides into the lumbar branch, to the psoas and
quadratus lumborum muscles and to the spinal cord, and an
iliac branch, to the iliac, gluteal, and abdominal musculature.
The iliac branch often is ligated during surgery.
The superior gluteal artery runs posteriorly between the lumbosacral trunk and first sacral nerve and leaves the pelvis
through the greater sciatic foramen superior and posterior to the
piriformis muscle. Great care must be taken to preserve the
gluteal vessels and nerves when performing types 1 and 2 pelvic
resections.
Boundaries
Sciatic Notch
The sciatic notch should be identified early in surgery, both
internally and externally, to protect the sciatic nerve and
gluteal pedicles.
Osseous Boundaries
The superior cephalad margin of the pelvis is defined by the
ilium and the rim of the great sciatic notch.
Posterior Margin
The posterior margin of the pelvis is bounded by the piriformis muscle and the superior gluteal vessels and nerve.
Posterior to the piriformis muscle, the internal pudendal
vessels and nerve course medially off the sciatic nerve and
the posterior femoral cutaneous nerve, anterior to the
piriformis.
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They often are much larger than plain radiographs indicate. Further imaging with CT and MRI often demonstrates
a very large myxomatous component.
Inferior Margin
INDICATIONS
Recurrent Benign Tumors
Osteosarcoma
Five percent of all osteosarcomas occur in the pelvis.
Partial pelvic resection or hemipelvectomy (amputation) is
required, usually following induction chemotherapy.
Ewing sarcoma
About 25% of all Ewing sarcomas occur in the pelvis.
Surgical resection is required.
Radiation therapy remains controversial in treating pelvic
Ewing sarcoma.
Resection should be performed only following induction
chemotherapy.
Chondrosarcoma
Chondrosarcomas are the most common primary malignant bony tumors of the pelvis.
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FIG 3 A. CT showed extensive bone destruction and extension of the tumor to the pelvis and the right
gluteal region. B. CT of the pelvis revealed a large destructive lesion of the sacrum. C. CT shows an
extensive tumor on the medial aspect of the ilium with destruction of the inner table and extension of the
pelvis. (A,B: Courtesy of Martin M. Malawer; C: Reprinted with permission from Cancer: Principles and
Practice of Oncology, 5th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1997;38.3:17891852.)
should be a low threshold for performing further imaging, especially for initial screening and the postoperative evaluation
of reconstructions.
CT and MRI
CT with intravenous contrast and three-dimensional reconstruction is the optimal technique for assessing the extent of
bone involvement and destruction, the osseous anatomy, and
the relation between the tumor and the major blood vessels
of the pelvis (FIG 3). It is valuable for depicting any distortion
of the pelvic anatomy, and aiding in the evaluation of the
tumor to decide whether it is resectable. Chest CT is essential
for staging purposes in evaluation for pulmonary metastases.
MRI with constrast is critical for imaging soft tissue (ie, vessels, nerve, muscle) and osseous involvement. MRI is the optimal modality for imaging soft tissue and marrow involvement.
It is attractive for assessment of osseous disease and sacral involvement, and may be helpful with the serial assessment of
neoadjuvant (induction) therapy.
FDG-PET
Fluorine-18 2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose-positron emission
tomography (FDG-PET) may be useful in assessing the
grade of malignancy, evaluating response to neoadjuvant
chemotherapy, and monitoring for local recurrence. Positron
emission tomography (PET) combined with CT or MR is useful for co-registered imaging. PET CT scans are useful in
early detection of small recurrences. It plays only a minimal
role in preoperative planning in determining the extent of surgical resection.
Biopsy
The purpose of biopsy is to yield a valid tumor diagnosis
(benign vs. malignant), tumor grade (high vs. low grade), and
Bone Scan
Three-phase bone scan is used to rule out systemic metastasis and to assess the focal osseous involvement and tumor vascularity in the initial flow phase. A decrease in vascularity after
induction chemotherapy may indicate response to treatment.
Angiography
Angiography is mandatory for determining the vascular
anatomy that often is distorted by large pelvic tumors (FIG 4).
