Columns Combined axial force and bending (by Prof.

Abdelhamid Charif)
Part A: Short columns
Introduction:
Columns are vertical members supporting axial compression forces, bending moments and shear
forces. The vertical loads from the various floors are cumulated and transmitted by the columns
to the foundations. Columns play a major role in structural safety. As a compression member,
the failure of a column is more dangerous than that of a beam.
Stability effects (buckling) must be considered for columns and compression members
especially if they are slender (long). For the majority of columns, which are referred to as short
columns, slenderness effects can be neglected. Slender columns are studied in Part B.
A column is usually subjected to an axial compression force and two bending moments (biaxial
bending) transmitted by beams and girders connected to it. It is also subjected to two shear
forces and a torsion moment. The first part deals with the combination of an axial force with one
moment only. Biaxial bending is studied later.
Types of columns:
Most of RC columns are either tied (more than 90 %) or spiral (5 to 10 %). Special composite
columns are sometimes used.

Tied columns
In tied columns which may be of any shape, independent ties are used. All reinforcing bars must
be enclosed by lateral ties. Tie spacing requirement is the smallest of the following three values:

S Min 16d b , 48d s , Min (b , h)

With: db = main bar diameter, ds = tie (stirrup) diameter and (b, h) = section dimensions.
The role of ties is:
1. Hold and restrain main bars from buckling
2. Hold steel cage during construction
3. May confine concrete and provide ductility
4. Serve as shear reinforcement
Tie diameter ds should be at least 10 mm if longitudinal bars have 32 mm diameter or smaller.
For higher bar diameters, the tie diameter should be at least 12 mm.
The minimum number of bars in columns and compression members is four for rectangular or
circular ties and three for triangular ties. The maximum angle in a tie is 135o
Maximum distance between untied bar and tied one is 150 mm.
First tie at a distance of half spacing above slab and above footing.
Last tie at a distance of half spacing below lowest reinforcement bar of slab.
The next figure shows some typical tied column sections.

Typical tied columns

Spiral columns
Spiral columns are usually circular. The continuous spiral plays the same role as ties and
provides a lateral confinement opposing lateral expansion and thus improving the column
ductility. The spiral pitch S ranges from 40 to 85 mm. Spiral columns are used in regions with
high seismic activity. The spiral column ductility improves the structure capacity in absorbing
seismic energy and resisting seismic forces.
The minimum spiral reinforcement is given by:

s min

Ag
f c'

0.45
1
A
c
fy

Where Ag is the gross concrete section and Ac is the confined area of concrete measured to the
outside diameter of the spiral.
The figure below highlights the behavioral difference between tied and spiral columns. Tied
columns have brittle failures. Spiral columns develop large deformations prior to failure.
Spirals may be used for any section shape but they are effective for circular shapes only.

Behavior of tied and short columns

The improved behavior of spiral columns justifies the use of a higher strength reduction factor in
compression (0.70) as compared to tied columns (0.65).
Strength reduction factor for columns
In general columns are compression members but may also be subjected to axial tension
resulting from lateral loading (wind, earthquake). The column section may then vary from a
compression-controlled case to a tension-controlled one with a linear transition zone between
the two, as shown by the next figure. The strength reduction factor depends on the value of
the steel tension strain t .

Variation of strength reduction factor

Longitudinal reinforcement
The percentage of reinforcement of columns is expressed as the ratio of the total steel area with
respect to the full concrete gross section. t

Ast
Ag

The ACI / SBC limits for this percentage are 1% and 8%. In practice, because of bar splicing
(usually located at the top of each floor), it is recommended not to exceed 4 % reinforcement.

Strength of columns in axial compression

Under pure axial compression (with no bending), the nominal (ultimate) column strength is
obtained from the combination of concrete strength and steel strength as follows:

P0 0.85 f c' Ag Ast f y Ast

Where Ag Ast is the net concrete area.
However because of possible accidental eccentricities and resulting accidental bending, SBC
and ACI codes reduce this nominal capacity as:
where r is a reduction factor.

Pn(max) rP0

r = 0.80 for tied columns

r = 0.85 for spiral columns

The design axial compression force is therefore:

Pn (max)

'

0.65 x 0.80 P0 0.52 0.85 f c Ag Ast f y Ast : Tied column

'

0.70 x 0.85 P0 0.595 0.85 f c Ag Ast f y Ast : Spiral column

Column tension strength

Only steel resists tension. The nominal and design tension strengths are then:

Pnt 0.90 f y Ast

Pnt f y Ast

(Tension is negative)

Concrete shear strength for columns

The concrete shear strength is increased by the axial compression force:

P
Vc 1 u
14 A
g

f c'

b d
6 w

if 0.5Vc Vu

then ties must be designed for shear.

