Describe

(i) the Krebs cycle;

(ii) the formation of ATP in the electron transport chain.
[Details of glycolysis and the link reaction are not required.]
[12] (Jan 07)

6.(a)

A acetyl CoA (enters/starting point);

B combines with 4C (acid) to produce 6C (acid);
C CoA regenerated/breaks off (not : reused);
D correct ref. to decarboxylation;
E correct ref. to dehydrogenation;
F correct ref. to carbon dioxide produced;
G correct ref. to reduced NAD and FAD;
H pass hydrogens to electron transport chain;
I correct ref. to ATP formed directly in Krebs;
J energy from electrons fuel proton pump;
K protons pumped/actively transported into intermembrane space;
L diffuse/flow down concentration gradient;
M through ATP synthetase;
N stalked granules/particles;
O oxygen is the final acceptor;
P chemiosmosis;
Q ADP + P = ATP;
R correct ref. to no of ATP produced per NAD/FAD;
; e.g. no of pumps associated with NAD/FAD.
Any of the 12 of the 19 available marks

June 04
(b) A Glucose is phosphorylated/ATP is added.
B to form Hexose (di)phosphate.
C this is split into 2 3C/triose phosphate molecules.
D these are converted to pyruvate.
E with a net gain of 2 ATP (stated unambiguously).
F and 2 reduced NAD.
G it occurs in the cytoplasm of all cells/does not require oxygen.
H in the absence of oxygen, (the Krebs cycle and) ETC cannot
occur/no oxygen to act as the final electron acceptor at the end of
the ETC.
I Pyruvate is converted to lactate/lactic acid in animal cells/humans
(not: ref. to CO2)
J or ethanol in plant and/or fungal (cells)/or yeast
K and carbon dioxide in plant and/or fungal (cells).
L using the reduced NAD to reduce the pyruvate/transferring the
hydrogen to pyruvate (in the process).
M Anaerobic respiration (only) yields a total of 2 ATP
(i.e. ref. to overall yield)
N because a lot of energy is still tied up/contained in the
lactate/ethanol
(i.e. ethanol high in calories)
Maximum 10 marks
10
[10]

Write an account outlining the similarities and

differences in the ways that mitochondria and chloroplasts
generate a proton gradient and synthesise ATP
(Diagrams alone are insufficient) (10) (Jun 03)

(a)
ATP Synthesis Mark Scheme
Similarities
a
Both need high energy electrons
b
Both need stalked particles/ATP synthetase
c
Both need proton pumps
d
Both involve a series of carriers/pumps in electron transport
chain
e
Both need protons which are pumped into a cavity
f
Both are involved in creating an electrochemical/
chemiosmotic/H-ion/H+/proton gradient
g
Both involve redox reactions
Differences
h
Cristae/(folded) inner membrane carries stalked particles in
mitochondria Or Intermembrane cavity in mitochondria/ diagram
i
Thylakoid membrane in chloroplasts carries stalked particles Or
Thylakoid cavity in chloroplasts/diagram
j
3 (types of) proton pumps in mitochondria
k
1 (type of) proton pump in chloroplasts
l
Water formed during ATP synthesis in mitochondria/ Protons
derived from glucose breakdown
m
Water broken down (in non-cyclic photophosphorylation) in
chloroplasts/protons derived from water/photolysis produces H ions
n
High energy electrons are derived from chlorophyll in
chloroplasts
o
High energy electrons are derived from glucose/reduced
NAD/FAD in mitochondria
9 maximum if no comparison

Give an account of anaerobic respiration in

organisms.
Jan 11
A.Glucose is phosphorylated / ATP is added. [1]
B. to form hexose (di) phosphate. [1]
C. this is split into (two) 3C triose phosphate molecules.
(not: abbreviations) [1]
D. which are converted to pyruvate. [1]
E. and (2) reduced NAD or eq e.g. NADH [1]
F. takes place in the cytoplasm / glycolysis [1]
G. in the absence of oxygen, (the Krebs cycle and) ETC cannot
occur / no oxygen to act as the final electron acceptor at the end
of the ETC. [1]
H. Pyruvate is converted to lactate / lactic acid in animal
cells / humans. [1]
I. using the reduced NAD to reduce the pyruvate / transferring the
hydrogen to pyruvate (in the process) [1]
J. in plants / fungi there is a loss of carbon dioxide /
decarboxylation [1]
K. ethanal / acetaldehyde is produced [1]
L. ethanal is reduced by NADH to ethanol [1]
M. anaerobic respiration yields a total of 2 ATP [1]
N. (because) a lot of energy is still tied up / contained in the
lactate / ethanol (i.e. ethanol high in calories) [1]

(a) Describe the light dependent stage of photosynthesis.

