Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Autumn 2003
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Sample survey results:
11: How much of it did you read?
Didn't read
22.86
Read some
42.86
Read all
17.14
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57.14
Too long
5.71
Yes
8.57
Partly
40.00
No
14: 1=Article didn't help with my work;
7=Article was essential for my work
1
20.00
%
8.57
5.71
25.71
17.14
5
15: 1=Excellent for cross-training;
7=Useless for cross-training
8.57
%
8.57
11.43
2.86
20.00
5.71
14.29
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OR_03_003_0
Stephen A. Holditch
Schlumberger Fellow
Stephen A. Holditch is a Schlumberger Fellow and the companys theme manager for natural gas and heavy oil, as well as a production and reservoir engineering advisor. In 1977, he formed S. A. Holditch & Associates, Inc., which
was acquired by Schlumberger in 1997. After holding several positions with the
Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE), he became SPE President in 2002. The
SPE has honored him with the John Franklin Carll Award and the 1994 Lester C.
Uren award in recognition of distinguished achievement in petroleum engineering technology made by a member before reaching age 45. He also received the
ASME Rhodes Industry Leadership Award. Stephen was elected to the National
Academy of Engineering, the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences and the
Petroleum Engineering Academy of Distinguished Graduates at Texas A&M
University, College Station, Texas, USA, where he is currently a Professor Emeritus of petroleum engineering. Author of more than 100 technical articles, Stephen
received his PhD degree in petroleum engineering from Texas A&M University.
* Mark of Schlumberger.
Schlumberger
Oilfield Review
Executive Editor
Mark A. Andersen
Advisory Editor
Lisa Stewart
Senior Editors
Gretchen M. Gillis
Mark E. Teel
Contributing Editors
Rana Rottenberg
Malcolm Brown
Julian Singer
Design/Production
Herring Design
Steve Freeman
Illustration
Tom McNeff
Mike Messinger
George Stewart
Printing
Wetmore Printing Company
Curtis Weeks
Stage l
Stage ll
Gas
Water
Production time
38 Refracturing Works
On the cover:
Gathering lines carry natural gas to
a pumping station in Farmington, New
Mexico, USA. The station separates
liquid from the gas, which is then compressed for pipeline transport.
Useful links:
Schlumberger
www.slb.com
Oilfield Review Archive
www.slb.com/oilfieldreview
Oilfield Glossary
www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com
Stage lll
Well dewatered
Editors
Matt Garber
Don Williamson
Address editorial
correspondence to:
Oilfield Review
225 Schlumberger Drive
Sugar Land, Texas 77478 USA
(1) 281-285-7847
Fax: (1) 281-285-8519
E-mail: andersen@sugarland.oilfield.slb.com
Autumn 2003
Volume 15
Number 3
Advisory Panel
Abdulla I. Al-Daalouj
Saudi Aramco
Udhailiyah, Saudi Arabia
Syed A. Ali
ChevronTexaco E&P Technology Co.
Houston, Texas, USA
George King
BP
Houston, Texas
Eteng A. Salam
PERTAMINA
Jakarta, Indonesia
Shallow-gas zone
Sjur Talstad
Statoil
Stavanger, Norway
Richard Woodhouse
Independent consultant
Surrey, England
77 Contributors
81 New Books and Coming in Oilfield Review
Natural gas has come a long way from the days when
it was just a by-product of the search for oil, a nuisance
that was removed by aring. Within a generation, it
could become the worlds most important fuel because
150
125
100
75
50
Oil
Gas
25
0
1980
1990
2010
2000
2020
2030
Year
> Expected oil and natural gas consumption. Some experts believe gas consumption will exceed that of oil by about 2025, when put in consistent units of
barrels of oil equivalent per day (BOE/D). Future estimates indicate prediction
ranges. (Adapted from Watts, reference 1.)
Oileld Review
61.04
7.15
North America
12.61
56.06
Asia and
Pacific
11.84
7.08
Europe
and Eurasia
Africa
South and
Central America
Middle East
> Proven natural gas reserves at the end of 2002, by region. Russia holds about 78% of the reserves of Europe and Eurasia. The Middle East is the other
region containing large reserves of natural gas. (Adapted from BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2003, reference 3.)
Autumn 2003
North America
3000
Natural gas production, billion m3
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1977
1982
1987
1992
1997
2002
Year
> Distribution of natural gas production by region. During this period, natural
gas consumption showed a similar trend, because most gas was consumed
near where it was produced. However, trade between regions is expected to
increase in the future. (Adapted from BP Statistical Review of World Energy
2003, reference 3.)
1. Watts P: Building BridgesFullling the Potential
for Gas in the 21st Century, speech delivered at the
World Gas Conference, Tokyo, Japan, June 3, 2003,
www.shell.com/static/mediaen/downloads/speeches/
PBWwgc03062003.pdf
2. Watts, reference 1.
3. BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2003. London,
England: BP (June 2003): 20. BP conversion factor used
for this statistic.
4. BP study, reference 3: 25.
5. Watts, reference 1.
6. Cottrill A: GTL Seeking Its Big Break into Stardom,
Upstream (March 8, 2002): 2425.
75.34
39.33
11.60
57.97
5.97
14.16
108.80
22.05
7.45
20.20
20.56
5.93
4.08
4.28
8.40
6.95
4.90
14.50
8.45
3.10
5.48
6.20
6.34
2.85
7.95
4.15
6.78
23.40
9.72
USA
Canada
Mexico
South and Central America
5.34
Pipeline
LNG
> Major trade movements for natural gas in 2002. Gas is traveling ever greater distances, both by pipeline and as cargoes of liqueed natural gas (LNG).
Most of the current shipments, shown here in units of billions of cubic meters, remain within two or three large regions. (Adapted from BP Statistical
Review of World Energy 2003, reference 3.)
Oileld Review
Autumn 2003
LNG, but directly into premium-grade liquid products through GTL technology aboard a vessel.
Such GTL products would have ready local and
regional markets.
Deep Gas
The physical difculties involved in nding deepwater gas are the same as those for nding deepwater oil. However, developing the gas eld and
getting the gas to market at a reasonable price
present special problems. A project that may
prove to be a blueprint for the exploitation of a
group of small elds is the Canyon Express project
in the Gulf of Mexico. Canyon Express, which
came on stream earlier this year, uses a common
gathering system to take gas from elds owned by
three different companiesTotal, BP and
Marathon.17 The shared infrastructure means
lower costs for each company.
Exploration teams are not only drilling in
deeper water, they are also revisiting acreage in
the shallower waters of the Gulf of Mexico
continental shelf and drilling there to much
greater depths. The shallow-water section of the
Gulf of Mexico, less than 300 m [1000 ft] deep, is
peppered with wells and is generally thought of as
an area in decline. But the US Department of the
Interiors Minerals Management Service (MMS)
believes that there may be about 300 billion m3
[10.5 Tcf] of natural gas at much greater depths in
the same area.
The US government proposed nancial incentives to companies to drill at depth in the region.
Under the proposal, the MMS would provide
royalty suspension when companies take the risk
of exploring and developing deep gas deposits in
shallow-water areas that they have already leased.
Around 60% of the estimated 300 billion m3 of new
gas is thought to be below existing leases, with the
rest in blocks that are not currently leased.
El Paso Production, which has experience in deepgas drilling onshore, has already drilled deep wells
in the Gulf and by last year was producing 9.7 million m3/d [340 million scf/D] from ve wells in
sands at depths of 5360 m to 5790 m [17,600 ft to
19,000 ft]. An advantage for companies working
in the area is that the infrastructure built for
shallow-water nds over the years is still there.
The new deep wells can also use these facilities,
keeping costs down.
Gas Hydrates
No matter how carefully operators minimize their
costs, eventually traditional sources of hydrocarbons may no longer be enough to satisfy the
worlds demand for energy. With that in mind,
Natural gas in coal formations is an important resource that is helping address the worlds growing energy
needs. In many areas, market conditions and technological advances have made the exploitation of this
resource a viable option. The unique characteristics of coalbed reservoirs demand novel approaches in well
construction, formation evaluation, completion and stimulation uids, modeling and reservoir development.
John Anderson
Mike Simpson
Nexen Canada Ltd
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Paul Basinski
El Paso Production
Houston, Texas, USA
Andrew Beaton
Alberta Geological Survey
Edmonton, Alberta
Charles Boyer
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
Daren Bulat
Satyaki Ray
Don Reinheimer
Greg Schlachter
Calgary, Alberta
Leif Colson
Tom Olsen
Denver, Colorado, USA
Zachariah John
Perth, Western Australia, Australia
Riaz Khan
Houston, Texas
Nick Low
Clamart, France
Barry Ryan
British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines
Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
David Schoderbek
Burlington Resources
Calgary, Alberta
Oileld Review
Autumn 2003
2000
20,000
1800
18,000
1600
16,000
1400
14,000
1200
12,000
1000
10,000
800
8000
600
6000
400
4000
200
2000
0
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
Year
> US coalbed methane (CBM) production (blue) and number of producing wells (red).
far as possible to extract the coal. When the operation became too dangerous, these early coal diggers would move to another location along the
outcrop.1 From excavation sites in Britain, it has
been determined that as early as 50 AD, Romans
mined coal to fuel heating systems and smelting
operations. Eventually, pits were dug to access
the coal.
Modernization of mining methods, including
room and pillar, and longwall mining techniques,
enabled larger and deeper operations, exposing
mine workers to a variety of hazards. One signicant hazard in coal mining is methane gasa
by-product of the coal thermal maturation
process that becomes a serious problem in deeper
mines. Mine operators alleviated dangerous
conditions in the subsurface by using mineventilation techniques. Air pumped into a mine
through mineshafts and ventilation pipes
provided oxygen to workers and dissipated the
poisonous and explosive methane. Mining companies also drill coal-degasication wells into coal
seams to liberate methane gas prior to mining the
coal. Modern ventilation and degasification
techniques paved the way for a safer and more
productive mining industry. Coal mining in many
areas is still not completely safe, so degassing
the mines using wellbores ahead of mining
operations is an extremely important technique
to help reduce the number of mining accidents.
Coal became the energy behind the industrial
revolution in Western Europe and across the
world, and remains an important resource today.
However, there is more to the value of coal
than just burning it for heat and electricity; the
natural gas that once was merely a hazard can
be produced and distributed like conventional
natural gas, providing a clean-burning fuel.
Western
Washington
Coal Region
Northern
Appalachian
North Central
Coal Region
Bighorn
Wind River
Greater
Green River
Powder
River
Uinta
Hanna
Carbon
Piceance
Central
Appalachian
Forest City
Illinois
Richmond
Kaiparowits
Plateau
Denver
Raton
Cherokee
Arkoma
San Juan
Tertiary
Tertiary-Cretaceous
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
0
0
200
400
600
800 km
Gulf Coast
Black
Warrior
Cahaba/Coose
> US basins containing coalbed methane reserves. Major coal basins are shown with the associated periods of coal deposition.
10
Oileld Review
> Worldwide coalbed methane activity. By 2001, 35 (red dots) of the 69 coal-bearing countries had investigated CBM development.
Autumn 2003
> Peat-forming environments. Peat is formed by continual subaqueous deposition of organic matter in
environments where waters are poorly oxygenated. The accumulation, burial and preservation of peat
occur in a range of environments that include swamps and overbank areas. These may or may not be
marine inuenced. (These photographs of the Loxahatchee River, Florida, USA, are from the South
Florida Water Management District Web site: www.sfwmd.gov/org/oee/vcd/photos/hires/hilist.html)
11
Thermally-derived
methane
Volatile matter
driven off
Biogenic methane
Nitrogen
Carbon dioxide
Lignite
Sub-bituminous
Bituminous
Anthracite
Graphite
> Gas generation in coal. As temperature and pressure increase, coal rank
changes along with its ability to generate and store methane. Through time,
dewatering and devolatization occur, causing shrinkage of the coal matrix
and creation of endogenetic cleats.
Stage l
Stage ll
Stage lll
Well dewatered
Gas
Water
Production time
> Coalbed production characteristics. During Stage I, production is dominated by water. Gas production increases during Stage II, as water in the
coal is produced and the relative permeability to gas increases. During
Stage III, both water and gas production decline.
600
1000
500
800
600
400
Anthracite
Medium-volatile bituminous
High-volatile bituminous A
High-volatile bituminous B
200
400
Coal isotherm
8% porosity to gas
6% porosity to gas
4% porosity to gas
300
200
Sandstones
100
0
0
200
400
Pressure, psia
600
800
1000
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
> Sorptive capacity of coal. As coal maturity increases from bituminous to anthracite, the sorptive capacity of coal increases. Tests conducted on coal
samples to relate adsorbed gas to pressureunder isothermal conditionsassess how CBM wells might produce over time. The plot shows
typical responses in bituminous and anthracite coals (left). The gas storage capacity of coal can be signicantly greater than that of sandstones (right).
12
Oileld Review
Autumn 2003
150,000
This storing ability gives coals unique earlytime production behavior that is related to desorption, not pressure depletion. Coals may
contain water or gas, or both, in the cleat and
natural fracture systems, and gas sorbed onto the
internal surface of the coal matrix. Any water
present in the cleat system must be produced to
reduce the reservoir pressure in the cleat system
before signicant volumes of gas can be produced. Dewatering increases the permeability to
gas within the cleats and fractures, and causes
the gas in the matrix to desorb, diffuse through
the matrix and move into the cleat system, resulting in CBM production proles that are quite
unique (previous page, middle).
Initial production is dominated by water. As
the water moves out of the cleats and fractures,
gas saturation and production increase and water
production falls. When permeability to gas eventually stabilizes, the coal is considered dewatered
and gas production peaks. From this point, both
water and gas production slowly decline, with gas
being the dominant produced uid. The speed at
which the reservoir dewaters depends on several
factors, including original gas and water saturations, cleat porosity, relative and absolute permeability of the coal, and well spacing.
Some CBM wells produce dry gas from the
start. For example, some wells in Alberta and
British Columbia, Canada, and the underpressured portion of the San Juan basin are comparable to conventional reservoirs and produce
water-free at irreducible water saturation. Dry
gas coalbed production typically declines from
the start, exhibiting Stage III behavior.
