Avionics

Introduction:
Avionics is a blend of "aviation and "electronics". It was first used in USA in the early
1950s and has since gained wide scale usage and acceptance. It comprises electronic systems
for use on aircraft, artificial satellites and spacecraft, comprising communications, navigation
and the display and management of multiple systems. It also includes the hundreds of
systems that are fitted to aircraft to meet individual roles. These can be as simple as a search
light for a police helicopter or as complicated as the tactical system for an Airborne Early
Warning platform. The Avionics industry is now a multi-billion dollar industry worldwide
and the avionics equipment on a modern military or civil can account for around 30% of the
total cost of aircraft. The Avionic systems are essential to enable the flight crew to carry out
the aircraft mission safely and efficiently, whether the mission is the carrying of passengers
to their destination in case of a civil airliner, or in the case of a military aircraft, attacking a
ground target, reconnaissance or maritime patrol, intercepting a hostile aircraft.

Abstract:
Avionics was first used in USA in the early 1950s and has since gained wide scale usage and
acceptance. In the 1970s, avionics was born, driven by military need rather than civil airliner
development. Today, avionics as used in military aircraft almost always forms the biggest
part of any development budget. As more people begin to use planes as their primary method
of transportation, more elaborate methods of controlling aircraft safely in these high
restrictive airspaces have been invented. Communications connect the flight deck to the
ground, and the flight deck to the passengers. Navigation is the determination of position and
direction on or above the surface of the Earth. Avionics can use satellite-based systems,
ground-based systems or any combination thereof. Airplanes and helicopters have means of
automatically controlling flight. They reduce pilot workload at important times and they
make these actions safer by 'removing' pilot error. The Avionics industry is now a multibillion dollar industry worldwide and the avionics equipment on a modern military or civil
can account for around 30% of the total cost of aircraft.

Radio Navigation:
Navigation is the determination of position and direction on or above the surface of the Earth.

Global Positioning System:

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based global navigation satellite

system (GNSS) that provides reliable location and time information in all weather and
at all times and anywhere on or near the Earth when and where there is an
unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites.
It is maintained by the United States government and is freely accessible by anyone
with a GPS receiver.

The GPS project was started in 1973 to overcome the limitations of previous
navigation systems.

Wide Area Augmentation System:

The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is an air navigation aid developed by
the Federal Aviation Administration to augment the Global Positioning System
(GPS), with the goal of improving its accuracy, integrity, and availability.
Essentially, WAAS is intended to enable aircraft to rely on GPS for all phases of
flight, including precision approaches to any airport within its coverage area.
Ground- and space-based infrastructure is relatively limited, and no on-airport system
is needed.
The broadcasting satellites are geostationary.

VHF Omni directional Range:

VHF omnidirectional radio range is a type of radio navigation system for aircraft.
A VOR ground station broadcasts a VHF radio composite signal including the
station's identifier, voice (if equipped), and navigation signal.

Long Range Navigator (LORAN):

LORAN was an American development, advancing the technology of the British GEE
radio navigation system that was used early in World War II.
The navigational method provided by LORAN is based on the principle of the time
difference between the receipts of signals from a pair of radio transmitters.

Glass Cockpits:

A glass cockpit is an aircraft cockpit that features electronic instrument displays.

Where a traditional cockpit relies on numerous mechanical gauges to display
information, a glass cockpit uses several displays driven by flight management
systems that can be adjusted to display flight information as needed.
This simplifies aircraft operation and navigation and allows pilots to focus only on the
most pertinent information.

Aircraft Flight Control Systems:

Airplanes and helicopters have means of automatically controlling flight.

They reduce pilot workload at important times (like during landing, or in hover), and
they make these actions safer by 'removing' pilot error.
The first simple auto-pilots were used to control heading and altitude and had limited
authority on things like thrust and flight control surfaces.
In helicopters, auto stabilization was used in a similar way.
The old systems were electromechanical in nature until very recently.

Fly by Wire Control Systems:

A fly-by-wire (FBW) system replaces manual flight control of an aircraft with an

electronic interface.
The movements of flight controls are converted to electronic signals transmitted by
wires (hence the fly-by-wire term), and flight control computers determine how to
move the actuators at each control surface to provide the ordered response.
Fly-by-wire control systems allow aircraft computers to perform tasks without pilot
input.
Gyroscopes fitted with sensors are mounted in an aircraft to sense movement changes
in the pitch roll and yaw axes.
Any movement results in signals to the computer, which automatically moves control
actuators to stabilize the aircraft.
Aircraft systems may be quadruplexed to prevent loss of signals in the case of failure
of one or even two channels.

Fly by Optics:

Fly-by-optics is sometimes used instead of fly-by-wire because it can transfer data at

higher speeds, and it is immune to electromagnetic interference.
In most cases, the cables are just changed from electrical to optical fibre cables.
Sometimes it is referred to as "fly-by-light" due to its use of fibre optics.
The data generated by the software and interpreted by the controller remain the same.

Power by Wire:

Having eliminated the mechanical transmission circuits in fly-by-wire flight control

systems, the next step is to eliminate the bulky and heavy hydraulic circuits.
The hydraulic circuit is replaced by an electrical power circuit.
The power circuits power electrical or self-contained electro hydraulic actuators that
are controlled by the digital flight control computers.
All benefits of digital fly-by-wire are retained.
The biggest benefits are weight savings.