[10] (Jan 08)
A. (photon of) light strikes chlorophyll / pigment / reaction centre /
photosystem ; 1
B. chlorophyll a (molecule) loses electron ; 1
C. in photosystem II / P680 ; 1
D. passes down chain of electron carriers ; 1
E. converting ADP to ATP ; 1
F. reference non-cyclic (photo)phosphorylation in correct context;
1
G. electron passed on to photosystem I / P700 ; 1
H. electron lost from photosystem I / P700 ; 1
I. and then returned to photosystem I / P700 ; 1
J. reference cyclic photophosphorylation in correct context; 1
K. photolysis / splitting of water ; 1
L. provides electron to replace the one lost from photosystem II /
P680 ; 1
M. produces oxygen ; 1
N. electron from photosystem I /P700 with H+ reduce NADP ; 1
O. ATP and redNADP available for light independent reaction /
Calvin
cycle ; 1
P. AVP ; e.g. ref to antenna complex / accessory pigments /
sequence of
electron carriers / detail of stalked particles / reaction centres. 1
Any 10 of the 16 available marks
[Total : 10]
(Points A, B, D, E could be in context of cyclic or non cyclic; K, L,
M linked
marks; F, J refer to ATP production and fate of electron)

Describe the light-independent stage (Calvin cycle) of

photosynthesis.
Indicate the possible fate of the products of this process.
[10] (June 06)
A

ATP, NADPH2 from light dependent;

In stroma of chloroplast;

5C acceptor;

ribulose bisphosphate RUBP;

carbon dioxide fixed;

Enzyme RuBisco/ref enzyme e.g. sequence of enzyme

controlled reactions;

(breaks down into 2 3C) glycerate 3 phosphate/PGA/GP;

(converted into 2 3C) triose phosphate/TP/GALP;

NADPH H+/reduced NADP;

supplies hydrogen/used for reduction;

ATP broken down into ADP and iP supplies energy.

(not: ATP supplies energy)

RuBP regenerated from TP.

M Phosphate from ATP needed for this.

N

Glucose, lipids, amino acids, chlorophyll, cellulose, starch.

Any 2 products.

Fate of two products qualified, e.g. glucose respired for energy

/amino acid make proteins

P AVP e.g. balancing 6 RUBP etc./most TP to RBP some to glucose.

Give an account of the light dependent stage of photosynthesis.

(Jun 02)

photophosphorylation;
(1)
B
cyclic and non-cyclic;
(1)
Cyclic
C
light absorbed by photosystem 1/P700;
(1)
D
electron(s) emitted from chlorophyll a molecule;
(1)
E
passed to chain of electron carriers;
(1)
ATP Synthesis
F
energy fuels proton pump;
(1)
G maintains H+ concentration gradient;
(1)
H
protons diffuse and synthesise ATP from ADP and phosphate;
(1)
Cyclic
I
electron(s) returns to chlorophyll a/P700/PSI;
(1)
Non Cyclic
J
light absorbed by both photosystems;
(1)
K
electrons emitted from P680 and P700;
(1)
L
both passed to chain of electron carriers and ATP synthesised;
(1)
M photosystem 1/P700 receives electrons from photosystem 2/P680;
(1)
N
photosystem 2/P680 receives electrons from splitting of
water/photolysis;
(1)
O NADP accepts hydrogen/H+/protons from splitting of
water/photolysis;
(1)
P
NADP passes hydrogen to the light independent reaction;(1)
Q specific reference to structure photosystems;
(1)
R
reference to ATP synth(et)ase;
(1)
A

Give an account of the Calvin cycle in photosynthesis (7)

(A diagram alone is insufficient.)
Explain how the raw materials used in the calvin cycle are obtained (6)
(Jan 03)
Calvin cycle question
(a) ACarbon dioxide reacts with 5 carbon RuBP
BThe 6C compound formed splits into two 3C
CMolecules of glycerate-3-phosphate (GP)
DWhich react with aTP (mark given for D only if in wrong order
with E)
EAnd reduced NADP
FTo
form
triose
phosphate/GALP/Glyceraldaehyde-3phosphate
GMost of these molecules react with ATP
HTo regenerate RuBP
ISome is converted into glucose/carbohydrate/amino acids
Any seven
(7)