It is essential to determine the level of the various bifurcations
preoperatively and to rule out vascular involvement by the
tumor. Embolization of the tumor blood supply before surgery
is helpful in minimizing blood loss, especially with vascular tumors and tumors with sacral involvement.
Venography
The pelvic veins always are much larger than their arterial
counterparts. Preoperative venography is used to rule out
tumor (mural) thrombi, a common finding in chondrosarcomas
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Anatomic Considerations
Evaluation of the full anatomic extent of a pelvic tumor cannot be based on a single imaging modality. Combined data,
gained from two or more imaging modalities, allow a realistic
appreciation of the exact anatomic extent. Even when that information is available, however, the full extent of a pelvic
tumor often is underestimated preoperatively.
Review of any imaging study of the pelvis, because of the
numerous anatomic details, must be performed very methodically. The authors review the structures from the back (midsacral region) and follow the pelvic girdle to the front (symphysis pubis), as described in the following paragraphs.
Sacral Plexus
Current imaging techniques cannot accurately identify
nerves. Nerve involvement, therefore, is assumed on the basis
of the pain pattern, physical examination, and the presence of
the tumor in close proximity to a site in which a major nerve
or plexus is usually located. Clinical evidence of femoral or sciatic nerve dysfunction usually means direct tumor involvement. In most cases the presence and extent of nerve involvement is established only at the time of surgery. Sacral plexus
invasion by tumor has the same significance in terms of resectability as tumor invasion of the sacrum; bilateral involvement is an indicator of unresectability.
Ilium
The inner aspect of the bone is covered by the iliacus muscle,
which originates from the iliac crest. The iliacus is pushed by
a growing bone sarcoma and serves as a major barrier to direct
extension of tumor to the anatomic structures of the pelvis.
Therefore, the iliacus can be used as a safe oncologic margin for
resection. In contrast, metastatic carcinomas to the pelvis tend
to invade the covering muscle layer in their early growth stage,
and a surgical plane between the tumor and nearby structures
cannot be easily defined (FIG 7). Although any pelvic organ
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FIG 6 The sciatic notch is a tight space through which the sciatic nerve and superior and inferior gluteal vessels and nerves
pass. The sciatic nerve exits the notch underneath the piriformis
muscle, and the superior gluteal vessels exit the notch above it.
(Courtesy of Martin M. Malawer.)
Pubis
The neurovascular bundle passes within the femoral triangle
just anterior to the superior pubic ramus. Tumors extending to
or arising from the pubic ramus are in close proximity to the
femoral artery, vein, and nerve. In addition, the urethra passes
straight underneath the symphysis pubis. Vulnerable structures such as a major blood vessel, nerve, or a viscus must be
identified and mobilized before resection. By identifying and
isolating crucial srtuctures, the surgeon avoids iatrogenic injury during dissection. Establishing the relation of these vulnerable structures to the tumor allows the surgeon to decide
whether to proceed with a limb-sparing procedure or perform
an amputation, make the necessary preparations for a vascular graft (if needed), and perform a safe resection.
B
FIG 7 A. The iliacus muscle (arrows) is pushed by a growing
bone sarcoma and serves as a barrier to direct extension of the
tumor to the pelvic viscera. High-grade sarcoma of the left ilium
pushing the iliacus muscle (arrows) toward the midline.
B. Metastatic carcinomas (arrows) to the pelvis tend to invade
the covering muscle layer. (Courtesy of Martin M. Malawer.)
SURGICAL MANAGEMENT
Preoperative Planning
Restaging studies
Preoperative planning is crucial to obtain an optimal oncologic and functional surgical result.
Imaging studies are crucial in addressing the following
questions: location and extent of the tumor, the type of pelvic
resection that is necessary for adequate removal of the tumor,
involvement of critical adjacent structures in the tumor mass
(ie, ureter, aorta, inferior vena cava, bladder), and the type of
reconstruction that can be achieved.
Plain radiographs, CT scans, MRI scans, bone scans, and
3D-CT angiographs are obtained to access the extent of osseous and soft tissue involvement in all anatomic planes.
The status of crucial adjacent structuresbladder, colon,
ureter, inferior vena cava, sacral alar, and possible lumbar
extentis reviewed.