Design of concrete section

If unknown the concrete gross section may be determined using axial force only with a
reduction factor to account for bending and by considering an initial value of steel ratio from 1
to 2 %. The minimum gross section is:
Tied column: Ag (trial)

Pu
0.40( f c' f y t )

Spiral column: Ag (trial)

Pu
0.50( f c' f y t )

This approximate section design must then be followed by a check taking into account the
bending moment as shown in the next example.

Example: Design of a tied column for given loading

Design the section and reinforcement of a tied column to support the loading:

Pu 1550 kN
Material data is:

M u 150 kN.m
f c' 20 MPa

Vu 60 kN
f y 420 MPa

a/ Select trial section and trial steel ratio:

We select a trial steel ratio of 0.02 (2 %). t 0.02

For a tied column: Ag (trial)

Ag (trial )

Pu
0.40( f c' f y t )

(0.50 for a spiral column)

1550 .10 3
136443 .7 mm 2
0.40(20 420 x 0.015)

This gives a 370-mm square column. We must however take a greater dimension to allow for
the bending moment. We take a 400-mm square column. b = h = 400 mm
b/ Select reinforcement

Ast t Ag 0.02 x 400 x 400 3200.0 mm 2

One bar area for 25 mm diameter is:
Required number of bars n

Ab

x 25 2
4

490.88 mm 2

Ast 3200 .0

6.52
Ab 490 .88

We must use an even number to obtain symmetrical steel.

We take eight bars of 25 mm diameter (four bars in each layer). h
Total steel area is then: Ast 3927 .0 mm 2
We use two layers only, to optimize steel resistance as the
column is subjected to one bending moment only.

c/ Check maximum compression capacity

We must have: Pu Pn(max) .

For a tied column: Pn (max) 0.65 x 0.80 x P0 0.65 0.80 0.85 f c' Ag Ast f y Ast

We find Pn(max) 2237342 N 2237.342 kN which is much greater than Pu . OK

d/ Design lap splices
For columns, we must use either a Class B splice if more than half the bars are spliced or a Class
A if fewer are spliced. In a column, normally all the bars would be spliced at the same location.
The splice length for Class B is l s 1.3ld (SBC 12.15) where ld is the development length.
For 25 bars: l d

3 f y
5 f

'
c

db

3 x 420 x 1 x 1 x 1
5 20

x 25 1408 .7 mm

l s 1.3 x1408.7 1831 mm

SBC and ACI codes (12.17.2) allow reductions of lap splice

lengths in compression members provided enough tie (or spiral)

area is available. Reduction factors are 0.83 for tied columns

and 0.75 for spiral columns. The final splice length is then:

l s 0.83 x1831 1520 mm 1.52 m

b
To avoid steel congestion and bar spacing problems, splicing is performed by putting the bars to
be stopped inside the new cage.

e/ Select ties and check for shear

For 25 mm bars, we can use 10-mm ties. Spacing requirement is the smallest of the following
three values:
(a) 16d b 40 0 mm

(b) 48d s 48 0 mm

(c) Min(b, h) 40 0 mm

Use a spacing of 400 mm (or smaller).

Shear strength check:

P
Vc 1 u
14 A
g

Check that 0.5Vc Vu

with

d h (cover

f c'

b d
6 w

db
25
d s ) 400 4 10 337.5 mm
2
2

and bw 400 mm

We find Vc 170250 .6 N 170.25 kN

0.5Vc 0.5 x 0.75 x170.25 63.75 kN Vu 60 kN : OK

Ties are therefore not required to play shear reinforcement role.
f/ Check section safety with regard to bending moment
Axial compression force and bending moment are related by interaction diagrams due to the fact
that they both cause normal stresses. The P-M interaction curves will be covered later.
Instead of drawing the whole interaction diagram and checking that the point (Mu , Pu) lies
inside the safe zone, that is, M n M u and Pn Pu , we use a different method.
We will start from conditions such that Pn Pu and then check that the corresponding nominal
moment is such that M n M u
With a section subjected to a bending moment and a compressive axial force, it is reasonable to
assume the following strain distribution:
The top steel strain is greater or equal to the yield strain which is 0.0021, otherwize the stress is
equal to fy. The bottom bar strain is less than yield strain.