As with all gas reservoirs, the permeability
controls production and largely dictates the
amount of gas reserves in coal seams. Local variations in cleat and natural-fracture conductivity
and densityhow closely cleats or fractures are
spacedlead to wide variations in well performance within some areas of development (above
right). For example, 23 wells in a eld in the
Black Warrior basin, USA, with similar coal thicknesses and original gas contents, were drilled and
completed identically, at equal well spacings, but
show diversity in production performance
because of the local variations in cleat conductivitypermeability. Also, in this basin, cleat and
natural-fracture conductivity are greatly affected
by the stress on the reservoir. Field-test data conrm the inverse relationship between closure
stress and coal permeability; increasing closure
stress from 1000 to 5000 psi [6.9 to 34.4 MPa]
decreased permeability from 10 to 1 mD.
125,000
100,000
75,000
50,000
25,000
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Time, months
> Local well-performance variations in a group of 23 similar wells in a eld in the Black Warrior basin,
USA. In this area, the differences are attributed to local changes in cleat and natural-fracture permeabilities. The plot shows cumulative gas production through time for each of the 23 wells.
13
Moisture
in.
16
Gamma Ray
Ash
Clay
Fixed Carbon
Quartz
Volatile Matter
Water
ELAN volumes
50
Low-volume
bituminous
Sub-bituminous
1 10
High-volume
bituminous
vol/vol
Medium-volume
bituminous
150 0
API
Semi-anthracite
X060
X070
17
24
36
40
% Volatile matter
Volatiles + fixed carbon
High Resolution
Photoelectric Effect
Capture Cross Section
Gamma
Ray
Density
Neutron
g/cm3
vol/vol
Ash
2.75
0.05
12
400
Fixed Carbon
1.35
0.45
0.2
20
Volatile Matter
0.90
1.00
0.5
Moisture
1.00
1.00
0.5
barn/cm3
API
> An example of proximate analysis and coal rank determination from logs in India. In Track 1, the
caliper indicates that the hole is moderately washed out but still smooth. Track 2 shows good agreement
between the log-derived proximate analysis, using the parameters given in the table, and core-derived
analyses. Track 3 compares coal rank from logs, after applying a vertical average, with coal rank from
core. Coal rank is determined by the proportion of volatile material in the dry, ash-free coal, using the
cutoffs shown (bottom).
14
Oileld Review
Orientation North
Depth, m
deg
90
X50
50
Fault
45
Bedding
True Dip
40
35
X55
30
Fault location
25
20
15
10
100 m
> Percent of volatile materialdry and ash freeand coal rank versus depth for the Jharia well. Logderived data (red curves) and core-derived data (blue dots) are shown only in the coal seams. The
core-derived data, in particular, suggest a change in trend (blue line) probably associated with a fault
observed on the FMI image (inset) and in other data at that depth.
Alberta
Mannville Group
Horseshoe Canyon
Group
Belly River Group
Sub-bituminous coal
Scollard Formation
Kootenay Group
Luscar Group
Lignite
200
100
400 km
200
300 miles
Edmonton
Calgary
Edmonton
Calgary
> Alberta coals. Maps show the distribution of major coal seams (left) and coal rank (right) in Alberta.
Autumn 2003
15
In the simplest technique of proximate analysis from logs, the bulk density is interpreted
for ash content, which is then correlated with
the other proximates for each rank of coal.
Addition of the neutron, gamma ray and photoelectric logs makes the analysis more general
and less dependent on local correlations.
Unfortunately, some coals tend to wash out
while drilling, leading to oversize boreholes
and large borehole effects on the logs. In addition, the composition of the components, in
particular ash, can vary, creating some uncertainty in the parameters to be used
in interpretation.
An alternative technique is based on elemental analysis from neutron-induced gamma ray
spectroscopy. Both the ECS Elemental Capture
Spectroscopy sonde and the RST Reservoir
Saturation Tool device estimate the quantity of
minerals in the coal. The advantage of neutron-induced gamma ray spectroscopy is that
the majority of the signals of interest arise
from elements in the formation and are therefore unaffected by the borehole. In addition,
the components of the ash can be more precisely dened from the mineralogy.
Neutron-induced gamma ray spectroscopy
tools emit high-energy neutrons that are then
slowed down and captured by elements in the
India
80
80
70
70
60
y = -0.834x + 75.471
R2 = 0.997
50
Fixed carbon
Volatiles
Moisture
40
30
y = -0.171x + 24.034
R2 = 0.944
20
10
60
y = -0.7762x + 75.575
R2 = 0.8662
50
Fixed carbon
Volatiles
Moisture
40
30
y = -0.2245x + 24.286
R2 = 0.3507
20
10
y = 0.005x + 0.495
0
0
10
20
30
40
y = -0.0014x + 0.1816
0
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
> Proximate analysis based on ash content. Excellent correlations have been found with data from three wells in the Fruitland coal interval in the
San Juan basin (left). The correlations from the Jharia well in India are satisfactory for xed carbon but poor for volatile matter (right).
16
Oileld Review
Counts
Gd
H
Fe
Si
Si
Cl
Ca
Fe
Ti
Gd
Cl
Inelastic
X00
Energy
X50
X00
Oxide Closure
Coal
Si
Ca
Fe
Ti
Gd
m
X50
SpectroLith Model
Pyrite (wt %)
Carbonate (wt %)
Sand (wt %)
Coal (wt %)
Clay (wt %)
> The interpretation steps for obtaining mineralogy from gamma rays. The
detector receives a spectrum of gamma rays that is compared with standards
for each element to obtain their relative yields. The yields are converted into
elemental concentrations by applying a normalization factor computed from
the oxide-closure model. Finally, the SpectroLith model estimates mineral
percentages from elements.
Autumn 2003
17
scf/ton
500
Well Cleated
Core Moisture
Mineral Ash
wt %
0.4 0
wt %
wt %
wt %
scf/ton
Poorly Cleated
500
MMcf/acre
50 0
Partly Cleated
500
Mineral Ash
0
wt %
scf/ton
1 0
MMcf/acre
0.1
Openhole Resistivity
ft3/ft3
50 0
SFL Resistivity
scf/ton
ohm-m
500 0.2
0.1
2000
> A typical coal evaluation using neutron-induced gamma ray spectroscopy from the RST Reservoir
Saturation Tool. Tracks 1 and 2 show proximate analyses from logs and core. Track 3 shows gas
content and cumulative gas content from core and from logs using two different transforms. One is
the Langmuir Rank equation developed by Hawkins et al, reference 8, main text. The other is a local
equation based on ash content, temperature and pressure. Track 4 indicates the cleat intensity.
18
presence of calcite and pyrite indicates a welldeveloped cleat system in which the ow of
water has caused secondary mineralization.
However, large quantities of calcite and pyrite
suggest that the cleats have been lled or that
the coal is of low grade. Quartz and clay have
also been observed in cleats, but large volumes of these minerals and a large total ash
volume indicate a lower-ranked coal. Such
coals will have lost less water and volatile
matter during coalication and will therefore
have fewer cleats.4 These observations can be
used to identify well-cleated coal by, for example, calcite percentages between 2 and 7%, and
pyrite percentages between 0.5 and 5%. Poorly
cleated coals have total ash percentages above
45%, clay percentages above 25% and quartz
percentages above 10%. Mineral percentages
that fall between those of well-cleated coals
and poorly cleated coals indicate partly cleated
coals.5 The rules and cutoffs can vary by area
and should be established locally from production data.
Oileld Review
Depth, ft
Gamma Ray
0
API
200 0
10
Caliper
6
Photoelectric Factor
in.
g/cm3
16 1
X450
2.0
1.8
R2 = 0.9025
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
Carbon/oxygen ratio
X500
> Comparison of density from an openhole log (red) and that derived from the RST carbon/oxygen ratio
(black), after making the best-t correlation shown in the plot (inset). The openhole density suggests a
coal at X447, but the carbon/oxygen data show this to be incorrect and to be caused instead by the
washout seen on the caliper.
The coal rank and gas content can be estimated based on proximate analysis. Cleat
intensity indicates permeability and hence
productivity. Thus, neutron-induced gamma
ray spectroscopy, in combination with other
logs, provides a continuous record of the
major factors needed to evaluate a coal seam
and any surrounding sands shortly after the
well has been drilled (previous page).
Elemental analysis has an additional role in
cased holes, where the RST carbon/oxygen
ratio is the most accurate logging method for
Autumn 2003
19
Density
125 mm
375
0
375
Gamma Ray
0
API
2650
Orientation North
Bit Size
125 mm
kg/m3
1000
120
240
360
Depth, m
Caliper
Orientation North
0
120
240
360
Bedding
True Dip
150
deg
90
X49.6
X50.2
X50.6
X50.8
X51.0
> High-resolution measurements in thin-bedded coals. Many coals are thin-bedded and may not be
identied with standard measurements. The FMI Fullbore Formation MicroImager tool has a vertical
resolution of 0.2 in. [0.5 cm], which allows analysts to image thin coals. Track 1 contains gamma ray,
caliper and borehole orientation data. A comparison between the density log and the FMI static image
is displayed in Track 2. The FMI tool clearly identies the thin coal at X50.0 m, where the density log
does not. Pyrite inclusions that dramatically affect the density at X51.0 m appear as dark spots on the
FMI image. Track 3 contains the FMI dynamic image, and Track 4 displays dip information.
20
Oileld Review
Hydrostatic
Pressure Pressure
Hydrostatic
kPa
kPa
1500
Gamma Ray
Gamma Ray
0
API
150
API
Caliper Caliper
125
125
mm
mm
375
125
mm
mm
375
Hydrostatic
Hydrostatic
gradient gradient
SphericalSpherical
Permeability
Permeability
15000.2
0.2
1000
1000
1500.2
3750.2
3750.2
XX15
mD
mD
FormationFormation
Pressure Pressure
AIT Resistivity
AIT Resistivity
10-in. 10-in.
0.2
ohm-m
ohm-m
AIT Resistivity
AIT Resistivity
30-in. 30-in.
0.2
ohm-m
ohm-m
0.2
ohm-m
ohm-m
kPa
1000
1000
Neutron Porosity
Neutron Porosity
m3/m3
m3/m3
0.15
0.15
Density Porosity
Density Porosity
AIT Resistivity
AIT Resistivity
90-in. 90-in.
kPa
m3/m3
m3/m3
Photoelectric
Photoelectric
Effect Effect
2000 0 2000 0
10
10
XX15
Test
Test
position #2position #2
Test
Test
position #1position #1
XX25
925
XX25
Test Position #2
Specialized Analysis PlotSpherical Flow Buildup
915
905
15157
15017
14877
14737
895
Pressure, kPa
Test Position
#2
k sph = 1.289 mD
p int = 916.9 kPa
885
14597
14457
875
14317
865
14177
855
14037
13897
845
13757
835
13617
825
0
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
1e+03
13477
13337
13197
Test Position #2
Flow Regime Identification PlotCBM Buildup
13057
12917
12777
1e+02
Pressure
Derivative
12637
12497
12357
1e+01
12217
12077
11937
1e+00
11797
11657
Time, s
1e- 01
1e- 01
1e + 00
1e + 01
Delta T, s
1e + 02
1e + 03
Pressure/Temperature/Resistivity
E 500
Pressure (kPa) - PASG
v
Temperature (C) - PAQT
e 13.00
n 0.00
Resistivity (ohm-m) t
Pump Out Volume (C3) - POPV
s 0
1500
15.00
0.00
80,000
E
v
e
n
t
s
Gas
Detection
Fluid
Fraction
High
Water
Medium
Oil
Low
Mud
Fluid Color
> Pressure and permeability from the MDT Modular Formation Dynamics Tester device. Nexen Canada Ltd. ran the MDT tool on
a well to test coal seams in the Alberta plains. The MDT test position 2 can be located on the log (top). Hydrostatic pressures are
plotted in Track 1, along with the gamma ray and caliper data. Results from the spherical ow buildup permeability analysis (middle
left) are plotted in Track 2, along with the resistivity data. Buildup data were also used to identify a spherical ow regime (bottom
left). Formation pressure determined from the buildup analysis is plotted in Track 3, along with porosity and lithology information.
The OFA Optical Fluid Analyzer plot (right) shows pressure, temperature and pumpout volume during sampling, and uid recovery changes during the test. Drilling mud was recovered initially (brown), then water (blue) with some possible small shows of
gas (white).
Autumn 2003
21
Bed Boundary
True Dip
0
mm
375
mm
deg
90
Drilling-Induced Fracture
True Dip
Caliper 1
125
90
Cross Bedding
True Dip
Bit Size
125
deg
375
0
deg
90
Caliper 2
125
mm
375
Density
Gamma Ray
Measured depth, m
API
150
1000
deg
Gamma Ray
45 to 75 API
Gamma Ray
< 45 API
20
m3/m3
2650
Neutron Porosity
Borehole Drift
0
kg/m3
0.2
ohm-m
Resistive Fracture
True Dip
0.2
ohm-m
Orientation North
0
Photoelectric Factor
120
240
360
10
Coal
Fracture Aperture
2e-05
cm
After-Frac Survey
Resistive
0.2
deg
90
Unconformable
Bed Boundary
True Dip
2000
FMI Dynamic Image
90
2000
deg
Background
Background
Scandium
Coal
Coal
Scandium
Antimony
Antimony
Iridium
Iridium
Conductive
0
deg
90
Perfs
XX70
XX75
Fault drag
XX80
XX85
Fractures in coal
Perfs
> Analysis of Alberta plains coal seams. A fault was identied during the FMI image interpretation of this Burlington well at a depth of XX79.5 m
(Track 4). Faults and associated fracturing have a direct impact on the permeability of coal seams. Gamma ray and caliper data are displayed in
Track 1 with borehole orientation. Track 2 contains porosity and lithology information. Fracture apertures exceeding 0.01 cm [0.004 in.] were calculated from FMI data and are displayed with resistivity data in Track 3. Track 4 contains the dynamic FMI image from which bedding and fractures
planes were picked. Track 5 shows the dip plots from the interpretation of Track 4. An after-frac survey is included on the right to demonstrate the
vertical growth of hydraulic fractures from the perforated coals. The presence of radioactive tracers below the perforations indicates downward
fracture growth.