Using angiography and venography, preoperative embolization is considered, and anatomic distortion and vessel
occlusion and venous thrombus are assessed.
Consider possible need for prophylactic ureteral stents if
there is evidence of preoperative ureteral obstruction or
displacement.
Medical and anesthesia personnel are consulted to assess medical risk, preoperative laboratory studies, and transfusion needs
(eg, prepare red blood cell count, cryo, platelets, and plasma). A
risk of major blood loss during surgery is assumed, often equal
to one total body transfusion ( 7% body weight in kg).
Bowel preparation before surgery and ICU reservation also
should be considered.
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Positioning
At the time of surgery all patients should have a Foley
catheter and a rectal tube placed. The rectum is sutured
closed around the rectal tube to avoid iatrogenic contamination during the operative procedure. During surgery the surgeon may palpate the balloon of the Foley catheter in the
bladder and the rectal tube through the wall of the rectum, to
assist in proper identification of these structures. This is especially helpful with large pelvic tumors, especially those on
the left side.
Type 1 resection (iliac ): the patient is positioned in the lateral decubitus position with an anterior tilt to allow posterior
access (FIG 8AD).
Type 2 resection (periacetabular): the patient is positioned
in the lateral decubitus position for access to both the anterior
and posterior pelvis (FIG 8E,F).
H
FIG 8 Type 1 pelvic (ilium) resection can be either partial (A), in which only part
of the ilium is transected, or complete (B). Partial (C) and complete (D) type 1 resections. E. Type II pelvic (periacetabular) resections. Reconstruction was performed with a saddle prosthesis. F. Type II pelvic resection. GI. Type III pelvic
(pubic) resection. These resections may include the superior pubic ramus (G), infeI
rior pubic ramus, or both rami (H). I. Type III pelvic resection.
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Approach
The utilitarian pelvic incision is indicated (FIG 9).
The incision begins at the posterior inferior iliac spine and
extends along the iliac crest to the anterior superior iliac spine.
It is separated into two arms: one is carried along the inguinal
ligament up to the symphysis pubis; the other turns distally
over the anterior thigh for one-third the length of the thigh
and then curves laterally just posterior to the shaft of the
femur below the greater trochanter and follows the insertion
of the gluteus maximus muscle. Reflection of the posterior
gluteus maximus flap exposes the retrogluteal space, the proximal third of the femur, the sciatic notch, the sciatic nerve the
sacrotuberous and sacrospinous ligaments, the origin of the
TECHNIQUES
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TECHNIQUES
D
TECH FIG 1 A. Incision and surgical approach. The entire utilitarian incision is used for type I resection. The posterior fasciocutaneous flap exposes the entire retrogluteal area: the sciatic notch, the sciatic nerve, the abductor muscles, and the hip joint. This
approach provides a good exposure of the retroperitoneal space as well as the posterior retrogluteal area and permits a safe resection of the ilium. The ilioinguinal component is advanced medially to the symphysis pubis and posteriorly to the sacrum (B).
C. Posterior exposure and muscle releases. The abdominal wall musculature is transected off of the iliac crest. The sartorius and
tensor fascia lata muscles are transected from their tendinous insertions and reflected distally. The rectus femoris muscle remains
intact. Large fasciocutaneous flaps are raised and reflected medially and posteriorly. The iliotibial band is transected from its origin from the iliac crest and reflected posteriorly along with the gluteus maximus. D. Anterior (retroperitoneal) exposure. The
retroperitoneal space is easily exposed and explored through the ilioinguinal component of the incision. The plane between
the iliacus and the psoas muscle is developed with caution, because the femoral nerve lies in that space. The psoas muscle and
the femoral nerve are reflected medially, and the iliacus muscle is transected through its substance. The femoral nerve is preserved. (continued)
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TECHNIQUES
The plane between the iliacus and the psoas muscle is developed cautiously, because the femoral nerve lies in
that space. The psoas muscle and the femoral nerve are
reflected medially, and the iliacus muscle is transected
through its substance (TECH FIG 1C).