As1 As 2 1963.5 mm 2

d 1 62.5 mm

d 2 337 .5 mm

0.003

Concrete compression force:

d2

Cc 0.85 f c' ab 0.85 x 20 x 0.85 x c x 400 5780 x c

(1)

Compression in top steel layer (with displaced concrete):

C s As1 ( f y 0.85 f ) 1963 .5(420 0.85 x 20) 791290 .5 N (2)

'
c

Strain in bottom steel layer: s 2 0.003

Stress is f s 2 E s s 2 200000 x 0.003

s1 y

d1

The neutral axis depth c is unknown

d2 c
337.5 c
0.003
c
c

337.5 c
337 .5 c
600
c
c

s2

The tension force is therefore T As 2 f s 2 1963 .5 x 600

337 .5 c
337.5 c
1178100
c
c

(3)

Compression force (1) and tension force (3) are functions of the unknown neutral axis depth c.
Total nominal force Pn Cc Cs T (1) (2) (3)

Pn Pu with 065 (tied column in compression control) (steel tension strain less than y ).
So Pn

Pu

1550 .10 3
2384615 .4 N
0.65

Thus

Cc Cs T 2384615 .4 N (4)

Therefore we have: 2384615 .4 5780 c 791290 .5 117810 0

337 .5 c
c

We multiply the terms of this equation by c:

2384615 .4 c 5780 c 2 791290 .5 c 117810 0(337.5 c)

or 5780 c 2 2384615 .4 c 791290 .5 c 117810 0(337.5 c) 0

5780 c 2 415224 .9 c 397608750 0

Second degree equation with the following positive solution:

c 300.646 mm

This value is less than the depth of bottom layer. The depth of the compression block is
a 1c 0.85 x 300.646 255 .55 mm . These results confirm the strain distribution assumed.

Check assumed steel strains

s 2 0.003

d2 c
337.5 300.646
0.003
0.0003678 which is less than yield strain: OK
c
300.646

s1 0.003

c d1
300.646 62.5
0.003
0.00238 which is greater than yield strain: OK
c
300.646

Total forces
The force values are Cc 1737.74 kN Cs 791.29 kN

T 144 .42 kN

These forces verify equation (4).

Check bending moment M n M u

h
h a
h

The nominal moment is M n Cc C s d1 T d 2

2
2 2
2

We find M n 1737.740.2 0.127775 791.290.2 0.0625 144.420.3375 0.2

M n 245.17 kN.m

and M n 0.65 x 245.17 165.21kN.m M u 150 kN.m OK

This means that the point (Mu , Pu) lies inside the safe zone of the the P-M interaction curve.
Final comments
This method of checking of section safety with respect to bending moment is rather long and
must be repeated for each load combination (Pu , Mu). The use of P-M interaction diagrams is
more effective.

Axial force bending moment interaction diagrams

Both axial force P and bending moment M cause normal stresses:

P
A

My
I

The total normal stress is:

P My

A
I

Assuming compression as positive, the total stress must not exceed the material strength:
P My

Strength
A
I

which can be transformed to:

P
M

1
Pult M ult

This linear inequality results in an interaction curve relating the axial force to the bending
moment. For elastic linear and symmetric materials, with equal strength in tension and
compression (mild steel) this P-M interaction curve is of the form:

P-M interaction diagram for elastic symmetric materials

For reinforced concrete with nonlinear stress-strain curves and where the tension strength is
provided by steel only, the P-M interaction diagram is of the form shown in the next figures.
There are two curves: (1): Nominal curve Pn-Mn

(2): Design curve Pn - M n

A safe design is inside or on the border of the shaded design curve. The distance between the
two curves is variable depending on the strength reduction factor. The two curves are closer in
the tension-control zone ( 0.90 ). The horizontal line limit corresponds to the code maximum
design compression force Pn(max)

P-M interaction diagram for RC columns (produced by RC-TOOL software)

Importance of P-M interaction diagrams:

The P-M interaction curves are very important for column analysis and design which is much
more complex than in beams. For many load combinations, beam design requires designing for
the largest moment value. For columns, it is general never obvious which load combination
controls design. In the previous figure, point 2 is unsafe although it has smaller values of both
axial force and bending moment as compared to point 1, which is safe.
Column design requires checking that load combination points lie inside (or on the border) of
the safe design curve.
Drawing the P-M interaction curve
We consider the case of a symmetrical rectangular section. The P-M curve may be
approximately drawn from few important points.
A)