Fly by Wireless:

Wiring adds a considerable amount of weight to an aircraft therefore; researchers are

exploring implementing fly-by-wireless solutions.
Fly-by-wireless systems are very similar to fly-by-wire systems; however, instead of
using a wired protocol for the physical layer a wireless protocol is employed.
In addition to reducing weight, implementing a wireless solution has the potential to
reduce costs throughout an aircraft's life cycle.

Collision Avoidance System:

An airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS) is an aircraft system that operates

independently of ground-based equipment and air traffic control in warning pilots of
the presence of other aircraft that may present a threat of collision.
If the risk of collision is imminent, the system indicates a manoeuvre that will reduce
the risk of collision.
Synthetic vision provides pilots with a computer-generated simulation of their outside
environment for use in low or zero-visibility situations.
Terrain awareness and warning system (TAWS) uses a digital terrain map, together
with position information from a navigation system such as GPS, to predict whether
the aircraft's current flight path could put it in conflict with obstacles such as
mountains or high towers that would not be detected by GPWS.
Ground proximity warning system (GPWS), or Ground collision warning system
(GCWS), which uses a radar altimeter to detect proximity to the ground or unusual
descent rates. GPWS is common on civil airliners and larger general aviation aircraft.
Airborne Radar can detect the relative location of other aircraft, and has been in
military use since World War II, when it was introduced to help night fighters locate
bombers.
While larger civil aircraft carry weather radar, sensitive anti-collision radar is rare in
non-military aircraft.
Traffic alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS), which actively interrogates the
transponders of other aircraft and negotiates collision-avoidance tactics with them in
case of a threat.
TCAS systems are relatively expensive, and tend to appear only on larger aircraft.
They are effective in avoiding collisions only with other aircraft that are equipped
with functioning transponders with altitude reporting.
Obstacle Collision Avoidance System is a ground based system that uses a low
powered radar mounted on or near the obstacle.
The radar detects aircraft in the proximity of the obstacle and firstly warns aircraft via
flashing medium intensity lights and secondly warns aircraft of the obstacle via a
VHF broadcast.
No additional equipment is required on board the aircraft.

Weather Systems:

Weather systems such as weather radar and lightning detectors are important for
aircraft flying at night or in Instrument meteorological conditions, where it is not
possible for pilots to see the weather ahead.
Heavy precipitation or severe turbulence are both indications of strong convective
activity and severe turbulence, and weather systems allow pilots to deviate around
these areas.

Weather Radar:

When describing weather radar returns, pilots, dispatchers, and air traffic controllers
will typically refer to three return levels:
1. Level 1 corresponds to a green radar return, indicating usually light
precipitation and little to no turbulence, leading to a possibility of reduced
visibility.
2. Level 2 corresponds to a yellow radar return, indicating moderate
precipitation, leading to the possibility of very low visibility, moderate
turbulence and an uncomfortable ride for aircraft passengers.
3. Level 3 corresponds to a red radar return, indicating heavy precipitation,
leading to the possibility of thunderstorms and severe turbulence and serious
structural damage to the aircraft.
Aircraft will try to avoid level 2 returns when possible, and will always avoid level 3
unless they are specially-designed research aircraft.

Lightning Detector:

Lightning detectors indicate electrical activity.

Large airliners are more likely to use weather radar than lightning detectors, since
weather radar can detect smaller storms that also cause turbulence.
However, modern avionics systems often include lightning detection as well, for
additional safety.

Mission Avionics:

Military aircraft have been designed either to deliver a weapon or to be the eyes and
ears of other weapon systems. The vast array of sensors available to the military is
used for whatever tactical means required. As with aircraft management, the bigger
sensor platforms
Have mission management computers.
Police and EMS aircraft also carry sophisticated tactical sensors.

Military Communications:

While aircraft communications provide the backbone for safe flight, the tactical
systems are designed to withstand the rigours of the battle field.
UHF, VHF Tactical and SatCom systems combined with ECCM methods and
cryptography secure the communications.
Data links like Link 11, 16, 22 and BOWMAN, JTRS and even TETRA provide the
means of transmitting data.

Radar:

Radar is an object-detection system which uses electromagnetic waves specifically

radio waves to determine the range, altitude, direction, or speed of both moving and
fixed objects such as aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles,
weather formations, and terrain.

The radar dish, or antenna, transmits pulses of radio waves or microwaves which
bounce off any object in their path.
The object returns a tiny part of the wave's energy to a dish or antenna which is
usually located at the same site as the transmitter.
In aviation, aircraft are equipped with radar devices that warn of obstacles in or
approaching their path and give accurate altitude readings.
They can land in fog at airports equipped with radar-assisted ground-controlled
approach (GCA) systems, in which the plane's flight is observed on radar screens
while operators radio landing directions to the pilot.

Police and Air Ambulance:

Police and EMS aircraft (mostly helicopters) are now a significant market.
Military aircraft are often now built with a role available to assist in civil
disobedience.
Police helicopters are almost always fitted with video/FLIR systems to allow them to
track suspects.
They can also be fitted with searchlights and loudspeakers.
EMS and police helicopters will be required to fly in unpleasant conditions.
This may require more aircraft sensors.
Some of which were until recently considered purely for military aircraft.

Bibliography:

Wikipedia(Internet),
Introduction to avionics systems by R.P.G.Collinson,
Principles of Avionics by Albert Helfrick.