The external iliac artery, which lies against the lower margin of the ilium, gives off no major branches along the
inner table of the ilium; ligation of large blood vessels is
not required, therefore, in type I pelvic resection. Most
tumors of the ilium break through the outer table and
push the gluteus medius muscle laterally. The gluteus
medius muscle is transected through its substance, 2 to
3 cm distal to the inferior border of the tumor (TECH FIG
1D,E). It is important to try to save as much muscle belly
as possible because that will be the major component in
soft tissue coverage of the pelvic content and will be necessary for reconstruction of the abductor mechanism.
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Optional Reconstruction
It is not necessary to reconstruct the resultant bony defect, although allograft reconstruction has been reported.
For iliac osseous reconstruction, allograft should be
thawed with permanent/tissue culture. Gram stain has a
high rate of false positives and should be avoided.
Cut the allograft after careful sizing and orientation and
fix with a 4.5-mm reconstruction plate. Use intraoperative radiographs to confirm screw placement.
Two deep soft drains (anterior and posterior) are placed
deep to the fascial closure.
The patient is in the lateral decubitus position with posterior tilt to maximize anterior dissection.
The utilitarian incision is used to expose both the anterior (internal) and posterior (extrapelvic) aspects of the
pelvis. The ilioinguinal incision is used to develop the
retroperitoneal plane, and the posterior gluteus max-
Three types of osteotomies may be used for periacetabular resection: (1) supra-acetabular osteotomy;
(2) superior pubic ramus osteotomy; and (3) ischial
osteotomy.
TECH FIG 2 A. Plain radiograph showing an extremely high-grade malignant fibrous histiocytoma arising from the superior and inferior pubic ramus involving the entire obturator foramen, pelvic floor, and
medial and supra-acetabular aspect of the acetabulum (solid arrows). B. Gross specimen following type
II/type III pelvic resection. C. Gross specimen following a complete internal hemipelvectomy (type I/type
II/type III pelvic resection). D. Radiograph of the resected specimen showing complete involvement of
the hemipelvis. The defect superiorly was created by an open biopsy. E. Gross specimen of a combination type II/type III pelvic resection. F. Gross specimen following a type III pelvic resection. A large tumor
mass is seen arising from the obturator internus muscle (solid arrows). A, acetabulum; IL, portion of the
ilium; IP, inferior pubic ramus and pubis; P, the entire pelvic floor, including the superior and inferior
pubic ramus; SP, superior pubic ramus; SY, symphysis pubis. (Courtesy of Martin M. Malawer.)
TECHNIQUES
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Trial Reduction
Several choices are available for reconstruction following a type 2 resection: composite allograft; saddle reconstruction (Link, America); partial pelvic prosthesis
(Stryker, Mahwah, NJ); various reconstruction rings with
large phlanges; and ischiofemoral arthrodesis. Each has
unique techniques, complications, functional deficits,
and results.
A notch is created in the remaining ilium using a highspeed burr. The notch should be placed in the thickest region of the remaining bone (usually medial).
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TECH FIG 3 A. Photograph following a periacetabular resection showing the remaining ilium (il), the sciatic nerve (S), the
greater trochanteric osteotomy (G), and the femoral head.
B. Intraoperative photograph demonstrating the creation of
the deep notch (large arrows). C. Reduction of the saddle
prosthesis into the iliac notch (IL). The notch (solid arrows)
must be as deep as the saddle and permit approximately
45 degrees of flexion and extension, as well as abduction and
adduction. D. Surgical exposure using the utilitarian pelvic incision. E. A large posterior fasciocutaneous flap based medially permits the release of the gluteus maximus. F. Schematic
diagram of the mobilization of the periacetabular structures
and the three osteotomies that are necessary for a complete resection of the acetabulum. G. Schematic of the close-up view
of the superior pubic ramus osteotomy. (continued)
TECHNIQUES
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TECHNIQUES
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TECHNIQUES
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Table 1
Surgical
Technique
Position
Incision
Exposure
Vessels
and Nerves
Resection
Reconstruction
Closure
Type 1: Posterior
iliac resection
Lateral with
anterior tilt
Ilioinguinal with
or without sacral
extension
External
oblique and
abdominal m.