Simple points

These are the pure compression and pure tension points with no bending moment.
A1) Pure compression point:
Nominal axial compression force: P0 0.85 f c' Ag Ast f y Ast
SBC/ACI Maximum nominal force: Pn (max)

Design force: Pn (max)

'

0.80 P0 0.80 0.85 f c Ag Ast f y Ast : Tied

'

0.85 P0 0.85 0.85 f c Ag Ast f y Ast : Spiral

'

0.65 x 0.80 P0 0.52 0.85 f c Ag Ast f y Ast : Tied

'

0.70 x 0.85 P0 0.595 0.85 f c Ag Ast f y Ast : Spiral

A2) Pure tension point:

Pnt f y Ast

Nominal tension strength:

Pnt 0.90 f y Ast

Designl tension strength:

B)

( 0.90 )

General points

A point on the interaction curve is defined by its two coordinates M (horizontal) and P (vertical).
The moment is expressed about the gross section centroid.
Consider a rectangular section with dimensions (b , h)
subjected to a bending moment about X-axis as shown.

di

The moment is positive if causing compression in top and

Asi

tension in bottom.
The section reinforcement is expressed in terms of steel layers
Asi with distances di from the concrete top fiber.
The total steel area is: Ast Asi
i

The tension steel strain t corresponds to that in the bottom layer.

The section centroid is at a distance h/2 from the top.

Combining bending and axial compression, section failure occurs when the top fiber strain
reaches the concrete ultimate strain of 0.003
0.003

Relations between steel strain and neutral axis depth

Although compression is considered positive, for steel, it is more
di

convenient to consider tension as positive.

From similar triangles, we find the following two relations linking
steel strain si (at layer i with depth di) and the neutral axis depth c:
We have:

di
c

0.003 0.003 si

We also have:

si
di c

c di

Thus

0.003
c

si

0.003
0.003 si

si 0.003

Thus

di c
c

A point on the P-M interaction curve is usually defined by either the steel strain or by the neutral
axis depth, and if one of the two is known, the other is easily found with the preceding relations.
Steps for the general interaction point:
a) Concrete contribution:
Knowing the neutral axis depth c, concrete compression block depth is: a 1c

0.05( f c' 30)

f 30 MPa : 1 Max 0.65 , 0.85

7

f 30 MPa : 1 0.85
'
c

with:

'
c

Pnc 0.85 f c' a b

The nominal concrete compression force is

The displaced concrete by steel layers located inside the compression block will be considered
with steel.
b) Steel layers contribution:
Contribution of each steel layer i is computed as follows (tension is positive):

Steel strain in layer i: si 0.003

Steel stress in layer i:

Nominal steel force in layer i:

di c
c

f si Es si

but with

f y f si f y

Asi f si if d i a : (No displaced concrete)

Tnsi
'
Asi f si 0.85 f c if d i a : (With displaced concrete)

Concrete displaced by steel layer i located in the compression block is considered by subtracting
from the steel force a concrete compression force equal to 0.85 f c' Asi . This is equivalent to
adding an equal tension force to the layer
Steel Youngs modulus Es is equal to 200000 MPa or 200 GPa

Total forces and moments:

The total forces and moments are obtained by combining concrete and steel contributions.
0.85 fc

0.003
di

Pnc

h/2

di

si

Tnsi

t
The total nominal force is: Pn Pnc Tnsi
i

h
h a

The total nominal moment with respect to the centroid is: M n Pnc Tnsi d i
2
2 2 i

Design values are obtained by multiplying by the strength reduction factor. The latter depends
on the known value of the tension steel strain at the bottom steel layer.

Pn Pnc Tnsi

M n Pnc Tnsi d i
2 2
2

Particular points on the interaction curve

These particular points are:

Pure compression point (M = 0 , c = infinity, 0.65 / 0.70 )

Pure tension point (M = 0 , c = - infinity, 0.90 )

Balanced point (tension steel strain = Yield strain t y

0.005 steel strain point ( t 0.005 , 0.90 )

fy
Es

, 0.65 / 0.70 )

The last two points are the limits of the transition zone between compression-controlled sections
and tension-controlled sections.
The left hand side of the curve (M < 0) is generated similarly by inverting the section upside
down.
The next figure shows the P-M interaction diagram for the revious example and the loading
point (Pu = 1550 kN, Mu = 150 kN.m). The point lies inside the safe zone confirming the
previous result.