22
Oileld Review
Autumn 2003
125 mm 375
Orientation North
Bit Size
125 mm 375 0
Gamma
Ray
0 API 150
120
240
360 0
deg
90
deg
Measured depth, m
Caliper
Measured depth, m
90
XX59
125 mm 375
Face Cleat
Bit Size
Orientation North
125 mm 375 0
Gamma
Ray
120
240
360 0
0 API 150
deg
90
deg
90
XX20
Shear
fractures
Face cleat
XX21
XX60
Butt cleat
Face cleat
XX22
Plains Coal
Foothills Coal
Face cleat
Butt cleat
Shear fracture
Bedding
> Comparison of FMI images from the Alberta plains coal and British Columbia foothills coal. The
image of a plains coal shows clear face- and butt-cleat development (top left). The images of the
foothills coal help geologists identify signicant shear fracturing (top right). Outcrop exposures of
Alberta plains and British Columbia foothills coals show bedding planes, face and butt cleats, and
shear fractures. Features are marked on the outcrop photographs. The foothills coal (bottom right)
shows extensive shear fractures, while the plains coal does not (bottom left). Shear fracturing
degrades coal permeability.
23
Depth, m
Orientation North
0
120
240
360
FMI Dynamic Image
Resistive
Conductive
Bedding
True Dip
0
Maximum horizontal
stress direction
Minimum horizontal
stress direction
Borehole
breakout
deg
90
Drilling-induced
fractures S45E
Induced
fracture
Borehole
breakout N45E
XX92
XX93
> In-situ stress determination from borehole images. During drilling operations, stress release around
the borehole causes induced fractures and borehole breakout (left). These phenomena indicate the
direction of in-situ stresses. The orientations of these features, interpreted from FMI data (right), are
used in hydraulic fracture treatment and deviated well designs.
Bed Boundary
True Dip
Bit Size
125
mm
375
0
Caliper 1
125
mm
Density
Caliper 2
Measured depth, m
125
mm
375 1000
API
Gamma Ray
45 to 75 API
Gamma Ray
< 45 API
2650
Neutron Porosity
Gamma Ray
0
kg/m3
150
m3/m3
Coal
ohm-m
2000
Orientation North
10
Photoelectric Factor
0
deg
90
Conductive Fracture
True Dip
375
ohm-m
2000
Fracture Aperture
2e-05
cm
0.2
120
240
deg
90
Drilling-Induced Fracture
True Dip
360 0
deg
90
Resistive Fracture
FMI Dynamic Image
True Dip
Resistive
Conductive
0
deg
90
XX16
XX18
Missing Core
XX20
XX22
XX24
> Montage of British Columbia foothills coal interval. The high degree of fracturing in the foothills
coals can make fullbore core recovery difcult. The interval shown was cored, but a short but crucial
section of core was lost from XX19 m to XX20 m. The FMI image, acquired across the interval, showed
that the missing core interval was heavily fractured. Gamma ray and caliper data are displayed in
Track 1 with borehole orientation. Track 2 contains porosity and lithology information. Fracture apertures calculated from FMI data are generally lower than in the plains coals and are displayed with
resistivity data in Track 3. Track 4 contains the dynamic FMI image from which bedding and fracture
planes were picked. Track 5 shows the dip plots from the interpretation of Track 4.
24
Oileld Review
Moved Water
Moved Hydrocarbon
ohm-m 2000
Bit Size
125
mm
375
Measured depth, m
mm
375
Gamma Ray
0
API
Gamma Ray
45 to 75 API
Gamma Ray
< 45 API
150
Water
ohm-m 2000
Gas
Neutron Porosity
Caliper
125
0.2
0.2
Quartz
m3/m3
Flushed Zone
Resistivity
20
Calcite
ohm-m 2000
kg/m3
Coal
ohm-m 2000
Coal
Outer Invasion
Diameter
Inner Invasion
Diameter
mm
0
Static Youngs
Modulus
0
GPa
100
Poissons Ratio
6000 0
0.5 1
Bound Water
Illite
Volumetric
Analysis
vol/vol
XX70
XX75
XX80
XX85
> Invasion analysis in the Alberta plains coals. Using a ramp-style invasion model and AIT Array
Induction Imager Tool data, the plains coals show invasion up to 3.5 m [11.5 ft] in Track 4. Increased
invasion is associated with intervals showing tensional fracturing on the FMI images. The 1-ft resolution AIT measurement was able to resolve the effects of invasion near a fault seen on FMI images at
XX79.5 m. Log analysts use this information to gauge the amount of invasion, which may be related to
reservoir permeability. Track 1 displays gamma ray and caliper data. Track 2 contains porosity and
lithology information, and Track 3 contains resistivity data. Track 4 shows the invasion calculation, and
Track 5 contains mechanical properties data, which show a higher Poissons ratio and lower Youngs
modulus in the coals. Track 6 displays ELANPlus Elemental Log Analysis lithology results.
Autumn 2003
25
Moved Water
Moved Hydrocarbon
ohm-m 2000
Bit Size
125
mm
375
Measured depth, m
mm
375
Gamma Ray
0
API
Gamma Ray
45 to 75 API
Gamma Ray
< 45 API
150
Water
ohm-m 2000
Gas
Neutron Porosity
Caliper
125
0.2
0.2
Quartz
m3/m3
Flushed Zone
Resistivity
20
Calcite
ohm-m 2000
kg/m3
Coal
ohm-m 2000
Coal
Outer Invasion
Diameter
Inner Invasion
Diameter
mm
0
Static Youngs
Modulus
0
GPa
100
Poissons Ratio
6000 0
0.5 1
Bound Water
Illite
Volumetric
Analysis
vol/vol
XX00
XX05
> Invasion analysis in British Columbia foothills coals. The foothills coals show relatively low invasion,
between 1 and 2 m [3 and 6 ft]. Shallow invasion proles are observed in zones where the FMI image
showed a high degree of shear fractures. Track 1 displays gamma ray and caliper data. Track 2
contains porosity and lithology information and Track 3 contains resistivity data. Track 4 shows the
invasion calculation, and Track 5 contains mechanical properties data, which show a higher Poissons
ratio and lower Youngs modulus in the coals. Track 6 displays ELANPlus lithology results.
26
Oileld Review
Walsenburg
Ap
Basin axis
is
Ar
Colorado
New Mexico
Arc
Sa
ngr
e d
e
Las
C ri s t
A
Arc nimas
h
o Mou
ntains
ch
Autumn 2003
Holocene and
Alluvium, slopewash and
Quaternary
landslide material
Basalt flows
Huerfano formation
Middle Tertiary intrusives
Tertiary
Cuchara formation
Poison Canyon formation
Raton formation
Vermejo formation
Trinidad sandstone and
Cretaceous
Pierre shale undivided
Pierre shale/Niobrara undivided
Precambrian rock undivided
Raton basin boundary
14. LiteCRETE cement is a unique system based on the principle of trimodal particle sizes. At low cement densities,
it exhibits compressive strength similar to normal density
cements and maintains signicantly lower permeabilities. For more on LiteCRETE slurry:
Low N, Daccord G and Bedel J-P: Designing Fibered
Cement Slurries for Lost Circulation Applications: Case
Histories, paper SPE 84617, presented at the SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver,
Colorado, USA, October 58, 2003.
Junaidi E, Junaidi H, Abbas R and Malik BZ: Fibers In
Cement Form Network to Cure Lost Circulation, World
Oil (June 2003): 4850.
Walton D, Ward E, Frenzel T and Dearing H: Drilling
Fluid and Cementing Improvements Reduced Per-Ft
Drilling Costs by 10%, World Oil (April 2003): 3947.
Raton
basin
ap
rra
Gra
nde
Raton
Sie
0
0
20 km
15 miles
> Surface geology of the Raton basin. The 2200-square mile [5700-km2] basin contains two coal reservoir systems: the primary production target, the Vermejo formation coals (pale yellow), at an average
depth of 2000 ft [610 m], and the overlying Raton formation coals (light brown), which is a secondary
coal target. Tertiary igneous sills and dikes of the Spanish Peaks intrusion (magenta) have altered
coals locally. (Adapted from Flores and Bader, reference 18.).
Borehole images have been used along with outcrop and core data in a comprehensive effort to
model the basins fracture systems.20
27
Ash
Fixed Carbon
Moved Water
Crossover
ohm-m
Density Porosity
2000
Depth, ft
16
API
ohm-m
2000
ohm-m
Epithermal Neutron
Porosity
Calcite
g/cm3
Quartz
1.7
Density 1-in.
ohm-m
g/cm3
2000 1
Pyrite
0.05
Carbonate
Dolomite
Density 2-in.
2000 1
Water
Effective Porosity
ft3/ft3
Hydrocarbon
Water
Gas
8
0.3
Gamma Ray
0
0.05
Photoelectric Factor
2000
Formation Water
Resistivity
ft3/ft3
Moisture
Irreducible Water
Caliper
in.
ohm-m
0.3
2000
Gas
ohm-m
Volatiles
Moved Hydrocarbon
Coal
Bound Water
1.7
Illite
Intrinsic Permeability
Water Saturation
ft3/ft3
Volume Water
0.25
ft3/ft3
Effective Porosity
0.25
ft3/ft3
Irreducible Water
Flushed Zone
0.25
ft3/ft3
Poorly
Cleated
XX00
10
mD
10
Permeablility to Gas
0.01
Well
Cleated
mD
Permeablility to Water
0.01
Partially
Cleated
mD
10
Hydrocarbon
Water
Irreducible Water
Water
Saturation
ft3/ft3
XX50
0.35
0.14
0.94
0.35
0.06
0.44
0.35
0.13
0.08
1.00
0.35
0.35
0.07
0.06
0.41
0.64
0.35
0.35
0.10
0.65
0.11
0.57
0.35
0.11
0.35
0.12
0.48
0.44
0.35
0.01
Integrated Coal
Footage
Estimated Gas
0
Mcf/day 300
Estimated Gas
Mcf/day
33.50
161.07
27.50
143.49
1.00
> Characterizing coal and noncoal resources. With ECS Elemental Capture Spectroscopy and Platform Express data, an
ELANPlus analysis is computed. Lithology is presented in Track 4. Proximate (Track 5) and cleat analysis (Track 6) provide
information on coal quality. Computed permeabilities are in Track 7 and estimated gas production is displayed in Track 8. El
Paso also uses the ELANPlus processing to calculate the reserves in the surrounding sandstones and siltstones.
28
Oileld Review
Autumn 2003
950
50
API
in.
20
Minimum 5
Cross
Tool
Azimuth
Energy
0
100
deg
50
AnisotropySlowness
150
Energy
Difference Hole Diameter Quality
s/ ft
950
Gamma Ray
100
Anisotropy Time
Fast Shear Azimuth
100
Anisotropy
360
Azimuth Uncertainty
Hole Azimuth
Maximum
Cross 0
deg
360
Fast Shear Azimuth
Energy
Gamma Ray
<
75 API
-90
deg
90 Slowness
0
100
>16
8-16
4- 8
2- 4
0- 2
Time
NW 8
Depth, ft
maximum velocity, and the other along the direction of minimum velocity. With two transmitters
and two sets of receivers oriented perpendicular
to one another, the DSI tool can measure both
the in-line waveforms from receivers oriented in
the same azimuth as the transmitter, and
crossline waveforms from receivers oriented 90
from the transmitter.22
During the DSI measurement, there is no way
to know how the signals are oriented with
respect to anisotropy. However, with both in-line
and crossline waveforms, it is possible to perform
a mathematical rotation to nd the azimuth of
the fast shear wave, and to determine the velocities of both fast and slow shear waves. This rotation relies on the fact that the crossline
waveforms should vanish when the measurement
axis is aligned with the anisotropy axis. The processing also computes the energy in the crossline
waveforms as a percentage of the total waveform
energy. When the two axes are aligned, the result
is known as the minimum energy and is zero if
the rotation model is correct. The maximum
energy is the energy at 90. The difference
between minimum and maximum is known as
energy anisotropy and is the principal measure of
anisotropy from DSI data.
The polytectonic history of the Raton basin has
introduced other complications. For example,
late-Tertiary changes in the regional stresses from
compression to tension, thought to be caused by
Rio Grande rifting to the west, have major implications for eld development, especially in terms
of well placement and stimulation practices. Prior
to acquisition of key log data by El Paso, the Raton
basins maximum principal stress direction was
believed to be east-west, consistent with a
compressional basin model. FMI images and DSI
anisotropy data have shown that the maximum
principal stress direction is actually north-south
(above right). This change has signicant implications for planning eld development and well
stimulations (see Refracturing Works, page 38).
Fracture stimulation will tend to propagate in this
north-south direction and, given an east-west
Laramide-age open natural-fracture system,
optimal drainage aspect ratios are anticipated. As
a result, where possible, development wells are
not positioned due north-south or east-west of one
another; this maximizes ultimate drainage areas
and gas recovery.
Currently, El Paso is assessing two different
hydraulic fracture stimulation treatments in the
Raton basin. The rst is a low-polymer borate
fracturing uid and higher concentrations of
proppant, delivered using coiled tubing and
NW 2
NW 5
NW 6
NW 7
X050
NW 41
NW 61
NE 15
NE 4
NE 11
NE 13
NE 0
NW 17
NE 18
NE 11
X100
NE 23
NE 21
NE 20
NE 11
NE 32
straddle packers. This technique has been benecial in wells where six to eight different coalbed
layers have been identied for stimulation. These
polymer-base uids have been more successful in
areas that initially produce large amounts of
water, and where cleat- and fracture-system
damage is of less concern. However, in areas
where the coals initially produce low volumes of
water, degrading the permeability to gas within
the cleats and fractures is likely with polymer
liquids. In these areas, El Paso is evaluating a
second technique of pumping foamed nitrogen
down casing to hydraulically fracture the coals
and place smaller proppant concentrations.
The complexity and variability in the Raton
basin make it extremely difcult to gauge the
success of fracture stimulation treatments in
well-performance terms. The search for the ideal
treatment continues, but it is generally agreed
that more information is needed on hydraulic
fracture propagation in and around coals.
29
Flushed Zone
Resistivity
2
ohm-m
Pore Pressure
Gradient
2000
psi/ft
Caliper
6
in.