Careful dissection
of femoral n. and
vessels; iliac,
gluteal vessels
Iliopsoas,
osteotomy at
iliac crest
Type 2: Lateral
acetabular
resection
Straight
lateral
Ilioinguinal with
separate posterior
lateral hip incision
External
oblique off
superficial
lateral crest
m., expose hip
External iliac a.
and v., obturator
n., gluteal
vessels, sciatic n.
Type 3: Anterior
obturator
Supine
Ilioinguinal
incision with
anterolateral
extension
Symphysis
pubis to
posterior
lateral iliac
crest
Femoral sheath,
lateral femoral
cutaneous n.,
obturator n., a.,
v.
Hip joint,
sciatic notch,
external
rotators,
femoral neck
osteotomy
Between
inferior pubic
ramus and
ischium,
depending on
tumor location
Abdominal wall
m. to pelvis with
nonabsorbable
sutures and two
deep drains
(anterior and
posterior)
Attach inguinal
canal and
abdominal wall
to symphysis
pubis and lateral
iliac crest
Inguinal canal
with
nonabsorbable
sutures and deep
drains; prevent
inguinal hernia
Hemipelvic
Lateral
Ilioinguinal
External iliac
Gluteal
Prone
Posterior gluteal
Symphysis to
lateral crest
and external
iliac m.
Gluteal m.
Retroperitoneal
(soft tissue)
Supine
Symphysis to
posterolateral
ilium
Inguinal groin
Supine
Pubic tubercle to
lateral iliac crest
Midline if
bowel is
involved.
Abdominal/
external
oblique off
iliac crest
Inguinal
ligament,
spermatic
cord,
umbilical
Sciatic n.,
gluteal n., v., a.
Femoral sheath,
inferior epigastric
vessels
Inguinal canal
External oblique
abdominal wall
reattached to pelvic
brim
Reattach
external oblique
to pelvic brim
Inguinal ligament
Always have vascular control of the major vessels proximally and distally, both arterial and venous.
Intraoperative bleeding
Severe bleeding usually occurs with venous, not arterial, injuries. Suture and ligate all serious
bleeders.
Thrombosis
All patients are at risk to develop an arterial thrombosis during or after surgery and should be
evaluated (pulses) carefully during and for the first 72 hours. Always confirm adequacy of
hemostasis and distal flow and pulses before leaving the operating room. If there is any question,
perform an intraoperative or postoperative angiogram.
Postoperative bleeding
and coagulopathy
If bleeding continues, and coagulation factors rule out disseminated intravascular coagulation,
strongly consider taking the patient back to the operating room. Alternatively, perform an
angiogram with attempt at embolization of the bleeding vessel. The degree and timing of the
bleeding are important in determining the correct course of action.
If massive ( 4.05.0 L) bleeding occurs during the dissection, pack the wound with local pressure
until the patients blood pressure stabilizes.
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Check prothrombin time, partial thromboplastin time, and platelet counts intraoperatively and
every 6 hours for 2448 hours.
Almost all patients need intensive monitoring following surgery.
Hypocalcemia
and Hypomagnesemia
Nerve injuries
Ureter and
bladder injuries
Hip
Check hip radiographically for stability prior to and after wound closure.
General
Remember that the first step in avoiding injury to the critical structures mentioned is taking the
time to identify and tag all of them initially during dissection.
Calcium (Ca) always is required intraoperatively. Check the Ca level in the operating room and
postoperatively.
Magnesium (Mg) loss is very common following a major bleed, especially in patients treated with
induction chemotherapy. The agent that most commonly causes Mg loss is cisplatinum. Patients
receiving this form of chemotherpay routinely require a large amount of Mg postoperatively. If left
uncorrected, cardiac arrest may occur.
Iatrogenic injury may occur to femoral, sciatic, or sacral nerve roots. Injury occurs during dissection
(neuropraxia) or sacral screw fixation. Obturator nerve sacrifice is not a significant functional loss.
Consider a preoperative ureteral stent for all large tumors. Foley catheter placement enables
palpation of the bladded intraoperatively.
Repair bladder wall injuries in two or three layers. Check carefully for bladder injury if hematuria
or oliguria occurs intraoperatively.