Interaction curve example:

Tied square column 500 x 500 mm with eight 25 mm bars in
three layers (1.57 % of steel)

1 0.85

f c' 25 MPa

Thus

f y 420 MPa

Thus yield strain y 0.0021

Tie diameter ds = 10 mm
Determine the particular points on the interaction diagram as well as point C with c = h
There are three steel layers (top and bottom layers with three bars each, and middle layer with
two bars). Steel areas:

As1 = As3 = 1472.62 mm2

As2 = 981.75 mm2

Total steel area Ast = 3926.99 mm2

d
25

10 62.5 mm
Steel depths: d1 cover b d s 40
2
2

d2

d
25

d 3 h cover b d s 500 40
10 500 62.5 437.5 mm
2
2

h
250 mm
2

1/ Pure compression point ( = 0.65):

Nominal axial compression force: P0 0.85 f c' Ag Ast f y Ast

P0 0.85 x 25500 x 500 3926.99 420 x 3926.99 6878387 N 6878.387 kN

SBC/ACI Maximum nominal force: Pn(max) 0.80 P0 5502.710 kN
Design force: Pn(max) 0.65 x 5502.7096 3576.761 kN
2/ Pure tension point ( = 0.90):

Pnt f y Ast 420 x 3926.99 1649335 .8 N 1649.3358 kN

Nominal tension strength:

Pnt 0.90 f y Ast 1484.402 kN

Designl tension strength:

0.003

3/ Balanced point B ( = 0.65):

This point is defined by t s 3 y 0.0021
Neutral axis depth: c d 3

0.003
0.003
437.5
0.003 s 3
0.003 0.0021

0.0021

Neutral axis depth c = 257.3529 mm

Depth of compression block: a 1c 0.85 x 257.3529 218.750 mm
Concrete compression force:

Pnc 0.85 f c' a b 0.85 x 25 x 218.75 x 500 2324218 .75 N 2324.21875 kN

Steel layer 1:
Strain s1 0.003

d1 c
62.5 257.3529
0.003
3 0.00227
c
257.353

(compression)

Stress f s1 f y 420 MPa because strain greater than yield strain (in absolute value)
Force: d i 62.5 a 218.75 mm

So there is displaced concrete

Tns1 As1 f s1 0.85 f c' 1472.62 420 0.85 x 25 587207 .225 N 587.2072 kN
Steel layer 2: Strain s 2 0.003
Stress

d2 c
250 257.353
0.003
0.0000857
c
257.353

f s 2 Es s 2 200000 x 0.0000857 17.14 MPa

Force: d 2 250 a 218 .75 mm

So there is no displaced concrete

Tns2 As 2 f s 2 981.75 x17.14 16827.195 N 16.8272 kN (Compression)

Steel layer 3: Strain

s3

= 0.0021 (tension)

Force: d 3 437.5 a 218.75 mm

Stress fs3 = fy = 420 MPa

So there is no displaced concrete

Tns3 As3 f s3 1472.62 x 420 618500 .4 N 618.5004 kN (Tension)

Total forces and moments:
The total nominal force is:

Pn Pnc Tnsi 2324 .21875 587 .2072 16.8272 618 .5004 2309 .75275 kN
i

Using (kN) for forces and (m) for distances, the total nominal moment with respect to the
centroid is:

h
h a

M n Pnc Tnsi d i
2
2 2 i

0.5
0.5 0.21875

M n 2324 .21875

587.2072 0.0625

2
2
2

0.5
0.5

16.8272 0.25
618.5004 0.4375
552.9134 kN.m
2
2

= 0.65

Thus

Pn = 1501.34 kN

Mn = 359.394 kN.m

and

4/ Point D with 0.005 tensile steel strain ( = 0.90):

0.003

This point is defined by t s 3 y 0.005

Following the same steps, we find:
Neutral axis depth c = 164.0625 mm

0.005

Depth of compression block: a = 139.4531 mm

Concrete compression force:

Pnc = 1481.6895 kN

Steel layer 1: Strain s1 0.00186 (compression)

Force with displaced concrete (since d1 < a):
Steel layer 2: Strain

s2

= 0.00157 (tension)

Stress fs1 = -371.4286 MPa

Tns1 = As1(fs1 + 0.85 x fc) = -515.6799 kN

Stress fs2 = 314.2857 MPa

Force Tns2 = As2 x fs2 No displaced concrete (since d2 > a): Tns2 = 308.550 kN
Steel layer 3: Strain

s3

= 0.005 (tension)