(b)
JATP and reduced NADP are synthesised in the light stage of
photosynthesis
KATP is synthesised using energy captured in the electron
transport chain of both photosystems
LATP is also produced by plant cell respiration
MNADPH + H+ is formed in photosystem I
NWhen (low energy) electrons combine with H and NADP
OCarbon dioxide is absorbed into the leaf/from the
atmosphere
Any three
(3)
Total 10 marks

(a) Describe the events of the light dependent stage of

photosynthesis (12) (Jan 04)
(a)

A
B
Cyclic
C
D

photophosphorylation;
cyclic and non-cyclic (correct identification);

light absorbed by, photosystem I/P700;

electron(s) emitted from chlorophyll a molecule; (not:
excited)
E passed to chain of electron carriers/acceptors/transport chain;
ATP Synthesis
F energy fuels proton pump;
G maintains H+ concentration gradient;
H protons/ H+ diffuse and synthesise ATP from ADP and
phosphate;
Cyclic
I electron(s) returns to, chlorophyll a/PSI/P700;
Non-Cyclic
J light absorbed by both photosystems;
K electrons emitted from P680/PSI and P700/PSII;
L both passed to chain of electron carriers and ATP synthesised;
M PSI/P700, receives electrons from, PSII/P680;
N PSII/P680, receives electrons
from, splitting of
water/photolysis;
O NADP accepts, hydrogen/H+/protons, from photolysis;
P NADP passes hydrogen to the light independent reaction;
Q specific ref. to structure of photosystems/antenna complex;
R ref. to ATP synth(et)ase; (not: ATPase)
(A maximum of 12 marks may be awarded from the 18 available)

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[12]

Describe how energy is trapped by green plants and stored

during the light dependent stage of photosynthesis. (l 0)
(June 05)
A energy source is (a photon) of light, pigments / chlorophyll absorb light
energy / light energy changed to chemical energy

B pigments include chlorophyll a and b, carotene and xanthophylls

C to absorb different wavelengths / parts of spectrum

D reference to antennae complex / photosystems (embedded in (thylakoid)

membranes)

E energy transferred between pigment molecules and to reaction centre

(chlorophyll)

F emission of electrons by reaction centre (chlorophyll) / P700 /

photosystems

G electron acceptors

H electron transfer chain (between PSII and PSI)

reference to proton pumps ATPase / chemiosmosis

electrons (emitted from PS II) replaced from water photolysis / correct

description of photolysis

K photolysis takes place inside thylakoid space / mopping up of protons in

stroma by NADP

L therefore contributes to electrochemical gradient

M NADP is reduced / NADPH2 end product or final electron acceptor

N reference to cyclic phosphorylation

O Energy is stored in the form of ATP

Maximum 10 marks from available 15.

[10]

June 04

(a)

GALP/Triose phosphate/glucose and oxygen.

B
GALP/Triose phosphate is converted to glucose.
C
Oxygen used by mitochondria/aerobic respiration.
D
Glucose used as a respiratory substrate/for ATP synthesis (in
regions of cell division/growth/root/shoot tip).
E
may be converted to starch and stored as starch grains in
choroplasts
(temporarily)/specialised
areas/underground
stems/potatoes/seeds/
fruits eq.
(not: food store)
F
converted to fructose/fructose combined with glucose to
form sucrose/sucrose is synthesised for transport.
G
Glucose is converted to cellulose to form plant cell walls.
H
amino acids can be synthesised, providing there is a nitrogen/
nitrate source/using nitrogen
I
amino acids from glucose via metabolic pathway can be
used to synthesise protein.
J
lipids can be synthesised for storage/phospholipids/cell
membranes.
K
with a Magnesium source, chlorophyll can be synthesised.
L/M mention of any other 2 products
Nucleic acids/DNA/RNA/ATP/ADP/Vitamins/
xanthophylls/anthocyanins/carotenes
N
all organic materials in the plant must be made from the
intermediates and products of photosynthesis.
(Maximum 10 marks)
10
[10]