Depth, ft
mV
16 2
API
ohm-m
2000
20 2
Gamma Ray
0
2000
Water
ohm-m
2000
Sand
Coal
106 psi
ohm-m
2000
psi/ft
10
106 psi
Poissons Ratio
Static
Fracture Pressure
Youngs Modulus
Dynamic
Poissons Ratio
Dynamic
psi
Closure Stress
10
200 2
Fracture Gradient
Youngs Modulus
Dynamic
Spontaneous
Potential
-80
ohm-m
980
10 980
psi
2380
0.5
Poissons Ratio
Static
2380 0
0.5
X350
Stress in coal
is higher than in
surrounding layers
X400
> Stress contrast. Coals are typically more stressed than surrounding rocks (blue arrows). This
contrast inhibits fracture growth within the coals and promotes fracture growth in surrounding sands
and siltstones. Multiple fractures of limited length can also be created in the coals, causing damage to
coal permeability, slower dewatering and reduced gas production. Where adjacent sandstones have
productive potential, a technique called indirect vertical fracturing (IVF) initiates the fracture in the
less-stressed sands above or below the coal. This creates fractures of greater half-length, which
contact and drain the coal more effectively. Gamma ray and caliper data are shown in Track 1 and
resistivity data are displayed in Track 2. Lithology and volumetric information is shown in Track 3.
Track 4 contains Youngs modulus and pore pressure gradient data and Track 5 displays closure stress
and fracture pressure data zoned for input into hydraulic fracture design programs. Poissons ratio
data are presented in Track 6.
30
Oileld Review
Dewatering Methods
In a majority of CBM wells, water production is
crucial to the gas-production process. Successful
dewatering requires uninterrupted pumping
operations to decrease the bottomhole pressure
so gas will desorb from the matrix and diffuse
into the cleat systems as quickly as possible.
Pumping methods vary according to area lift
requirements and economics. Pumps must
handle large volumes of water and be resistant to
coal nes, proppant damage and gas lock.27 These
requirements have made progressing cavity
pump deployment one of the more attractive lift
methods for CBM applications. The selection and
design of an appropriate lift method often are not
straightforward and should focus on capacity,
efciency and dependability.
Schlumberger engineers and scientists at the
Abingdon Technology Center and Cambridge
Research Center in England are developing software to aid in articial-lift selection specic to
gas-well dewatering. The Gas Well Dewatering
Selection Tool (GDST) brings consistency to
this critical selection process by utilizing the
available well information to select the most
appropriate lift method. This software helps
Schlumberger eld engineers, interacting with
the clients, use a selection process based on
sound engineering practice. The tool provides a
case-based reasoning engine and sensitivity
analysis to obtain recommendations with
dened condence levels.
The economic drivers for CBM wells differ
from conventional gas wells in that most wells
will not require indenite or increased dewatering through time. The GDST program enables
the engineer to make several iterations to determine the best lift method. The program does not
provide for comparative economics of lift methods, although economic limitations of the proposed lift methods are considered in the
selection process. The tool is designed to aid in
the selection of lift methods, including those that
may not have been considered previously. (above
right). An optimal dewatering strategy, coupled
with nondamaging cementing and stimulation
techniques, helps expedite water movement out
of the coals fracture permeability network,
thereby increasing well productivity.
Gas for the Future
The exploitation of CBM resources is progressing
steadily. In the USA, natural gas prices have
made many areasfor example the Green River
region, Piceance basin, Arkoma basin and
Cherokee basinmore attractive for CBM
drilling, although some are not yet producing
Autumn 2003
Reservoir Information
Bottom Hole Flowing Pressure
270 psi
1,000 psi
Reservoir Temperature
Liquid Composition
275 F
Plunger Lift
>30% Condensates
Wellhead Compression
Production Information
Current Liquid Rate
250 bbl/D
>600
Up to 2-7/8
SandProduction
No
Velocity Strings
Siphon Strings
Foaming
Continuous Gas Lift
150 psi
Intermittent GL Plunger
140 psi
Well Depth
2,500 ft
>4-1/2
Well Deviation
High
Requires Packer
Yes
Rod Pump
Hydraulic Jet Pump
ESP
PCP
Site Information
Electricity Available
No
No
Comments
Sufficient Information entered
Confidence
> The Gas Well Dewatering Selection Tool (GDST) software. The GDST helps
Schlumberger eld engineers and clients select the most appropriate lift
method, using a consistent selection process. Length of dark blue bars on the
right indicates preferred dewatering methods.
processing these data was tedious and timeconsuming, and did not provide real-time
information during fracturing operations.29 The
StimMAP hydraulic fracture stimulation diagnostics software allows real-time, onsite imaging of
hydraulic fracture seismic events, resulting in
improved job placement, enhanced well productivity and a better understanding of fracture
geometry for future eld-development decisions.
Although the industrys knowledge of coal is
vast and growing, modeling CBM reservoir behavior has been a challenging task. Schlumberger
has improved coal reservoir modeling capabilities in ECLIPSE Ofce integrated simulation
manager and case builder software. This new
software incorporates isotherm data and handles
uncertainties, and will have the capability to
manage multiple gas types.
The nature of CBM development demands
careful economic consideration. Low-cost solutions can help, but technological advances in
drilling, formation evaluation, completion, stimulation, production and reservoir modeling will
have a far greater impact. With immense worldwide reserves and a growing infrastructure to
exploit them economically, coal ranks high on
the short list of unconventional fuels awaiting
future development.
MG, JS
31
Until recently, there were only two practical ways of transporting natural gas: ow it through a pipeline in
gaseous form or chill and transport it as liqueed natural gas (LNG). A third alternative, gas-to-liquid technology,
chemically converts natural gas into clean-burning liquid products that can be easily shipped to market.
> Sasol Synthetic Fuels, Secunda, South Africa. Sasol operates two such plants, applying gas-to-liquid (GTL) technology to convert
coal-derived natural gas to liquid fuels. (Photograph copyright of Sasol Limited.)
When it comes to describing natural gas, the numbers give new meaning to the word big. The worlds
proven gas reserves are estimated at an average of
5500 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) [156 trillion m3].1
Factoring in potential reserves brings the total to
about 13,000 Tcf [372 trillion m3].2 Adding reserves
from unconventional sources, like coalbed
methane, and highly speculative sources, like naturally occurring gas hydrates, gives a dizzying grand
total of about 700,000 Tcf [20,000 trillion m3].3
32
Oileld Review
> Shell GTL plant in Bintulu, Malaysia, in operation since 1993. Using a patented Shell process, the
Bintulu plant converts natural gas piped in from Sarawak to 12,500 B/D [1990 m3/d] of clean diesel,
kerosene and naphtha. (Photograph courtesy of Shell Chemicals Singapore.)
Autumn 2003
33
> Visualization of GTL plant near the ChevronTexaco oil and gas facility at
Escravos, Nigeria, planned by the ChevronTexaco-Sasol joint venture.
Initial production of 34,000 B/D [5400 m3/d] is scheduled to begin in 2005
and may be expanded to 120,000 B/D [19,000 m3/d]. (Photograph copyright
of Sasol Limited.)
Gas-To-Liquid Chemistry
Converting gas to liquid using the FischerTropsch method is a multistep, energy-consuming process that takes apart molecules of
natural gas, predominantly methane, and
reassembles them into long-chain molecules.
The rst step requires input of oxygen [O2]
separated from air. The oxygen is blown into a
reactor to strip hydrogen atoms from the
methane [CH4]. The products are synthetic
hydrogen gas [H2] and carbon monoxide [CO],
sometimes called syngas (right).
The second step uses a catalyst to recombine the hydrogen and carbon monoxide into
liquid hydrocarbons.1 In the last stage, the
liquid hydrocarbons are converted and fractionated into products that can be used
immediately or blended with others. The most
well-known product is extremely pure diesel,
sometimes known as gasoil. Diesel from the
Fischer-Tropsch process, unlike diesel derived
from distillation of crude oil, has near-zero
sulfur- and nitrogen-oxide content, contains
virtually no aromatics, burns with little or no
particulate emissions, and has high cetane
value.2 Kerosene, ethanol and dimethyl ether
34
Air
Natural gas
Separation
Gas processing
Oxygen
Methane
O2
CH4
Diesel
CO
Gas synthesis
Fischer-Tropsch process
H2
Long-chain
liquid hydrocarbons
Cracking
Naphtha
Waxes
> Converting natural gas to liquid fuels. In the rst step, oxygen [O2] separated from air is blown
into a reactor with methane [CH4]. The products are synthetic gaseshydrogen [H2] and carbon
monoxide [CO]. These pass into a Fischer-Tropsch reactor where catalysts help reform the gases
into long-chain hydrocarbon molecules. The long-chain hydrocarbons are fed into a cracking unit
and fractionated into diesel or other liquid fuels, naphtha and waxes. Cracking uses heat and
pressure to decompose long-chain hydrocarbons and produce lighter hydrocarbons.
Oileld Review
Country
Company
Capacity, B/D
Australia
Sasol, ChevronTexaco
50,000
Australia
Shell
75,000
Bolivia
GTL Bolivia
Bolivia
Egypt
Shell, EGPC
75,000
Indonesia
Pertamina, Rentech
16,000
Indonesia
Shell
75,000
Iran
Shell
75,000
Iran
Sasol
110,000
Nigeria
34,000
Malaysia
Shell
12,500
Peru
Syntroleum
40,000
Qatar
Shell, QPC
Qatar
ExxonMobil, QPC
Qatar
Sasol, QPC
34,000
South Africa
PetroSA
30,000
United States
ANGTL
50,000
Venezuela
PDVSA
Total
10,000
103,500
75,000
100,000
15,000
> The ConocoPhillips GTL demonstration plant in Ponca City, Oklahoma, USA.
The plant was completed in March 2003, and is designed to convert 4 MMcf
[114,600 m3] per day of natural gas into 400 B/D [64 m3/d] of sulfur-free diesel
and naphtha. (Photograph copyright of ConocoPhillips.)
980,000
Leveraging catalyst and reactor research conducted by Conoco parent company DuPont,
ConocoPhillips has made rapid advances in GTL
technology. Since 1997, ConocoPhillips has
designed, manufactured and tested more than
5000 catalysts for gas-synthesis Fischer-Tropsch
processes. The company completed a GTL demonstration plant in 2003 in Ponca City, Oklahoma,
USA (above right). The plant will convert 4 MMcf
[114,600 m3] per day of natural gas into 400 B/D
[64 m3/d] of sulfur-free diesel and naphtha.13
BP has produced its rst synthetic oil from an
$86 million GTL test plant in Nikiski, near Kenai,
Alaska, USA (right).14 The BP plant, designed to
produce 250 B/D [40 m3/d], is testing a more
compact gas-reformer design than the designs
Sasol and Shell are currently operating in South
Africa and Malaysia. The new reformer is about
one-fortieth the size of reformers in use at other
GTL plants. If the compact GTL technologies
being tested in Alaska are successful, BP will
consider using them to develop stranded natural
gas reserves worldwide.
ExxonMobil Corp. has invested $400 million in
GTL research since 1981 and has a commercial
test plant at the ExxonMobil renery in Baton
Rouge, Louisiana, USA.15 The company is carrying
out a technical feasibility study for a large-scale
plant in Qatar that could convert the reserves of
Autumn 2003
> BP GTL test plant in Nikiski, near Kenai, Alaska, USA. The plant produced
its rst synthetic oil in July 2003. BP plans to produce about 250 barrels per
day [40 m3/d] in a program that is planned to last 6 to 12 months. (Photograph
courtesy of Eagle Eye Helicopter.)
35
> Flaring during well testing of a discovery well in the Gulf of Mexico (inset). Worldwide, the industry ares
or vents 2 Tcf [57 billion m3] of gas per year. GTL technology may offer ways to bring to market gas that is
currently ared or vented. (Photographs courtesy of Energy Data Solutions, LLC, www.ocsbbs.com)
36
Oileld Review
Autumn 2003
37
Refracturing Works
Applicable in gas or oil wells, fracture restimulations bypass near-wellbore damage, reestablish good
connectivity with the reservoir and tap areas with higher pore pressure. An initial period of production
also can alter formation stresses, resulting in better vertical containment and more lateral extension
during hydraulic fracturing, and may even allow the new fracture to reorient along a different azimuth.
As a result, refracturing often restores well productivity to near original or even higher rates.
George Dozier
Houston, Texas, USA
Jack Elbel
Consultant
Dallas, Texas
Eugene Fielder
Devon Energy
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA
Ren Hoover
Fort Worth, Texas
Stephen Lemp
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Scott Reeves
Advanced Resources International
Houston, Texas
Eduard Siebrits
Sugar Land, Texas
Del Wisler
Kerr-McGee Corporation
Houston, Texas
Steve Wolhart
Pinnacle Technologies
Houston, Texas
38
Oileld Review
2003
1993
Autumn 2003
39
A Multiple-Basin Evaluation
Some operators report disappointing results
when refracturing previously stimulated wells,
despite documented successes in individual
wells and several field-wide restimulation
efforts.3 However, recent research, subsequent
field trials and the ongoing refracturing
programs of a few operators still attract
considerable interest and attention within the
oil and gas industry.
In 1996, the Gas Research Institute (GRI),
now Gas Technology Institute (GTI), began
investigating fracture restimulation as a low-cost
means of enhancing gas production and adding
recoverable reserves. This preliminary evaluation identified significant onshore gas
potentialconservatively more than 10 Tcf
[286.4 billion m3] of incremental reservesin
the USA, excluding Alaska (below).
These additional gas reserves are located in
the Rocky Mountain, Midcontinent, East Texas
and South Texas regions, primary in lowpermeability, or tight-gas, sandstones (TGS)
and in other unconventional reservoirs that
include gas shales (GS) and coalbed methane
(CBM) deposits (see Producing Natural Gas
from Coal, page 8). Other areas of the USA with
refracturing potential include unconventional
Michigan
Green River
GS
Denver-Julesburg
TGS
TGS
San Juan
CS, TGS, CBM
CS
Hugoton
TGS
CC
Permian
Delaware
CC
Appalachian
USA
Piceance
TGS
CC
Val Verde
TGS
TGS
GS
Anadarko
Barnett Shale
GS
Black Warrior
CBM
CS East Texas
TGS
South Texas
TGS
400
800
1200
250
500
750
1600 km
1000 miles
> Areas with refracturing potential in the USA. The 1996 Gas Technology Institute (GTI) restimulation
investigation evaluated a wide range of gas reservoirs, including conventional sandstone and carbonate formations, tight-gas sands, gas shales and coalbed methane deposits. This evaluation focused
on conventional gas-producing provinces with cumulative production greater than 5 Tcf [143.2 billion
m3] for further evaluation. Higher production implied high numbers of older wells and more refracturing opportunities. The study also identied tight-gas sand areas with an estimated ultimate recovery
(EUR) greater than 1 Tcf [28.6 billion m3] and the largest gas shale and coalbed methane developments, but did not include offshore developments with limited production and recovery information.