Stress fs3 = 420.0 MPa

Force Tns3 = As3 x fs3 No displaced concrete (since d3 > a): Tns3 = 618.5004 kN
Total nominal and design forces and moments:
Pn = 1070.3190 kN

Mn = 479.7681 kN.m

Pn = 963.2871 kN

Mn = 431.7913 kN.m

5/ Full compression Point C with c = h ( = 0.65):

0.003

This point is defined by the neutral axis depth c = h = 500 mm

It corresponds to the onset of tension in the section, that is
the smallest neutral axis depth with no tension in the section.

c=h

Depth of compression block: a = 425.0 mm

Concrete compression force:

Pnc = 4515.625 kN

Steel layer 1: Strain s1 0.00263 (compression)

Stress fs1 = - fy = - 420.0 MPa

Force with displaced concrete (since d1 < a): Tns1 = As1(fs1 + 0.85 x fc) = -587.2072 kN
Steel layer 2: Strain

s2

= -0.00150 (compression)

Stress fs2 = -300.0 MPa

Force with displaced concrete (since d2 < a): Pns2 = As2(fs2 + 0.85 x fc) = -273.6628 kN
Steel layer 3: Strain

s3

= -0.00038 compression)

Stress fs3 = -75.0 MPa

Force Tns3 = As3 x fs3 No displaced concrete (since d3 > a): Tns3 = -110.4465 kN
Total nominal and design forces and moments:
Pn = 5486.9415 kN

Mn = 258.7286 kN.m

Pn = 3566.5120 kN

Mn = 168.1736 kN.m

The table below shows all the point results including the beam bending point (P = 0).
Point
Pn (kN)
Pure compression
6878.387
= 0.65
Point C (c = h)
5486.9415
= 0.65
Point B (balanced)
2309.75275
= 0.65
Point D (0.005 strain)
1070.3190
= 0.90
Beam bending
0
= 0.90
Max tension
-1649.336
= 0.90

Mn (kN.m)

Pn (kN)

Mn (kN.m)

3576.761

258.7286

3566.5120

168.1736

552.9134

1501.340

359.394

479.7681

963.2871

431.7913

329.1185

296.2067

-1484.402

All these points match the curve delivered by RC-TOOL software.

The next figure represents an approximate drawing from the few particular points.
RC-TOOL curve is generated with hundreds of points and gives details for any desired point.

Approximate drawing of P-M interaction curve

Interaction curve generated by RC-TOOL software

Beam bending point:
The beam bending point is located on the horizontal axis (P = 0). Both the neutral axis depth
and steel strain are unknown. They must be determined used equilibrium equations. For sections
with more than two layers, this may require several iterations. RC-TOOL performs all these
iterations. Beam analysis and design is therefore only a particular case with P = 0.
Comparing balanced point B and 0.005 steel strain point D:
Balanced point B and 0.005 strain point D are the limits of the transition zone with a variable
strength reduction factor. Above point B is the compression-control zone and below point D is
the tension-control zone. The axial force (nominal and design) in point B is greater than that of
point D. However for moments, we have:
For nominal moments

MnB > MnD

For design moments

MnB < MnD

This transition zone generates in some cases design curves with non-convexity parts. The strain
compatibility technique used in RC-TOOL software tracks all the points whatever the nonconvexity. Some other programs determine the interaction curve using axial force looping
(determine the moments for a given axial force). This technique may not track correctly the
transition zone (between points B and D).
Design of columns using P-M interaction diagrams
Safe design requires that all load combination points (Pu , Mu) lie inside or on the border of the
design curve. This requires many cycles of trial and error with successive updatings of
reinforcement. Only appropriate software such as RC-TOOL can perform these complex
operations. An optimal design will correspond to a loading point lying on the border of the
design curve. RC-TOOL offers many design options including standard design with one or two
layers, two equal layers or many layers. The next two figures show design results for the same
column section subjected to an ultimate compression force of 2000 kN and an ultimate moment
of 350 kN.m, using two steel layers at 60 and 440 mm depths. The first design is performed with
symmetrical reinforcement and delivers a steel ratio of 1.356 %. The second design is standard
(no symmetry imposed) and gives a smaller steel ratio of 0.774 %. In both cases, the loading
point lies on the border of the design curve. Stress and strain distributions are also delivered.

RC design of a column with two equal steel layers

Standard RC design of a column with one or two steel layers