(b) (i) Describe how a batch fermenter is used in the growth

of Pencillium (6)
(ii) Outline the aseptic techniques that are needed for
handling microorganisms in the laboratory. (6) (Jan 04)
(b)

(i)

A
B
C
D

sterilise vessel beforehand;

use (sterile) nutrient medium;
use filters/aseptic techniques, at vessel openings;
provide organism with suitable conditions for its
growth;
E nutrients/sugar, depleted/become limiting;
F (may need) forced aeration/sparger;
G mixing, by aeration/stirrer;
H temperature control/water jackets remove excess heat;
I pH control;
(A maximum of 6 marks may be awarded from the 9
available)
J sterilise apparatus beforehand;
K flame the mouth of culture bottle;
L sterilise loop in Bunsen flame/spreaders by alcohol;
M lift lid of petri dish just enough to insert loop/bung etc
held not placed on bench;
N protective clothing;
O safety cabinet/work close to bunsen;
P hand washing before (and after);
Q autoclave/heat equipment at 121C under pressure/use
pressure cooker (to sterilise after use) irradiation;
R sterilise
work
surfaces
before/after
with
disinfectant/use benchkote; (not: clean)
(A maximum of 6 marks may be awarded from the 9
available)

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1

Describe the industrial production of penicillin. [10] (Jan 06)

A.
B.

batch culture;
all materials added at the start/not during process;
C. sterile apparatus/vessel;
D. pure (culture) of Penicillium (notatum);
E. sterile nutrient medium;
F. method of aeration;
G. oxygen for respiration;
H. filters for introduction of sterile oxygen;
I. method of mixing
J. temperature control by water jacket;
K. allow growth phase to take place;
L. penicillin produced after growth phase;
M. as glucose is depleted;

N.
O.
P.

filtration of culture fluid;

antibiotic purified;
AVP; e.g. penicillin is produced in free living, possibly to
reduce competition, when food sources are depleted

(b) Describe the production of penicillin using a batch

culture fermenter. [10] (Jan 08)

A. Penicillium notatum / chrysogenum ; 1

B. vessel sterilised before use ; 1
C. (pure) culture introduced ; 1
D. nutrients added (at start) ; (mark negated if later additions
made) 1
E. named nutrient ; e.g. glucose / C source / nitrates 1
(not : growth factors)
F. pH regulated / description of method of regulation / maintain 1
optimum pH
G. monitored by pH probes ; 1
H. temperature regulated / reference to cooling jacket to get rid of
excess
heat 1
I. temperature monitored e.g. thermometer ; 1
J. aeration with sterile / filtered air / oxygen ; 1
K. for respiration ; 1
L. appropriate method for mixing contents ; 1
M. penicillin produced after growth phase / as secondary
metabolite / as
nutrients depleted ; 1
N. mycelium / penicillium removed by filtration ; 1
O. antibiotic / penicillin purified (from remaining liquid); 1
P. AVP ; e.g. reference to cyclic fed-batch culture 1
(not : reference to competition)
Any 10 of the 16 available marks
[Total : 10]

Describe how the principles of using a batch

culture fermenter are applied
to the industrial production of penicillin.
Jan 11
A. All materials are added at start / not during the process [1]
B. Sterile apparatus. [1]
C. (Pure (culture) of) ref Penicillium (notatum). [1]
D. Sterile nutrient medium. [1]
E. Aeration method as oxygen is required for respiration / for
aerobic
conditions [1]
F. pH adjustment / buffer. [1]
G. introduction of sterile air / oxygen. to prevent contamination (by
airborne organisms) [1]
H. Method of mixing (qualified). (eg paddle) to mix nutrients (and
culture /
oxygen) [1]
20
I . Water jacket to prevent overheating to remove excess heat
produced during respiration / metabolism or maintain optimum
temperature qual / prevent enzyme denaturation [1]
J. nutrients / glucose is depleted during growth phase. [1]
K. Penicillin is secondary metabolite. [1]
L. Penicillin is produced / harvest after growth phase /
during stationary phase / after nutrient depletion. [1]
M. Filter / purify culture fluid / separate fungus. [1]
N. AVP e.g. penicillin production in nature possibly to reduce
competition / comparison with continuous culture. [1]