POSTOPERATIVE CARE
The distal extremity pulses are checked immediately after
surgery and every hour for the first 24 hours. Late arterial
thrombosis often is due to intimal injuries.
Persistent wound drainage usually is due to a large
retroperitoneal collection. If the wound continues to drain
after 4 to 7 days postoperatively, wound irrigation and
drainage in the operating room should be considered.
All postoperative patients should have a pelvic radiograph
once a week for the first 2 weeks.
Postoperative complete blood cell count and laboratory
studies daily for the first week then twice per week.
Postoperative mobilization is highly individualized:
Type 1 resection. Abdominal wall to abductors are maintained in abduction for 7 days in bed and then in a
pelvicthigh brace that avoids excessive adduction.
Type 2 resection and reconstruction is very variable.
Patients with a saddle prosthesis and composite allograft are
maintained on partial weight bearing for 3 to 6 months and
need a pelvic and thigh brace for 2 to 3 months.
Patients with a type 3 resection with or without Marlex
reconstruction are kept in bed with the lower extremity in
neutral (it is necessary to avoid abduction) to avoid a perineal incision dehisence. A pelvic and thigh orthosis is used
for about 3 months. Full weight bearing can be initiated
early if the medial wall of the acetabulum was not
involved.
COMPLICATIONS
Early
Bleeding. Most problems with intraoperative bleeding occur
with venous, not arterial, bleeding. Coagulopathy and the
need for large blood transfusions are common complications.
Coagulation factors, Ca, and Mg should be monitored.
Patients should receive packed cells, fresh frozen plasma,
platelets, Ca, and Mg as necessary during and after surgery.
Arterial thrombosis occurs due to intimal flap tear and
should be monitored by distal pulse measurement with
Doppler, every hour for the first 24 hours. If arterial thrombosis occurs, immediate thrombectomy is required.
Nerve. Postoperative femoral or sciatic neuropraxia are
common and should be observed.
Ureter/bladder. Patient should be evaluated for intraoperative hematuria or oliguria, which may suggest bladder or
ureter injury. Urine output is routinely measured hourly during surgery. The Foley urinary catheter is kept in place for 4 to
7 days.
Bowel injuries require repair or resection and possible
colostomy.
Major ileus is a common problem following extensive pelvic
surgery. The patient should be given nothing by mouth, with
a nasogastric tube in place, until appropriate bowel sounds return (usually 34 days).
Late Complications
Infection. Deep infection develops in 20% to 30% of patients following surgery. If such an infection occurs, the patient
must be taken back to the operating room, and the prosthesis
and allograft must be removed, leaving the limb flail.
Dislocation. The dislocation rate for a saddle prosthesis is
5% to 10%. This rate may be even higher for composite
reconstructions.
Failure of the allograft may take the form of fracture
through the allograft or failure of fixation.
Prosthesis failure includes failure of the reconstruction ring,
acetabular cup, screws, and plate.
Morbidity and mortality after pelvic resection remains high.
Hemipelvectomy may be required due to local recurrence, infection, or uncontrolled bleeding.
REFERENCES
1. Aboulafia AJ, Buch R, Mathews J, Li W, Malawer MM.
Reconstruction using the saddle prosthesis following excision of primary and metastatic periacetabular tumors. Clin Orthop Relat Res
1995;(314):203213.
2. Aljassir F, Beadel GP, Turcotte RE, et al. Outcome after pelvic sarcoma resection reconstructed with saddle prosthesis. Clin Orthop
Relat Res 2005 Sep;(438):3641.
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7. Renard AJ, Veth RP, Schreuder HW, et al. The saddle prosthesis in
pelvic primary and secondary musculoskeletal tumors: functional results at several postoperative intervals. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg
2000;120:188194.
8. Shin KH, Rougraff BT, Simon MA. Oncologic outcomes of primary
bone sarcomas of the pelvis. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1994 Jul;(304):
207217.
9. Wirbel RJ, Schulte M, Mutschler WE. Surgical treatment of pelvic
sarcomas: oncologic and functional outcome. Clin Orthop Relat Res
2001 Sep;(390):190205.