40
Oileld Review
High
Type curves
Interpretation requirements
e
Tim
and
t
cos
se
rea
inc
Virtual intelligence
Production statistics
Low
Low
Data requirements
High
Operator:
Enron Oil and Gas, now EOG resources.
Operator:
Union Pacific Resources Company (UPRC), now
Anadarko Petroleum Corporation.
Operator:
Barrett Resources, now Williams Company.
Formation:
Upper Cretaceous Frontier.
Formation:
Cotton Valley.
Formation:
Mesaverde group, Upper Cretaceous Williams Fork.
Location:
Big Piney/LaBarge complex, northern Moxa Arch area,
southwestern Wyoming, USA.
Location:
Carthage Gas Unit (CGU) field near
Carthage, Panola County, Texas, USA.
Location:
Parachute and Grand Valley fields near Rulison,
Garfield County, Colorado, USA.
Deposition:
Marine sandstones, primarily rivers and streams, or
fluvial and distal shore zones.
Deposition:
Complex marine sandstones, primarily barrier reef and
tidal zone.
Deposition:
Marine sandstones, primarily fluvial and marsh,
or paludal.
Reservoir:
Tight-gas sands with permeability of 0.0005 to 0.1 mD
in up to four productive horizons, consisting of as many
as eight separate intervals, or benches.
Reservoir:
Heterogeneous, highly laminated and compartmentalized
tight-gas sands with permeability of 0.05 to 0.2 mD.
Reservoir:
Compartmentalized tight-gas sands with permeability
of 0.1 to 2 mD. Because of natural fractures, effective
permeability is 10 to 50 mD.
Initial completions:
One to three stages of a crosslinked guar fluid and
nitrogen foam with 100,000 to 500,000 lbm [45,359 to
226,796 kg] of proppant sand.
Initial completions:
Three to four stages of a crosslinked fluid and proppant
volumes of 1 to 4 million lbm [453,592 to 1,814,370 kg]
for an entire well; 1996 to present, UPR and Anadarko
used slick-water fluids with less than 250,000 lbm
[113,398 kg] of proppant.
Initial completions:
Two to five stages with proppant volumes of 50,000
to 650,000 lbm [22,680 to 294,835 kg] per stage.
GTI restimulations:
Three refracturing treatments and one gel-cleanup
treatment.
GTI restimulations:
Three refracturing treatments.
GTI restimulations:
Two refracturing treatments.
> The 1998 GTI restimulation study to evaluate refracturing candidate-selection methods at three USA test sites.
Autumn 2003
41
Site
field/basin
Well
Date
Incremental
recovery, MMcf
Treatment
cost, $
Reserve
cost, $/Mcf
Success/
failure
Big Piney
and LaBarge/
Green River
GRB 45-12
GRB 27-14
NLB 57-33
WSC 20-09
Jan. 1999
Jan. 1999
Apr. 1999
Jun. 2000
602
(186)
0
302
87,000
87,000
20,000
120,000
0.14
NA
NA
0.40
S
F
F
S
Rulison/
Piceance
Langstaff 1
RMV 55-20
Jun. 2000
Jun. 2000
282
75
50,000
70,000
0.18
0.93
S
F
Carthage/
East Texas
CGU 15-8
CGU 10-7
CGU 3-8
Nov. 1999
Jan. 2000
Jan. 2000
270
407
1100
100,000
100,000
100,000
0.37
0.25
0.09
S
S
S
2852
734,000
317
82,000
Total
Average
2864 m3/d
5727 m3/d
0.26
8590 m3/d
11,455 m3/d
450
CGU 3-8
RMV 55-20
400
CGU 10-7
CGU 15-8
350
GRB 45-12
300
250
Langstaff 1
200
WSC 20-09
NLB 57-33
150
100
50
GRB 27-14
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
> GTI eld-test results. Two of the four wells in the Frontier formation (Green River basin), all three of
the wells in the Cotton Valley formation (East Texas basin), and one of the two wells in the Williams
Fork formation (Piceance basin) were successful. Of the three unsuccessful treatments, one added
incremental reserves at a cost of $0.93/Mcf and two had mechanical or design problems. Of the latter
two, in one, the damage-removal treatment could not be pumped at the injection rate required to uidize the original proppant pack and remove suspected residual gel damage from the initial treatment;
the other failed to clean up because energized uids were not used as recommended in the GTI design.
42
Candidate-Selection Methods
Overall, the GTI refracturing tests were successful, but did not definitively identify a single
candidate-selection method as most effective.
Each technique tends to select different wells
for different reasons that may all be valid,
depending on specific reservoir characteristics
(next page, top). Production statistics worked
reasonably well in the Piceance basin. Virtual
intelligence and pattern recognition worked
best in the Green River basin. Type curves were
most effective in the East Texas basin. Clearly,
additional evaluations were needed to validate
the effectiveness of each technique and to
advance refracturing acceptance.
A reservoir simulation of a hypothetical
tight-gas field was designed for this purpose.7
The objective of this study was to independently
test and validate candidate-selection methods
against the simulation model. Results from this
simulation confirmed that each candidateselection method being studied tended to yield
different candidates. And like the 1998 GTI
restimulation study, some wells were selected by
more than one of the methods. The virtual-intelligence method was generally most effective,
followed closely by type curves. With less efficiency than random selections, production
statistics alone were the least effective method.
Oileld Review
Site,
field/basin
Success/
failure
Well
Type
curves
Big Piney
and LaBarge/
Green River
GRB 45-12
GRB 27-14
NLB 57-33
WSC 20-09
S
F
F
S
>50
>50
4
38
*15
*39
*>50
*2
>50
32
20
1
Rulison/
Piceance
Langstaff 1
RMV 55-20
S
F
1
43
>50
>50
>50
17
Carthage/
East Texas
CGU 15-8
CGU 3-8
CGU 10-7
S
S
S
>50
>50
4
>50
>50
26
11
7
40
*Revised analysis
Note: Bold italic numbers indicate correct classifications (true positive or true negative)
> Candidate-selection performance. Based on the economic criterion of adding incremental reserves
at less than $0.5/Mcf, the GTI study evaluated the capability of each candidate-selection method to
correctly select successful refracturing candidates or to not select unsuccessful candidates. This
determination was based on whether each method ranked a well among the top 50 candidates or
not. The three methodsproduction statistics, virtual intelligence and pattern recognition, and type
curvesidentied successful refracturing candidates or noncandidates in at least four of the nine
test wells, ve in the case of virtual intelligence. The three methods combined identied only two of
the ve successful treatments and none of the three unsuccessful wells.
Production statistics
Virtual intelligence
14
15
7
50
10
5
103
89
45
53
49
4
93
71
52
120
83
Type curves
Autumn 2003
43
had mechanical failures during the initial stimulation. When other operators began restimulating
their better producers with varying, but generally
encouraging results, Patina initiated a eld-wide
evaluation of refracturing potential.
The Wattenburg field produces mainly from
the Codell interval. This ne-grained sandstone,
deposited in a marine-shelf environment, is a
member of the Upper Cretaceous Carlisle shale.
The Codell reservoir contains 15 to 25% clay by
volume in mixed layers of illite and smectite
that ll and line the pore spaces.
The pay interval is 14 to 35 ft [4.3 to 10.7 m]
thick, 6800 to 7700 ft [2073 to 2347 m] deep and
continuous across the field. Permeability is
less than 0.1 mD. Porosity from density logs is
8 to 20%. Initially, the reservoir was overpressured with a gradient of about 0.6 psi/ft
[13.5 kPa/m]. Bottomhole temperature is 230 to
250F [110 to 121C]. Wells are drilled on a
40-acre [162,000-m2] spacing.
During 1998, Patina compiled a database of
250 fracture restimulations on both operated
and nonoperated properties. After eliminating
wells treated with borate crosslinked fluids,
which were 20% less productive than other
wells, company engineers focused on the
remaining 200 wells. These wells had been restimulated with carboxymethyl hydropropyl guar
(CMHPG) or hydropropyl guar (HPG) uids.
Further evaluation identified 35 discrete
geologic, completion and production parameters
related to well performance. Linear-regression
analysis helped determine those parameters
that correlated with peak incremental production after refracturing. Two technical
2500
1500
1000
Patina
500
Others
CMG fluids
0
1997
1998
1999
2000
> Historical refracturing performance in the Wattenburg eld, Colorado. The combined applications of CMG stimulation uids and
the candidate-selection algorithm developed by Patina Oil & Gas signicantly improved restimulation results in Patina-operated wells.
44
Oileld Review
Description
Statistical
significance
Rank
Parameter
Hydrocarbon volume,
porosity-feet
38%
Cumulative
recovery factor
17%
Initial completion
9%
Estimated ultimate
recovery (EUR) factor
11%
Gas/oil ratio
20%
Maximum differential
recovery, million BOE
5%
> Patina Oil & Gas statistical algorithm. Of the ve statistically signicant
variables of the candidate-selection algorithm for Wattenburg eld, hydrocarbon volume in porosity-feet represents reservoir quality, initial
completion represents the initial completion, and the other threecumulative recovery factor, estimated ultimate recovery factor and gas/oil
ratiorepresent well performance. Well location is not signicant because
of the relatively uniform reservoir quality. However, higher, and therefore better, gas/oil ratios do tend to occur in the center of the eld. The sixth variable
maximum differential recovery in BOE helps predict restimulation potential
for economic evaluations.
Autumn 2003
45
Ineffective or problematic
initial completions
. Unstimulated horizons
. Low fracture conductivity
. Short fracture length
. High skin, or damage
Well
underperformance
Technology evolution
. Advanced stimulation technology
. New completion techniques
. Well age
Completion-Related Underperformance
To aid in problem diagnosis, the 1998 GTI
project established a framework to classify
well-performance problems (above). For tightgas wells, three specific problems, ranked in
order of highest perceived restimulation potential were identied:
Unstimulated or bypassed pay
Insufcient fracture conductivity
Insufcient fracture length.
Ineffective or problematic initial completions are the most common type of problem.
Examples include lack of quality control during
initial fracture treatments, residual polymer
damage from stimulation fluids, inappropriate
proppant selection, premature screenout, underdesigned fracturing treatments, incompatible
fluids and single-stage treatments that leave
some pay intervals unstimulated.
Hydraulic fractures can lose effectiveness in
the years after an initial stimulation treatment
because of gradual damage that occurs over the
life of a well. Examples include loss of fracture
conductivity from proppant crushing or embedding in the formation and plugging of the pack
by formation nes or scale deposition. Proppant
owback from the near-well area can allow the
hydraulic fractures to close. Typically, little
information is available to identify these
specic mechanisms.
Wells with these types of problems have the
greatest potential for remediation by refracturing. In older wells that have a higher occurrence
of these problems, reservoir pressure must be
sufcient to justify refracturing, both in terms of
46
Oileld Review
Autumn 2003
y
New fracture
Isotropic point
Stress-reversal
region
Maximum
horizontal
stress
Wellbore
x
Initial fracture
Isotropic point
New fracture
Minimum
horizontal
stress
> Stress reorientation and orthogonal fracture extension. This horizontal section through a vertical wellbore depicts an original hydraulic fracture in the
x direction and a second reoriented fracture in the y direction. Fluid production after placement of the initial fracture can cause a local redistribution
of pore pressure in an expanding elliptical region around the wellbore and
initial fracture. The stress-reversal boundary is dened by isotropic points of
equal primary horizontal stresses. Stress reorientation and fracture extension
in a direction away from the initial propped fracture help explain pressure
responses during refracturing treatments and unanticipated production
increases from refractured wells known to have effective initial fractures.
47
should be minimized to maintain a high porepressure gradient normal to the initial fracture.
Aside from this, standard fracture design considerations should be used.
Fracture restimulations in the naturally fractured Barnett Shale, north of Fort Worth, Texas,
USA, are an example of fracture reorientation.
These treatments were monitored with an
array of surface and subsurface tiltmeters
(below).16 The results suggested signicant fracture reorientation in one well and oblique
reorientation in the other well. Post-treatment
production increased substantially in both wells.
Other refractured wells in the area had similar
increases. Reservoir depletion combined with
natural fractures can cause complex fracture
networks to develop during initial treatments
and restimulations.
E
Initial injection
1st 83 minutes
2nd 83 minutes
3rd 83 minutes
Final 83 minutes
S
Fracture-induced
surface trough
Depth
Surface tiltmeters
Fracture
Downhole
tiltmeters in
offset well
48
Oileld Review
Microseism
Receivers
Reservoir
Fracture
Wellbore
Offset
wellbore
Simple fracture
Complex fractures
> Complex fracture networks. The simple classical description of a hydraulic fracture is a single,
biwing, planar crack with the wellbore at the
center of the two wings (top). In some formations,
however, complex (middle) and very complex
(bottom) hydraulic fractures may also develop, as
appears to be the case in the naturally fractured
Barnett Shale.
16. Siebrits E, Elbel JL, Hoover RS, Diyashev IR, Grifn LG,
Demetrius SL, Wright CA, Davidson BM, Steinsberger NP
and Hill DG: Refracture Reorientation Enhances
Gas Production in Barnett Shale Tight Gas Wells, paper
SPE 63030, presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA,
October 14, 2000.
Fisher MK, Wright CA, Davidson BM, Goodwin AK,
Fielder EO, Buckler WS and Steinsberger NP: Integrated Fracture Mapping Technologies to Optimize
Stimulations in the Barnett Shale, paper SPE 77441,
presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference
and Exhibition, San Antonio, Texas, USA,
September 29October 2, 2002.