Give an account of the technique used to monitor the

number of viable cells in a
bacterial population, including aseptic precautions. [10]
(June 08)
A Correct name of technique used SERIAL DILUTION;
B Any valid sterilising techniques for equipment eg autoclave;
C Any valid aseptic technique eg flaming bottle neck;
( not: flaming loop)
D 9 cm3 (sterile) deionised / distilled water placed in series of
bacteriology / test tubes with lids (correct 9:1 ratio)
E 1 cm3 bacterial sample placed in first tube (and mixed);
F 1 cm3 of this transferred to next tube and mixed and repeat for
remaining tubes;
G Transfer of 0.1 / 0.5 / 1.0 cm3 of each sample onto a (sterile)
nutrient
agar plate; (not: loop and streak plate)
H only lifting lid slightly to prevent contamination;
I Repeat this twice to give a total of 3 plates per dilution;
J Use of (sterile) spreader to spread sample around plate
K Seal plates with tape plus explanation;
L Incubate at 25C for 24 hours;
M Selection of suitable plates (60-100 / countable colonies) and
count
colonies
N Explanation of working out means of 3 plates and correct
calculation
(multiplication to get number of bacteria per cm3 of original
bacteria
sample)
O Explanation of inaccuracies with clumping/viable cell gives
visible
colony

b) (i) Explain the shape of a typical population growth curve and describe how
numbers are kept constant in a stable population. [6]
(ii) Indicate, with examples, how human activities can cause instability in
populations. [4] Jan 05
7.

(b)

(i)

A.

(Lag phase) - numbers and therefore rate of

reproduction low.
B. (Log/exponential phase) - Abundant resources
and exponential rate of increase/no limiting
factors/ birth rate exceeds death rate.
C. (Stable/stationary phase) - carrying capacity
reached or definition.
D. Competition for
E. limiting factor/resource e.g.
F.
Decline phase - depletion of resources,
accumulation of toxins, etc. (not: resources/
limiting)
G. (In stable population) Birth rate = Death rate
H. Emigration = Immigration
[Six marks can be awarded from the eight available for part
(a)]
(ii) I.
Human activity increasing birth rate - one
example such as NO2 pollution, algal blooms,
eutrophication.
J.
Mention of two distinct human activities which
increase death rate (decrease birth rate).
Overfishing, hunting, habitat destruction,
deforestation, pollution.
K. One named example.
L. Human activities, decreasing death rate protection, conservation, predator destruction,
game keeping, fish quotas etc.
M. Activities affecting immigration - introduction
of exotics, garden escapes, biological control
agents.
N. One example.
O. Example of habitat alteration on migrants.
[Four marks can be awarded from the seven available, of
which one must be either M, N or O.]

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[10]

b) Describe the factors that control the size of a population. [8]

(Jun 05)

(b) A birth rate and death rate;

B population grows if birth rate higher;
(ORA)
C immigration and emigration;
D population grows if immigration
exceeds emigration;
(ORA)
E increased
predation
decreases
population;
F disease will reduce size of a
population;
G effect
of
weather/temperature
qualified;
H availability of food qualified;
I availability of living space qualified;
J human involvement/intervention;
K specific
example
of
human
involvement;
L ref. density dependent/ factors;
M ref. to carrying capacity;
N labelled diagram/description of a
growth curve (3 of 4 phases needed);
O ref. to some factors can cause a
population to crash;

(b) (i) Explain what is meant by the term population growth

curve. [3]
(ii) Describe the factors that may cause the population of a
species to decrease. [7]

(b) (i) A death/decline phase- greater numbers dying than being

produced;
B lag phase where little increase in numbers;
C exponential / log phase rapid increase in numbers;
D stationary phase, numbers produced equals numbers
dying/maximum
carrying capacity reached;
[3 max]
E accumulation/increase toxic waste;
F emigration exceeds immigration;
G disease (epidemic);
H increase in predators/parasites;
I food shortages;
J climate change/adverse weather conditions/natural disaster
qualified;
K increased competition;
L insufficient living space;
M reference to human interventions eg deforestation;
N reference to density dependent and independent factors;
[7 max]
Total 10

(a) Define the term population. Give an account of factors that affect
population growth
and population size, distinguishing between density dependent and
density
independent factors. [10]
(Jun 06)
A A population is a group of individuals belonging to the
same species.
B and occupying a defined area.
C Population numbers are dynamic.
(allow: growth curve / predator prey diagrams labelled)
D Number / size of population depends on birth rates and
death rates.
E Number depends on immigration and emigration.
F Growth occurs if birth rate exceeds death rate.
G Growth occurs if immigration exceeds emigration.
H Decline occurs if death rate exceeds birth rate.
I Environmental factor may slow growth rate or cause
population to crash.
J An example of a factor which affects population growth,
weather, predation, disease, food supply, living space,
competition.
K Density dependent factors have a greater affect on
population numbers if the population size is large.
L Density independent factors have the same affect on
population numbers in small and large populations.
M An example of a density independent factor, drought, fire,
frost, flood.
(not: pollution)
N Correct reference to the term carrying capacity.
(not: just labelled on graph)

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(b) Discuss, using examples, the principles of chemical and biological

control of pests
and their relative advantages and disadvantages. [10]
(Jan 06)

(b)

A.

Pyrethroids, or other named example;

B. Eradicate quickly;
C. cheap/cost effective;
D. localised/controlled use;
E. disadvantage, non specific
F. eradicate beneficial/other insects/animals/toxic to

humans;
G. pests can become resistant;
(not: immune)
H. bioaccumulation;
I. affect on food chains explained;
J. eg. biological control Encarsia/ladybird;
(not: cats/foxes etc)
K. specific/less environmental damage/no residues;
L. disadvantage, need pests before can be applied;
M. does not eradicate completely;
N. can lead to superpest/can become pests
themselves.
O. suitable control agent for pests not always
available
P. AVP eg Research/expense biological/need frequent
input/enclosed space; or definition biological
control 10

Nitrogen gas in the atmosphere is fixed by Nitrogen

Fixing Bacteria

which are either free - living in soil

or in root nodules of legumes.

(Nitrogen in the form of) amino acids and/or proteins

Nitrogen is passed to animals during feeding

(Nitrogen in form of )urea / ammonia

Nitrogen passes to soil during excretion.

Dead plants and animals are decayed by bacteria

and/or Fungi.
1

Decay releases ammonium (compounds)/ammonia.

Ammonium (compounds) are converted to (nitrogen

in the form of) nitrates.

Plants (are only able to absorb) nitrogen in the form of

nitrates.

Plants fix nitrogen in the form of amino acids and

proteins.( ie inorganic to organic form)

Denitrifying bacteria/denitrification break(s) down

return nitrogen to the atmosphere.

nitrates and
1

Lightning may cause nitrogen gas to react with

oxygen in the air to from nitrates
Industrial production of fertiliser(e.g. Haber)

1
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Describe the advantages and disadvantages of

chemical and biological control.
Jun 10
Chemical control
Advantages
A. Very effective/quick/cheap means of control
B. Chemicals can be applied on a small area (e.g. Market gardening) /
Application does not require a high level of skill/knowledge
Disadvantages
C. Chemicals are not specific/may eradicate useful insects
D. Resistance may occur (not: immunity)
E. Killing of fish/birds/mammals/bioaccumulation;
F. Risk to human health/contamination of rivers.
Biological control
Advantages
G. Highly specific to one pest
H. Long term control if predator: prey balance / Use in glasshouses
I. May be inexpensive in long term
J. No environmental contamination
Disadvantages
K. Slow build up/have to accept some damage to crop/not perfect/pest
not totally eradicated;
L. Few successful examples
M. Skill and research is expensive/detailed life cycle knowledge is
needed
N. Frequent input of predator needed / may only be of use in closed
systems (greenhouses)
O. Predator may become a pest itself/suitable e.g. (cane
toads/hedgehogs on Uist)
Any 10 from the 15 marks available

Jan 02

Nitrogen cycle mark scheme

(max. 6 for well annotated diagram)
A Nitrogen is needed to synthesise amino acids (which are built into
proteins.)
B Any sensible e.g. of protein use - antibodies/membrane proteins/
enzymes.
C Use of nitrogen to synthesise nucleic acids/DNA/RNA/ATP/
chlorophyll.
[2 max.]
D The nitrogen fixing bacteria.
E Convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogen containing
compounds/ammonium/amino acids (not: nitrates).
F This may be by free living bacteria in the soil.
G Or by bacteria living in the root nodules of
H Legumes/peas/beans/clover/lupins.
I Decomposers/putrefying/decay bacteria convert organic nitrogen
from dead organisms/ nitrogenous excretory products/urea/uric acid.
J Into ammonia.
K The nitrifying bacteria convert this ammonia into nitrites.
L And the nitrites into nitrates, which can be absorbed by plants.
(equivalent)
M The denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates into atmospheric nitrogen.
N This is a problem in water logged soils since the bacteria are
anaerobic.
P Which is why farmers drain wet land in order to increase soil fertility.
[8 max.]