Autumn 2003
49
100,000
10,000
Refractured
1000
100
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996 1997
Year
50
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
> Typical restimulation results for a Barnett Shale well. The use of substantial volumes of slick water
and low quantities of proppant sand to refracture the Barnett Shale resulted in well productivities as
good as or better than the original completion. In some cases, the well productivities after refracturing
were the highest ever recorded in this eld.
R14
1998
R13W4
50.8
223.9
137.3
T20
397.4
570.0
743.1
916.2
829.6
T20
T19
T19
T18
T18
R14
R13W4
Oileld Review
450 psi
120
335 psi
100
Pressure depletion
over 30 years
80
60
40
335 psi
20
140
120
450 psi
335 psi
100
Pressure depletion
over 30 years
80
60
40
335 psi
20
0
0
Well life
Initial
Well life
Before refracturing
After refracturing
Field production
5.0
6 new wells
4.5
Autumn 2003
Production, MMscf/D
4.0
20. Degenhardt KF, Stevenson J, Gale B, Gonzalez D, Hall S,
Marsh J and Zemlak W: Isolate and Stimulate
Individual Pay Zones, Oileld Review 13, no. 3
(Autumn 2001): 6077.
21. Lemp S, Zemlak W and McCollum R: An Economical
Shallow-Gas Fracturing Technique Utilizing a Coiled
Tubing Conduit, paper SPE 46031, presented at the
SPE/ICoTA Coiled Tubing Roundtable, Houston, Texas,
USA, April 1516, 1998.
Zemlak W, Lemp S and McCollum R: Selective
Hydraulic Fracturing of Multiple Perforated Intervals
with a Coiled Tubing Conduit: A Case History of the
Unique Process, Economic Impact and Related
Production Improvements, paper SPE 54474, presented
at the SPE/ICoTA Coiled Tubing Roundtable, Houston,
Texas, USA, May 2526. 1999.
Marsh J, Zemlak WM and Pipchuk P: Economic
Fracturing of Bypassed Pay: A Direct Comparison of
Conventional and Coiled Tubing Placement Techniques,
paper SPE 60313, presented at the SPE Rocky Mountain
Regional/Low Permeability Reservoirs Symposium,
Denver, Colorado, USA, March 1215, 2000.
3.5
3.0
13 new
wells
2.5
2.0
Last well to be CT
fractured (only 10 of
15 wells have been
fractured at this point
and all through CT)
1.5
1.0
Gas compressor
shutdown
0.5
0.0
2001
2002
> Shallow-gas restimulation results. Refracturing shallow wells in the gas-bearing Medicine Hat and
Milk River formations resulted in signicant production increases, even after the wells had produced
for more than 30 years. Enerplus Resources Fund used both coiled tubing and snubbing-unit tubingconveyed stimulation techniques.
51
52
100,000
Average during the first month for all
12 wells: 6.6 MMcf/D after refracturing
Projected decline
after refracturing
10,000
1000
Rate for all 12 wells: 1.5
MMcf/D before refracturing
Projected decline had the
wells not been refractured
100
-84
-72
-60
-48
-36
-24
-12
12
24
36
48
60
methodsproduction statistics, pattern recognition and type curves. The SSTI method was
applied to determine initial hydraulic fracturing
treatment effectiveness in wells at this test site.
Successful application in several Frontier area
gas wells demonstrated the potential of the SSTI
method, but data quality and acquisition
difficulties hampered complete analysis of the
well-test data.
Interpretations using the SSTI method
require high-quality, precise data. Downhole
measurements with precise electronic gauges
and frequent data sampling help capture the
required level of detail. Downhole shut-in
devices reduce wellbore storage effects and
accelerate the onset of linear flow. Using test
times that fall between the start and end of
linear ow, the SSTI method is also applicable in
conventional well tests.
Production-Enhancement Evaluation
Kerr-McGee Corporation and Schlumberger
began working collaboratively to enhance
production from mature, or browneld, South
Texas gas properties in March 2002. These
efforts are the result of a comprehensive reservoir evaluation performed by Schlumberger to
develop a better understanding of completion
and production trends in the Vicksburg basin.
Initiated in the fall of 2001, this proactive study
concentrated on areas where application of new
technologies and techniques would have the
most impact and, in turn, help operators
produce gas more economically.
The objective was to understand how geological, petrophysical and well-completion practices
impact well performance. This Vicksburg study
identified underperforming wells and specific
technologies, such as advanced formationevaluation tools, improved well-completion
Oileld Review
Autumn 2003
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Average production
increase, Mcf/D
53
Soraya Betancourt
Go Fujisawa
Oliver C. Mullins
Ridgeeld, Connecticut, USA
Near-infrared radiation
Andrew Carnegie
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates (UAE)
Chengli Dong
Andrew Kurkjian
Sugar Land, Texas, USA
Kre Otto Eriksen
Statoil
Stavanger, Norway
Mostafa Haggag
Antonio R. Jaramillo
Abu Dhabi Company for Onshore Oil
Operations
Abu Dhabi, UAE
Absorption
and
excitation
Harry Terabayashi
Fuchinobe, Kanagawa, Japan
CFA (Composition Fluid Analyzer), LFA (Live Fluid Analyzer
for MDT tool), MDT (Modular Formation Dynamics Tester)
and PVT Express are marks of Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Sylvain
Jayawardane and Jiasen Tan, Edmonton, Alberta,
Canada; Sudhir Pai, Rosharon, Texas, USA; Ibrahim
Shawky, Abu Dhabi, UAE; and Tsutomu Yamate,
Fuchinobe, Kanagawa, Japan.
54
Oileld Review
Autumn 2003
Reservoir depletion
Dewpoint curve
Critical point
Pressure
Bubblepoint curve
Cricondentherm
Temperature
55
2.0
Methane
Ethane
N-heptane
Carbon dioxide
Optical density
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
1600
1700
1800
Wavelength, nm
1900
2000
2100
Medium-weight oil
Optical density
Water
2
Hydrocarbons
Condensate
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Wavelength, nm
> Visible and near-infrared absorption spectrum. As the wavelength increases, hydrocarbon optical
densityor light absorptionis due to successively heavier and more complex molecules (bottom).
Gas condensates and oils have different responses in the visible region. Hydrocarbon molecularexcitation bands appear at about 1700 nanometers (nm), where light interacting with hydrocarbon
bonds induces molecular vibrations (top). Methane has a peak at the CH4 vibrational mode, and
ethane peaks at the CH3 mode. Longer-chain hydrocarbons, such as n-heptane, have many CH2
bonds, but also have CH3 bonds at the ends of chains. The carbon dioxide excitation wavelength is
longer than the hydrocarbon mode wavelengths. Water has two strong, broad absorption peaks,
which can interfere with detection of the hydrocarbon excitation peaks (bottom).
economic to produce unless a tieback conguration or additional facilities are built to market
the gas.
Sound production practices also require
knowledge of uid-phase behavior. If reservoir
pressure drops below the dewpoint, liquid condensate drops out in the formation. At low
saturation, liquid in the pore spaces is not mobile
56
Fluid Sampling
For many years, the industry has evaluated uids
by collecting samples from a formation, bringing
them to surface, and analyzing them in a laboratory that may be far from the wellsite. This
process can be time-consuming and is subject to
errors in collection, handling or sample degradation during transport.
The PVT Express onsite well-uid analysis
service is a recent advance in uid-property
determination. This system can deliver detailed
uid-analysis data a few hours after samples
reach the surface. A unique minicell for PVT
property determination allows onsite measurement of dewpoint pressure on gas-condensate
samples. The compact, modular, mobile laboratory can be transported to any geographic
location. Delays associated with sample shipment are eliminated. Fluid quality and uid
properties can be determined while the opportunity to obtain additional samples is still
available. Decisions relating to additional wireline formation testing or drillstem testing operations can be made more quickly with the PVT
Express service.
Taking the next step, Schlumberger makes
some uid properties evaluations downhole. The
LFA Live Fluid Analyzer for the MDT tool provides a means to analyze in-situ fluids to
determine when contamination from drilling
mud has decreased sufciently to obtain a uid
sample with acceptable quality.4 This minimizes
the time required to collect fluid samples,
decreasing both rig costs and the risk of the tool
becoming stuck because it was on the formation
for too long.
The LFA module includes a channel specically tuned to record the presence of methane,
providing a means to obtain GOR.5 Downhole GOR
measurements help identify whether different
formations are compartmentalized. A sampling
program can be directed to reveal compositional
variation within a given compartment, helping to
optimize completion programs. Agreement
between downhole, wellsite and laboratory crudeoil property measurements engenders condence
in the derived uid properties.
The LFA channels also measure the oils
color, which usually changes as drilling mud is
ushed out of the formation. A sophisticated
algorithm indicates the cleanup time required to
Oileld Review
Autumn 2003
57
Composition
percent
100
Water Flag
CO2
Quality
Low
Water
Volume
Fraction
High
C6+
C2C5
Tool GOR
C1
Laboratory GOR
10,260
10,215
10,170
10,125
10,080
10,035
9990
9945
9900
9855
Gas/Oil Ratio
scf/bbl
7500
A
Lab result
8145
8100
8055
8010
7965
7920
7875
7830
7785
7740
B
Lab result
8145
8100
8055
8010
7965
7920
7875
7830
7785
7740
C
Lab result
8145
8100
8055
8010
7965
7920
7875
7830
7785
7740
D
Lab result
> CFA uid composition in a UAE carbonate reservoir. The CFA result indicated that the upper zone, A, was unswept. The second station, B, had the
greatest concentration of the gas components, C1 and C2-C5, and the highest
gas/oil ratio (GOR), indicating that the injected gas had swept this zone. The
two lower stations also had been partly swept by injected gas. Results from
samples collected during this logging run were analyzed in a laboratory, conrming the composition and GOR values measured by the CFA module.
58
Oileld Review
C1
Formation Resistivity
0.01
Bulk Density
0.6
Gamma Ray
XX60
20
g/cm3
Neutron Porosity
p.u.
C2C5
ohm-m 10,000
C6+
Invaded-Zone Resistivity
0 0.1
in.
Laboratory GOR
scf/bbl 8000
385 0
Tool GOR
scf/bbl 8000
Water
ohm-m 10,000
Invaded-Zone Diameter
2.7 0
Optical Density
60 375
MDT Pressure
Gas
bar
Oil
Water
2
Gas/oil
contact
XX80
3
XY00
4
Oil/water
contact
XY20
XY40
XY60
XY80
> Compositional gradient in a North Sea well. Gamma ray (Track 1), bulk density and neutron porosity
(Track 2), and formation resistivity (Track 3) logs indicate a relatively featureless zone of about 100 m
[328 ft]. A thin, possibly impermeable zone exists at about XY30. The invaded-zone resistivity (Track 3)
implies a water zone up to XY10, with a transition zone up to about XX95 and perhaps a third zone
above XX75. The pressure measurements (Track 4) conrm three gradients, with a gas/oil contact at
XX75 and an oil/water contact at XY10. Both optical density from the CFA color channel and gas/oil
ratio (GOR) (Track 5) show a gradient in composition, which is also seen in the CFA compositional
analysis (Track 4). The numbers to the left of the CFA compositions indicate the sampling order in the
wellbore. The thin bars below each CFA result are later laboratory results, which were scaled to
exclude the water fraction measured by the CFA tool, allowing direct comparison of the hydrocarbon
components. Laboratory GOR measurements (Track 5) also conrm the compositional gradient,
although the magnitude is somewhat different from the CFA result.
Autumn 2003
59
Excitation
Fluorescence intensity
Fluorescence channel 1
Gas condensate
Light oil
Fluorescence
channel 2
Wavelength
Fluorescence Fluorescence
channel 1
channel 2
Reflection
Blue light
detector
source
Lamp
Water
Fluid flow
Fluorescence
detection unit
Spectrometer
60
An Aromatic Afterglow
Aromatic hydrocarbons uoresce. The distinguishing characteristic of uorescence is that
there is a brief time delay between light absorption and its reemission, and that the reemission
occurs at a lower energythat is, a longer wavelengththan the absorbed light (left).15
The CFA module incorporates a uorescence
detection unit (FDU) along the owline, about
7 cm [3 in.] from the absorption spectrometer.
Since they are close together, the two types of
detector sample essentially the same uid. This
allows the two measurements to be used simultaneously to evaluate uids.
The FDU shines blue light onto a window in
the ow tube. One detector tuned at the source
wavelength is placed at the reection angle.
This provides a measure of direct reection of
light, reducing the possibility of false-positive
uorescence detection. Two other detectors in
the FDU record the intensity and spectrum of
the uorescence.
The FDU is particularly sensitive to uorescence from uid on the surface of the ow-tube
window. Dew formation often causes a liquid
coating on the ow-tube surfaces. When the uid
is in a single phase, the detector measures the
properties of the uid owing near the window.
Once the pressure drops below the dewpoint,
liquid drops out of solution and condenses. The
condensed liquid phase wets the detector window, so the uorescence detector is most sensitive to the properties of the liquid phase. Since
the heavy ends are enriched in the liquid phase,
the FDU is sensitive to the presence of a liquid
phase dropping out from a gas condensate. This
makes it an excellent tool for detecting when a
uid drops below its dewpoint.
Detecting a Multiphase Condition
The rst use of an FDU in the eld showed that
the drawdown pressure being used at that
sampling station was too large, generating a twophase condition. The operator moved to another
location a few centimeters away and resampled,
this time obtaining a good sample. This section
describes how the fluids separated in the
pumpout module and how the FDU detected this
two-phase condition caused by excessive drawdown at the rst location.
Oileld Review
Autumn 2003
Downstroke
Gas
Oil
Water
Hydraulic oil
Upstroke
To flowline
From reservoir
From reservoir
To flowline
Upstroke
Downstroke
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
20
40
60
Elapsed time, s
80
100
120
> Detecting multiple phases downstream of the pumpout module in a North Sea well. The pumpout
module is a reciprocating pump with two separate chambers sharing one piston. When the pumpout
module strokes down (top left), a multiplex valve directs uid from the formation into the lower chamber
and from the upper chamber into the owline. On the upstroke, the multiplex valve switches the inlet
and outlet sources (top right). The CFA module, which is downstream of the pump, detects three
phases. The chart (middle) compares signals from the water vibrational channel, from the main
uorescence channel that indicates liquid oil, and from the C1/C6+ ratio that indicates gas. On the
downstroke, water is expelled rst, followed by oil, then gas (assuming all are present, as they are
here). On the upstroke, the order is reversed. The color bar indicates the primary ow contributor
(bottom). This uid sample came from a gas-condensate zone, and the separation of the uid into gas
and liquid phases indicated the drawdown was too large.