(i) Describe the role of bacteria in the main processes of the

nitrogen cycle. [7]
(ii) Discuss the various ways in which human activities
influence the nitrogen
cycle. [3]
(Jan 08)
(a) (i) A Ref. to Putrefaction / putrefying / decomposers
B the conversion of (organic) nitrogen from dead organisms /
nitrogenous excretory products / urea into ammonia
C Nitrifying bacteria / nitrification
D convert ammonium to nitrite
E and nitrite is converted to nitrate, (which can be absorbed by
plants)
F nitrogen fixing bacteria / nitrogen fixation
G convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogen containing
compounds
H this may be by free living bacteria in the soil
I or by bacteria living in the root nodules of
J legumes / peas / beans / clover / lupins
K Denitrifying bacteria / dentrification
L convert nitrates into atmospheric nitrogen / nitrogen lost from
ecosystems
(Any 7 points)
(ii) M Fixing atmospheric nitrogen artificially by chemical processes
that convert it to fertilizers.
N Large amount of animal waste from stock rearing is used as
manure.
O Sewage disposal boosts organic nitrogen supplies
P Exploitation if microorganisms e.g. composting, silage etc.
Q Ploughing improves aeration / draining land and producing
aerobic conditions / planting fields of clover / nitrogen removed
when crops harvested. (not: ref. to eutrophication)
(Any 3 points)
(Total 10 marks)

Give an account of how the hormonal control of the kidney enables it

to function in osmoregulation in a mammal.
June 06 (a)

Kidney Essay
A Antidiuretic hormone
B Is secreted by the (posterior) lobe of the pituitary
C It is carried in the bloodstream to the (distal convoluted tubule and) collecting duct
D When the blood is more concentrated/low /high OP
E Detected by (osmo) receptors in hypothalamus
F ADH levels are higher / ADH released
G Higher ADH levels increase the permeability of the cells lining the DCT/CD to
water/explanation of water channels inserted into DCT membrane.
H Water moves out of the DCT/CD by osmosis
I
J
K
L

Into the interstitial fluid where it is rapidly removed by the capillary network
This occurs because the medulla of the kidney has a high solute concentration/low
Due to the countercurrent multiplier system operating in the Loop of Henl
This conserves water and produces small volumes/
concentrated urine

M When the blood is more dilute/high /low OP

N ADH levels are lower so less water is reabsorbed

P This allows more water to leave the tubule/collecting duct
Q Resulting in large volumes of dilute urine

Describe and explain the changes which occur to the glomerular

filtrate as it
passes from the Bowmans capsule to the ureter. June 07
A Ref. points B - G in proximal convoluted tubule. If two of
(b) following used in context;
B Water absorbed by Osmosis;
C Glucose absorbed by cotransport accept ATP required / active
transport;
D Some substances absorbed by diffusion, e.g. Vit A D K E
chloride ions; (example needed)
E Selective reabsorption / selective absorption;
F Water potential of filtrate decreases (not : ref. to surrounding
tissue);
G Pressure drops;
H Ref. to points I - M in (Descending) loop of Henle if two used
in context;
I Na+ levels up/water moves out (by osmosis if not above); (not :
salt)
J Water potential down;
K Ascending loop Na+ out / chloride out/walls impermeable to
water;
L Water potential up;
M Ref counter current;
N ADH acts on collecting duct/distal convoluted tubule;
O so water absorbed explained/because of increased
permeability;
P AVP e.g. ref urea out from PCT or from collecting duct to
lower WP/Ref. secretion creatinine, penicillin into
PCT/aquaporins.

Using a labelled diagram show the structure of the spinal cord.