Real-Time Advantages
Capabilities provided by the FDU are being
incorporated into real-time CFA services,
increasing the sensitivity for detecting phase
transitions and providing additional information
about in-situ uid compositions.
The ability to distinguish methane and light
hydrocarbons from heavier hydrocarbons greatly
increases the amount of information available in
real time from gas-condensate reservoirs. This
determination allows an operator to quickly
make important economic decisions about a
reservoir. The operator can then follow up with
more extensive measurements in a surface
laboratory, using samples whose quality has
been assuredbefore collectionusing these
innovative downhole sampling tools.
MAA
61
Claudio Brufatto
Petrobras Bolivia S.A.
Santa Cruz, Bolivia
Jamie Cochran
Aberdeen, Scotland
Lee Conn
David Power
M-I L.L.C.
Houston, Texas, USA
1500
500
0
250
Bernard Fraboulet
Total Exploration & Production
Pau, France
0
100
2000
Tom Grifn
Grifn Cement Consulting LLC
Houston, Texas
Simon James
Trevor Munk
Clamart, France
Frederico Justus
Santa Cruz, Bolivia
Joseph R. Levine
United States Minerals Management Service
Herndon, Virginia, USA
Carl Montgomery
ConocoPhillips
Bartlesville, Oklahoma, USA
Dominic Murphy
BHP Billiton Petroleum
London, England
Jochen Pfeiffer
Houston, Texas
Tiraputra Pornpoch
PTT Exploration and Production
Public Company Ltd. (PTTEP)
Bangkok, Thailand
Lara Rishmani
Abu Dhabi, UAE
62
Oileld Review
Wells at Risk
Since the earliest gas wells, uncontrolled migration of hydrocarbons to the surface has
challenged the oil and gas industry. Gas migration, also called annular flow, can lead to
sustained casing pressure (SCP), sometimes
called sustained annular pressure (SAP).
Sustained casing pressure can be characterized
Autumn 2003
60
Percent of wells affected by SCP
The science of constructing gas wells is thousands of years old. Legend has it that the
Chinese dug the first natural gas well before
200 BC and transported the gas through bamboo
pipelines.1 Subsequent well-construction history
is unclear until 1821, the year of the rst US well
drilled specically for natural gas.2 This well, in
Fredonia, New York, USA, reached a depth of
27 ft [8.2 m] and produced enough gas to light
dozens of burners at a nearby inn. Eventually
the well was deepened and produced enough gas
to provide lighting for the whole town of
Fredonia. By this time, well-casing technology in
the form of hollowed-out wooden logs had been
developed for salt dome drilling, but it is not
known whether such casing was used in the gas
wells drilled during this era. In all likelihood,
these rst gas wells were leak-prone.
During the rest of the 19th Century, natural
gas became an important energy source for
many communities. Techniques for locating,
exploiting and transporting natural gas to our
homes and industries have had huge advances
since the early days.
Despite these advances, many of todays
wells are at risk. Failure to isolate sources
of hydrocarbon either early in the wellconstruction process or long after production
begins has resulted in abnormally pressured
casing strings and leaks of gas into zones that
would otherwise not be gas-bearing.
Abnormal pressure at the surface may often
be easy to detect, although the source or root
cause may be difcult to determine. Tubing and
casing leaks, poor drilling and displacement
practices, improper cement selection and
design, and production cycling may all be factors
in the development of gas leaks.
Planning for gas by acknowledging the interdependencies of various well-construction
processes is critical to building gas wells for the
future. This article focuses on an early phase in
the gas journeyconstructing the gas well. Case
studies from South America, the Irish Sea, Asia
and the Middle East demonstrate effective
methods for selecting drilling muds, displacing
mud before cementing, and constructing longlasting wells with high-integrity cement.
50
40
30
20
10
0
12
16
Well age, years
20
24
28
> Wells with SCP by age. Statistics from the United States Mineral Management
Service (MMS) show the percentage of wells with SCP for wells in the outer
continental shelf (OCS) area of the Gulf of Mexico, grouped by age of the wells.
These data do not include wells in state waters or land locations.
63
Microannulus
Sand
Tubing leak
> Scenarios for gas ow. Shown are possible scenarios of gas migration to
the surface resulting in SCP. Tubing and packer leaks may allow gas to
migrate. Microannului may develop soon or long after cementing operations.
Poor mud displacement may result in inadequate zonal isolation. Gas may
slowly displace residual nondisplaced drilling uid, eventually pressurizing
the annular space between tubing and casing strings. Gas may also ow
through poorly designed nongas-tight permeable cement.
64
Oileld Review
Autumn 2003
> Cuttings response to drilling uids. Cuttings samples were taken from a
well in the southern Gulf of Mexico drilled with oil-base mud; these cuttings
had not been exposed to water-base mud prior to testing. After cleaning oil
from the cuttings surface, Schlumberger laboratory technicians sorted the
rock pieces. Three initially identical samples of rock were photographed
after receiving a different treatment. Sample A (left) was placed in tap water,
Sample B (middle) into a generic lignosulfonate drilling uid and Sample C
(right) was immersed in a glycol-polymer-potassium chloride uid. Each
sample was rolled in a stainless-steel cell in a hot-roll oven for 16 hours at
250F [121C] to simulate drilling and transport up the borehole to surface.
The sample in tap water, Sample A, was most damaged, and Sample C in the
glycol-polymer-potassium chloride uid was essentially undamaged. The
lignosulfonate system generated intermediate damage for Sample B. Drilling
with a mud having low inhibition values would be expected to generate
borehole instability and washout. In contrast, excellent clay control would
be obtained by a more advanced chemistry, such as glycol-polymerpotassium chloride.
drilling uids under simulated downhole conditions and physical examination of core and
cuttings with scanning electron microscopy.12
The results are often inconsistent, so drilling
fluid selection often is based simply on field
history. Many times, particularly in new fields
where formation clay chemistry may be
unknown, effective eld development may hinge
on understanding the nature of formation clays
as they vary with depth [above].
6. For more on zonal isolation: Abbas R, Cunningham E,
Munk T, Bjelland B, Chukwueke V, Ferri A, Garrison G,
Hollies D, Labat C and Moussa O: Solutions for
Long-Term Zonal Isolation, Oileld Review 14, no. 3
(Autumn 2002): 1629.
7. Bonett A and Patis D: Getting to the Root of Gas
Migration, Oileld Review 8, no. 1 (Spring 1996): 3649.
8. Bourgoyne A, Scott S and Manowski W: Review of
Sustained Casing Pressure Occurring on the OCS,
http://www.mms.gov/tarprojects/008/008DE.pdf
(posted April 2000).
9. Wojtanowicz AK and Zhou D: New Model of Pressure
Reduction to Annulus During Primary Cementing,
paper IADC/SPE 59137, presented at the IADC/SPE
Drilling Conference, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA,
February 2325, 2000.
10. Parcevaux PA and Sault PH: Cement Shrinkage and
Elasticity: A New Approach for a Good Zonal Isolation,
paper SPE 13176, presented at the 59th SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Texas,
USA, September 1619, 1984.
11. A microannulus is a small gap between cement and a
pipe or a formation. This phenomenon has been documented by running sequential cement bond logs, rst
with no pressure inside the casing and then with the
casing pressured. The bond log clearly indicates that
applied pressure often closes a microannulus.
12. Galal M: Can We Visualize Drilling Fluid Performance
Before We Start? paper SPE 81415, presented at the
SPE 13th Middle East Oil Show & Conference, Bahrain,
June 912, 2003.
65
Hole
Cleaning
Hole
Cleaning
G = good
F = fair
P = poor
Geometry
ROP = 5 m/hr
ROP = 16 m/hr
ROP = 28 m/hr
ROP = 39 m/hr
ROP = 50 m/hr
10.6
Low rheology
10.4
10.2
10.0
9.8
9.6
9.4
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
Low
Rheology
Optimized
Rheology
ROP = 5 m/hr
ROP = 16 m/hr
ROP = 28 m/hr
ROP = 39 m/hr
ROP = 50 m/hr
9.90
Optimized rheology
9.85
9.80
9.75
9.70
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
> Optimized rheology with Virtual Hydraulics analysis. In this simulation, the M-I Virtual Hydraulics
software demonstrates that borehole-cleaning capacity can be optimized against ow rate and
equivalent circulating density (ECD). The simulation indicates that even when pumping at high rates,
borehole cleaning (left, Track 2) with a low-rheology mud is poor in the upper sections and ECD is high
(chart - upper right). Once optimized, ECD is signicantly lower (chart - lower right) and boreholecleaning efciency improves from poor to good (left, Track 3).
66
Oileld Review
Depth, m
WELLCLEAN II
Risk of Mud
on Wall
CBT
Amplitude
0
mV
Variable
Density Log
50 Min s Max
1500
Depth, m
Condensed
USI LogUnpressurized
Casing
WELLCLEAN II
Risk of Mud
on Wall
High
Med
Low
None
2000
Case A
WELLCLEAN
ll
Standoff
Cement
coverage
0
WELLCLEAN ll
Standoff
Cement
Coverage
High
Medium
Low
None
0
100
2000
% 100
2500
2500
3
3
3000
3000
3500
3500
4000
4000
4500
Flag Notes:
1 Poor coverage and bond after this pointlead/tail interface.
2 Mud on wall has produced channel, seen on USI plot also.
3 Increasing risk of mud on wall leads to poor cement coverage and microannuli.
> Post-placement WELLCLEAN II analysis. Wells L10 (left) and L11 (right) were both producing at the time these simulations
were run, each with SCP between the 1338- and 958-in. casing strings. Post-placement analysis of each well indicated a high
risk of mud left in the borehole, implying poor displacement and a high potential for primary cement failure and annular gas
migration. The red and orange areas on Track 4 (left) and Track 3 (right) provide clear indications of the mud-removal risk
level. The USI UltraSonic Imager log on the left image (Track 2) correlates with the WELLCLEAN II prejob simulation in Track 4
where poor mud removal potential is indicated. On the USI log (Track 2), the yellow shading indicates bonded cement.
Autumn 2003
failures. The simulation results compared favorably with the original cement bond logs and
other data from both wells, conrming the accuracy and utility of the WELLCLEAN II
simulations in predicting mud removal and
cement placement [above].
Based on modeling of the L10 and L11 wells,
the engineering team determined that poor
mud removal was the primary cause of inadequate zonal isolation. Utilizing CemCADE
cementing design and simulation software and
67
WELLCLEAN II
Risk of Mud
on Wall
Depth, m
WELLCLEAN ll
Standoff
Cement
Coverage
0
100
1500
USI Log
Variable Density
Log
High
Medium
Low
None
Lithology
Cleueleys
mudstone
2000
Blackpool
mudstone
2500
Rosall Halite
3000
Andsell
mudstone
3500
Omskirk
sandstone
4000
> Results of a prejob displacement simulation. Prior to cementing the 958-in. casing string on the L12 well, engineers modeled
and simulated borehole conditions and displacement parameters using WELLCLEAN II software. By optimizing mud properties
and spacer and cement design, along with proper centralization, the simulation predicted near-complete displacement of the
drilling uid (Track 7). A USI log run after cementing conrmed proper placement and zonal isolation as seen in Tracks 2 through
5. The yellow shading in Track 5 indicates optimal cement bonding. Well L12 is currently producing with no detectable SCP.
68
Oileld Review
Autumn 2003
> Petrobras remote location drilling. Petrobras is drilling multiple well templates
in the San Antonio eld in southern Bolivia.
69
Caliper 1
16
Gamma Ray
0
API
in.
Caliper 2
6 6
in.
Bit Size
200
Depth,
m
16
in.
16
Bit Size
6 6
in.
16
3575
3600
1
Transit Time (TT)
400
200
150
Depth,
0
m
Gamma Ray
0
API
CBT Amplitude
200
mV
10
CBT Amplitude
mV
100
Density log was run three days after the cementing operation. 18 The CemCADE simulator
predicted a CBT amplitude of 1.7 mV for 100%
mud removal and 3.1 mV for 80% mud removal.
The logging results indicate an average
amplitude of around 2 mV, so the 7-in. liner
cement job had a 95% average bond index
[below left]. These results agree with CemCADE
and WELLCLEAN II predictions. Good zonal
isolation was achieved.
The holistic approach to gas-migration control adopted by the engineering teams,
combined with state-of-the-art technology,
resulted in effective zonal isolation with no gas
leakage to surface. As of September 2003, after
producing as much as 20 MMscf/D [0.57 m3/d] of
gas for over a year, the X-3 well has shown no
indication of microannuli or SCP development.
By applying an integrated approach to wellbore
planning and construction, the engineering team
successfully modied their operational, drilling
uids and cementing programs to achieve zonal
isolation on two subsequent casing strings.
3575
3600
Casing Collars
Cement Isolation Marker
70
Oileld Review
BK-11-G
26-in. conductor
pipe at 151 m
BK-11-L
26-in. conductor
pipe at 151 m
13 3/8-in. shoe
at 308 m
TD = 308 m
17 1/2-in. hole,
TD at 311 m
BK-11-G
26-in. conductor
pipe at 151 m
BK-11-L
26-in. conductor
pipe at 151 m
13 3/8-in. shoe
at 308 m
TD = 308 m
17 1/2-in. hole,
TD at 311 m
BK-11-G
26-in. conductor
pipe at 151 m
BK-11-L
26-in. conductor
pipe at 151 m
13 3/8-in. shoe
at 308 m
17 1/2-in. hole,
TD at 311 m
TD = 308 m
Top of gas sand = 327 m
Shallow-gas zone
Bottom of gas sand = 340 m
Autumn 2003
71
> Controlling cuttings with silicate mud. The SILDRIL silicate-base mud, used
to drill the 1214-in. sections, produced a stable borehole with an average
diameter of 12.54 in. [318 mm]. Cuttings shown crossing the shaker have a high
level of integrity, conrming control of formation clay hydration and dispersion.
3.5
3
3.0
Expansion, %
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.7
0.5
0.1
-0.05
Salt
cement
Portland
cement
Foamed
cement
0.0
-0.5
Plaster
cement
FlexSTONE
cement
> Changing volume of cement during the setting phase. Most cements have
only a slight volume change during the setting process. FlexSTONE advanced
exible cement system can be formulated to expand by as much as 3%.
Silicate muds have proved useful in stabilizing the erosion of shallow unconsolidated
formations and in providing gauge boreholes
while maintaining optimal penetration rates. In
highly reactive formations such as those encountered on the WP11 project, silicate ions bond
with active sites on formation clays. This results
in highly competent cuttings and borehole stabilization through direct chemical bonding of the
polymerized silicate [top].
72
Oileld Review
Microdebonding
Liquid
Gas or Dry
Microannulus
Bonded
-1000.0000
-500.0000
0.3000
2.0000
2.2727
2.5454
2.8182
3.0909
3.3636
3.6364
3.9091
4.1818
4.4545
4.7273
5.0000
Cement Map
Microdebonding
Liquid
Gas or Dry
Microannulus
Depth, m
Bonded
-1000.0000
-500.0000
0.3000
2.0000
2.2727
2.5454
2.8182
3.0909
3.3636
3.6364
3.9091
4.1818
4.4545
4.7273
5.0000
Cement Map
with Impedance
Classification
250
> Filling the voids. The void space between particles in standard cements (left) is lled with water.
FlexSTONE systems ll the void space with medium and small particles (right). Less water is used in
the formulation, and slurries can be made more gas-tight, stronger and more exible. As the cement
sets, specic particles in the FlexSTONE system contribute to expansion while others are designed to
provide exibility of set cement.
Cement particle characteristics and size distribution can contribute signicantly to both the
resistance to gas influx and maintenance of a
sustainable hydraulic seal, particularly in wellbores subjected to pressure and temperature
cycling. FlexSTONE advanced flexible cement
technology, part of the CemCRETE concretebased oilwell cementing technology, is one of
several solutions that effectively address cement
exibility and durability.
Conventional Portland cements are known
to shrink during setting [previous page, middle].19
In contrast, FlexSTONE slurries can be designed
to expand, further tightening the hydraulic seal
and helping to compensate for variations in borehole or casing conditions. This capability helps
avoid microannuli development. By adjusting
specic additive characteristics and by blending
the cement slurry with an engineered particle
size distribution, a lowering of Youngs modulus
of elasticity in cement can be achieved [above].
Annular cement can then ex in unison with the
casing rather than failing from tensile stresses.
19. Dusseault MB, Gray MN and Nawrocki PA: Why
Oilwells Leak: Cement Behavior and Long-Term
Consequences, paper SPE 64733, presented at the
SPE International Oil and Gas Conference and Exhibition,
Beijing, China, November 710, 2000.
Autumn 2003
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300
325
350
73
74
-500.0000
-6.0000
-5.6000
-5.2000
-4.8000
-4.4000
-4.000
-3.6000
-3.2000
-2.8000
-2.4000
-2.0000
-1.6000 Microdebonding
-1.2000
-0.8000
-0.4000
Liquid
0.5000
Amplitude of
Echo Minus
Max
Gamma Ray
0
API
70
Gas or Dry
Microannulus
Bonded
-1000.0000
-500.0000
0.3000
2.6000
3.0000
3.5000
4.0000
4.5000
Transit Time (Sliding Gate)
5.0000
s
400
200
5.5000
6.0000
Transit Time (TT)
6.5000
s
400
200
7.0000
7.5000
CBT Amplitude (Sliding Gate)
8.0000
0
mV
100
Cement Map
CBT Amplitude (CBL)
with Impedance
mV
100
Classification 0
-500.0000
-6.0000
-5.6000
-5.2000
-4.8000
-4.4000
-4.000
-3.6000
-3.2000
-2.8000
-2.4000
-2.0000
-1.6000
Microdebonding
-1.2000
-0.8000
-0.4000
Liquid
0.5000
Amplitude of
Echo Minus
Max
Depth,
ft
12,600
Gamma Ray
0
API
70
Gas or Dry
Microannulus
Bonded
-1000.0000
-500.0000
0.3000
2.6000
3.0000
3.5000
4.0000
4.5000
Transit Time (Sliding Gate)
5.0000
400
200
s
5.5000
6.0000
Transit Time (TT)
6.5000
400
200
s
7.0000
7.5000
CBT Amplitude (Sliding Gate)
8.0000
0
mV
100
Cement Map
CBT Amplitude (CBL)
with Impedance
mV
100
Classification 0
12,650
12,700
12,750
12,800
12,850
12,900
> FlexSTONE cement expansion with time. USI logs of a borehole made in October (left) and December
(right) indicated cement expansion over the two-month period. Track 2 indicates more debonding
(green) in October than in December (Track 6). The reduction in CBT amplitude in Tracks 4 and 8 also
indicates improved bonding.
Oileld Review
Slurry
Slurry 1FlexSTONE
Slurry 2Type G
conventional cement 1
Slurry 3Type G
conventional cement 2
Youngs
Modulus, psi
Poissons
Ratio
900,000
0.20
1,700,000
0.19
1,500,000
0.22
> Flexible cement designs. The FlexSTONE system was designed with
a 50% lower Youngs modulus than conventional slurry to meet the
specications determined from SAM simulations. Slurry 2 reects
the properties for the conventional cement slurry used to cement
the 958-in. casing string. FlexSTONE Slurry 1, which has a substantial
increase in exibility, was used to cement the 7-inch liner section.
Autumn 2003
Cement Map
with Impedance
Classification
Gas or Dry
Microannulus
Liquid
Microdebonding
-1000.0000
-500.0000
0.3000
2.6000
3.0000
3.5000
4.0000
4.5000
5.0000
5.5000
6.0000
6.5000
7.0000
7.5000
8.0000
Depth,
ft
Bonded
Microdebonding
Liquid
Gas or Dry
Microannulus
Bonded
-1000.0000
-500.0000
0.3000
2.6000
3.0000
3.5000
4.0000
4.5000
5.0000
5.5000
6.0000
6.5000
7.0000
7.5000
8.0000
Cement Map
with Impedance
Classification
9650
9700
9750
75
CBT Amplitude
(Sliding Gate)
0
mV
CBT Amplitude
(Sliding Gate)
10
CBT Amplitude
(Sliding Gate)
mV
10
CBT Amplitude
(Sliding Gate)
mV
100
CBT Amplitude
mV
100
CBT Amplitude
mV
100
CBT Amplitude
mV
100
CBT Amplitude
mV
-500.0000
0.3375
0.6750
1.0125
1.3500
1.6875
2.0250
2.3625
2.7000
3.0375
3.3750
3.7125
4.0500
4.3875
4.7250
5.0625
5.4000
10
mV
10
Depth,
ft
8050
Microdebonding
Liquid
Gas or
Dry
Microannulus
-1000.0000
-500.0000
0.3000
2.1000
2.4000
2.7000
3.0000
3.3000
3.6000
3.9000
4.2000
4.5000
4.8000
5.1000
5.4000
Internal
Cement Map with
Radii
Impedance
Minus Bonded
Classification
Average
-500.0000
0.3375
0.6750
1.0125
1.3500
1.6875
2.0250
2.3625
2.7000
3.0375
3.3750
3.7125
4.0500
4.3875
4.7250
5.0625
5.4000
Microdebonding
Liquid
Gas or
Dry
Microannulus
-1000.0000
-500.0000
0.3000
2.1000
2.4000
2.7000
3.0000
3.3000
3.6000
3.9000
4.2000
4.5000
4.8000
5.1000
5.4000
Internal
Cement Map with
Radii
Impedance
Minus Bonded
Classification
Average
8100
8150
8200
8250
8300
8350
8400
8450
> Zonal isolation on Well BB-548. Both CBT (left, Tracks 1 and 2) and USI (right Tracks 3 to 8) logs
were obtained while logging the 958-in. casing section of Well BB-548 in April and again in June. The
April USI results in Track 4 indicated good overall bonding (yellow) with a few small liquid zones
(blue). These zones, shown in the April CBT log (Track 1/8080 ft [2463 m]), reect a CBT amplitude of
20 mV. As indicated by less liquid in the June USI result (Track 7) and a drop of CBT voltage to 5 mV
(Track 2), pressure-testing did not affect the hydraulic seal developed by the expansive and exible
FlexSTONE cement. In Tracks 1 and 2, the CBT amplitude and CBT amplitude (sliding gate) essentially
overlap one another.
76
Oileld Review
Contributors
John Anderson is senior staff engineer in the
Canadian Gas Business Unit of Nexen Canada Ltd. in
Calgary, Alberta, where he has worked since 1995. He
has supervised drilling, completion and production
operations, including gas-storage operations. In more
than 23 years as a drilling and operations engineer,
John has worked for several operating companies and
consultancies in Canada. He earned a Diploma of
Engineering Studies at Dalhousie University, Halifax,
Nova Scotia, Canada, and a BE degree from Nova
Scotia Technical College, also in Halifax.
Paul Basinski joined El Paso Production in Houston,
Texas, USA, as principal geologist, Coalbed Methane
(CBM) Division, in 2000 and is currently involved with
unconventional gas new ventures. Prior to El Paso, he
worked in international exploration and US exploration
and development as geological adviser for Burlington
Resources in Houston and in Farmington, New Mexico,
USA, where he was involved with various CBM projects.
As a geologist for several independents and a major
company, he made commercial discoveries in the
Rocky Mountains, Michigan (USA), the Gulf Coast and
Permian Basins. Paul received a BA degree in geology
from the State University of New York, Buffalo, USA,
and an MS degree in geology from the Mackay School
Mines, University of Nevada, Reno, USA.
Andrew Beaton is a coal and coalbed methane (CBM)
specialist with the Alberta Geological Survey,
Alberta Energy and Utilities Board in Edmonton,
Canada. There he focuses on evaluating the coalbed
methane resources of Alberta and geological factors
controlling CBM production potential. Previously, he
worked at Smoky River Coal Company, Grande Cache,
Alberta, on coal quality and mining geology issues. He
has also served as consultant in the fields of coal
chemistry, coal petrology, coal quality, coal and coalbed
methane exploration, and isotope geology. He holds a
BS degree in geology from Saint-Francis Xavier
University, Antigonish, Nova Scotia, Canada, and an
MS degree in coal science from the University of
Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada. Andrew has
published several papers on Canadas coal chemistry,
petrography and CBM resources.
Soraya Betancourt is a research engineer with the
Sampling and Analysis group at Schlumberger-Doll
Research in Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA. She joined
Schlumberger in 2000 as a reservoir engineer at
the Schlumberger Reservoir Completions Center,
Rosharon, Texas. Soraya previously was employed by
Petrleos de Venezuela SA (PDVSA) Oil & Gas in
Venezuela as a production technologist. She has a BS
degree from Universidad del Zulia in Venezuela and an
MS degree from the University of Tulsa, Oklahoma,
USA, both in petroleum engineering.
Autumn 2003
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78
Oilfield Review
Autumn 2003
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80
Oilfield Review
NEW BOOKS
Autumn 2003
81
Advances in geochemistry, geochronology and geophysics, as well as new analytical tools, have all contributed to
new ways of thinking about the origin
and evolution of magmas, and the
processes driving metamorphism. This
book is designed to give comprehensive
coverage of these new advances, as well
as a firm grounding in the classical
aspects of igneous and metamorphic
petrology.
Contents:
Overview of Fundamental Concepts
Composition and Classification of
Magmatic Rocks
Thermodynamics and Kinetics: An
Introduction
Silicate Melts and Volatile Fluids in
Magma Systems
Crystal-Melt Equilibria in Magmatic
82
Systems
Chemical Dynamics of Melts and
Crystals
Kinetic Paths and Fabric of Magmatic Rocks
Physical and Thermal Dynamics of
Bodies of Magma
Magma Ascent and Emplacement:
Field Relations of Intrusions
Magma Extrusion: Field Relations of
Volcanic Rock Bodies
Generation of Magma
Differentiation of Magmas
Magmatic Petrotectonic Associations
Metamorphic Rocks and Metamorphism: An Overview
Petrograpy of Metamorphic
Rocks: Fabric, Composition, and
Classification
Metamorphic Mineral Reactions and
Equilibria
Evolution of Imposed Metamorphic
Fabrics: Processes and Kinetics
Metamorphism at Convergent Plate
Margins: PTt Paths, Facies and
Zones
Precambrian Rock Associations
Appendices, References, Glossary,
Index
For most geoscience courses a
book about rocks is a much better
choice. And theres a really good one
just out: Myron Bests Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology. These topics,
falling under the umbrella of hardrock geology, have lost a great deal
of prominence in curricula as departments have sought to address increasingly environmental agendas. Perhaps
books like this will begin to redress
the balance.
Butler R: New Scientist 177, no. 2387 (March 22,
2003): 52.
An Introduction to Geophysical
Exploration, 3rd edition
Philip Kearey, Michael Brooks and
Ian Hill
Blackwell Science
350 Main Street
Malden, Massachusetts 02148 USA
2002. 280 pages. $69.95
ISBN 0-632-04929-4
The book deals with the physical principles, methodology, interpretational procedures and applications of the various
survey methods used in geophysical
exploration. The main emphasis is on
seismic techniques, but gravity, magnetic, electrical, electromagnetic and
radiometric methods are also discussed.
Contents:
The Principles and Limitations of
Geophysical Exploration Methods
Geophysical Data Processing
Elements of Seismic Surveying
Seismic Reflection Surveying
Seismic Refraction Surveying
Gravity Surveying
Magnetic Surveying
Electrical Surveying
Electromagnetic Surveying
Radiometric Surveying
Geophysical Borehole Logging
Appendix, References, Index
With such a wide range of coverage, [the book] does not go into the
details that experts may need. However,
if more information is needed, the references at the end of each chapter are
very adequate.the authors give the
required basis of the math in a simple
clear way in each chapter.
The discussion of different methods
of explorationwill be of great help
to undergraduate students, and others
who want to get an idea about what is
going on under the surface of the
earth (for example, archaeologists
and managers).
Michael F: The Leading Edge 21, no. 12
(December 2002): 1251.
Oilfield Review