Describe the nerve
pathways involved in the flexion of the arm in response to touching a
hot surface.
June 06
Spinal Cord - Diagram showing and correctly labelled dorsal and
ventral roots, grey matter 'butterfly', central canal.
A

Central canal;

Grey matter/white matter;

Dorsal/ventral roots;

Sensory neurone/motor neurone on same side;

Dorsal root ganglion;

Connector/intermediate/relay neurone;

Meninges/Cerebro/spinal fluid;
Max. 5

Decent quality of diagram

Heat/stimulus detected by receptor in skin;

J
K

Impulse/action potential travels to CNS via sensory neurone;

Synapses with connector/e.q. neurone;
(not: connects/messages)

Relay of impulse/AP to brain/ascending/descending tracts, i.e. idea of feedback to brain;

M And motor neurone;

N

Terminates at an effector

E.g. of an effector muscle/gland;

Which brings about a response.

Describe
(i) how the resting potential is maintained in the axon of a neurone,
(ii) how a nerve impulse is transmitted along a myelinated axon.
June 03
(b) A inside about -60 to -70mV (compared with outside);
B maintained by sodium (-potassium) pump;
C [K+] higher inside / [Na+] higher outside;
D membrane more permeable to K+ which diffuse /
leak / move out;
E all or nothing / threshold value;
F action potential occurs when membrane becomes
more permeable to Na+ and they flood in / sodium
gates;
G depolarisation;
H inside about +40mV (compared with outside);
I K+ then diffuse / move out and repolarise the
membrane;

J refractory period explained;

K local currents stimulate next part of neurilemma /
membrane / axon;
L myelin sheath increases distance over which local
currents can act to bring about depolarisation or
speeds up transmission by jumping from node to
node;
M depolarisation only at nodes of Ranvier;
(Any 9)

Using a labelled diagram of a synapse, explain

how impulses are transmitted across a synapse.
Jun 10

Decent drawing of a synapse.

/Na channels
B.C.D. With 6 labels (2 correct labels per mark)
E. When action potential arrives at axon terminal Ca2+ moves
into synaptic
knob
F. Synaptic vesicles fuse with presynaptic membrane
G. Neurotransmitter/Ach/eq released by exocytosis
H. Diffuses over synaptic cleft
I. ACh binds to receptors on post synaptic membrane
J. Causing the protein channels to open/Na gates open
K. Na+ flows in through channels
L. So depolarising the post synaptic membrane
M. With sufficient depolarisation, an impulse/action potential is
generated
in the post synaptic neurone
N. Some comment on the breakdown of ACh by (A)Ch-esterase
O. Diffusion back into axon terminal through presynaptic
membrane/Use of
ATP for re-synthesis and packaging
Any 10 from the 15 marks available

Describe and explain the shape of the population growth

curve of bacteria cultured in a batch fermenter. [10] (Jan 10)
A. Lag phase, Log phase / exponential- term in correct context;
B. Induction DNA / gene switching / DNA unzipping;
C. Enzyme production/protein synthesis;
D. Substrate breakdown / getting used to growth medium;
E. Slow population growth;
F. Rapid cell division;
G. Abundance of nutrients / oxygen / low levels of waste products / no
environmental resistance;
H. Cell production exceeds cell death;
(not: ref. birth/immigration/emigration)
I. Population doubles per unit time;
J. Population increases then begins to slow;
K. Lack of nutrients / accumulation waste products / environmental
resistance; (not: ref space)
L. Stationary phase;
M. Cell production = cell death; (not: ref birth, penalise once only)
N carrying capacity;
O. lack of nutrients / accumulation of waste products if not given as K;
P Death phase;
Q Cell death exceeds cell production;

The maintenance of soil fertility is mainly determined by

bacteria.
(i) Describe the importance of bacteria in the maintenance of
soil fertility. [8]
(ii) Suggest how farming practices can encourage the activity
of these bacteria. [2] (Jan 10)

A. Decomposition / putrefaction;
B. Recycling nutrients;
C. Breakdown of organic materials into inorganic / suitable e.g.;
D. Nitrifying bacteria;
E. Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter;
F. ammonium compounds to nitrites;
G. nitrites to nitrates;
H. ammonium compounds to nitrates if no F/G;
I. Nitrogen fixing bacteria;
J. atmospheric nitrogen converted into organic nitrogen / e.g.;
K. free living azotobacter;
L. rhizobium;
M. root nodules of (legumes);
N denitrification [Max 8]
O. encourage aerobic conditions (to stop denitrifyers) / ploughing;
P drainage for aerobic conditions to stop denitrifyers;
Q grow leguminous crops / add organic waste products / manure /
urea
etc;
[Max 2]