I N T R O D U C T I O N

MY

desire to make a critical re-evaluation of

psycho-

analytical theories h a d its o r i g i n i n a dissatisfaction w i t h

t h e r a p e u t i c results. I f o u n d t h a t almost every
offered p r o b l e m s for w h i c h o u r accepted

patient

psychoanalyt-

i c a l k n o w l e d g e offered n o means o f s o l u t i o n , a n d w h i c h
therefore r e m a i n e d unsolved.
A s m o s t analysts p r o b a b l y d o , a t f i r s t I a t t r i b u t e d t h e
r e s u l t i n g u n c e r t a i n t y to m y o w n lack of

experience,

l a c k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g o r b l i n d spots. I r e m e m b e r pesteri n g m o r e e x p e r i e n c e d c o l l e a g u e s w i t h q u e s t i o n s s u c h as
w h a t F r e u d o r t h e y u n d e r s t o o d b y "ego," w h y sadistic
impulses were interrelated w i t h "anal l i b i d o , " and w h y
so m a n y d i f f e r e n t t r e n d s w e r e r e g a r d e d as a n e x p r e s s i o n
of latent homosexualitywithout, however,

obtaining

answers t h a t seemed satisfactory.

I h a d m y first a c t i v e d o u b t s as t o t h e v a l i d i t y o f psychoanalytical theories w h e n I read Freud's concept

of

f e m i n i n e psychology, doubts w h i c h were t h e n strengthe n e d b y h i s p o s t u l a t e o f t h e d e a t h i n s t i n c t . B u t i t was

s e v e r a l years b e f o i e I s t a r t e d t o t h i n k t h r o u g h p s y c h o analytical theories i n a c r i t i c a l way.
A s w i l l b e seen t h r o u g h o u t t h e b o o k , t h e system o f
t h e o r i e s w h i c h F r e u d has g r a d u a l l y d e v e l o p e d is so c o n s i s t e n t t h a t w h e n o n e is o n c e e n t r e n c h e d i n t h e m i t is
d i f f i c u l t t o m a k e observations unbiased b y his way o f

INTRODUCTION

t h i n k i n g . I t is o n l y t h r o u g h r e c o g n i z i n g t h e

debatable

p r e m i s e s o n w h i c h t h i s system is b u i l t t h a t o n e

acquires

a c l e a r e r v i s i o n as t o t h e sources o f e r r o r c o n t a i n e d i n
t h e i n d i v i d u a l t h e o r i e s . I n a l l s i n c e r i t y I m a y say t h a t
I regard myself qualified to make
tained

in

this

book,

because

the criticisms conconsistently

Freud's theories for a period of over

The

resistance w h i c h m a n y

fifteen

applied

years.

p s y c h i a t r i s t s as w e l l

l a y m e n f e e l t o w a r d o r t h o d o x p s y c h o a n a l y s i s is d u e

as
not

o n l y t o e m o t i o n a l sources, as is a s s u m e d , b u t also t o t h e
debatable

character

refutation

o f psychoanalysis w h i c h

of many

r e s o r t t o is r e g r e t t a b l e
the valid w i t h
recognition

theories.

The

the d u b i t a b l e a n d thereby

of what

complete

these c r i t i c s

because i t leads t o

often

discarding
prevents

psychoanalysis essentially

has

a
to

offer. I f o u n d that the m o r e I took a c r i t i c a l stand tow a r d a series o f p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l

theories, the m o r e

realized the constructive value of Freud's

findings

fundamental

a n d the m o r e paths o p e n e d u p f o r the u n d e r -

standing of psychological

problems.

T h u s t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s b o o k is n o t t o s h o w
is w r o n g w i t h psychoanalysis,

what

but, through eliminating

t h e d e b a t a b l e e l e m e n t s , t o e n a b l e p s y c h o a n a l y s i s t o dev e l o p to the h e i g h t of its p o t e n t i a l i t i e s . As a result of

both

theoretical

considerations

and

practical

experi-

ence, I believe t h a t t h e range of p r o b l e m s w h i c h can be

understood

is e n l a r g e d

considerably

i f we

cut

loose

f r o m certain historically determined theoretical premises a n d d i s c a r d t h e t h e o r i e s a r i s i n g o n t h a t basis.

M y c o n v i c t i o n , e x p r e s s e d i n a n u t s h e l l , is t h a t psychoanalysis s h o u l d o u t g r o w t h e l i m i t a t i o n s set b y i t s b e i n g
an i n s t i n c t i v i s t i c a n d a genetic

psychology.

As to

the

INTRODUCTION

l a t t e r , F r e u d t e n d s t o r e g a r d l a t e r p e c u l i a r i t i e s as a l m o s t
direct repetitions of i n f a n t i l e drives or reactions; hence
he expects later disturbances
lying

to vanish

i n f a n t i l e e x p e r i e n c e s are

ognize

i f the

elucidated.

r e l i n q u i s h this one-sided emphasis

under-

When

we

o n genesis, w e

rec-

that the connection between

later

peculiarities

a n d e a r l i e r e x p e r i e n c e s is m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d t h a n F r e u d
assumes: t h e r e is n o s u c h t h i n g as a n i s o l a t e d r e p e t i t i o n
of

isolated

experiences; b u t the e n t i r e t y of i n f a n t i l e

experiences combines to f o r m a certain character

struc-

t u r e , a n d i t is t h i s s t r u c t u r e f r o m w h i c h l a t e r d i f f i c u l t i e s
e m a n a t e . T h u s t h e analysis o f t h e a c t u a l c h a r a c t e r s t r u c t u r e moves i n t o the f o i e g r o u n d of a t t e n t i o n .
As to the instinctivistic o r i e n t a t i o n of
w h e n character

psychoanalysis:

t r e n d s are n o l o n g e r e x p l a i n e d as t h e

ultimate outcome

of instinctual drives, m o d i f i e d o n l y

by the e n v i r o n m e n t , the e n t i r e emphasis

life c o n d i t i o n s m o l d i n g the character
search anew
for

creating

neurotic

conflicts;

thus

falls o n

the

a n d we have to

f o r t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l factors

responsible

disturbances

in

h u m a n relationships become the crucial factor i n the

genesis o f n e u r o s e s . A p r e v a i l i n g l y s o c i o l o g i c a l

orienta-

t i o n t h e n takes t h e p l a c e o f a p r e v a i l i n g l y a n a t o m i c a l p h y s i o l o g i c a l one. W h e n the one-sided c o n s i d e r a t i o n of

the pleasure

p r i n c i p l e , i m p l i c i t i n t h e l i b i d o t h e o r y , is

r e l i n q u i s h e d t h e s t r i v i n g f o r safety assumes m o r e w e i g h t
and the role of anxiety i n engendering strivings t o w a r d
safety a p p e a r s i n a n e w l i g h t . T h e r e l e v a n t f a c t o r i n t h e
genesis o f n e u r o s e s is t h e n n e i t h e r t h e O e d i p u s

complex

n o r a n y k i n d o f i n f a n t i l e p l e a s u r e s t r i v i n g s b u t a l l those
a d v e r s e i n f l u e n c e s w h i c h m a k e a c h i l d l e e l helpless a n d
defenseless a n d w h i c h m a k e h i m c o n c e i v e t h e w o r l d as

INTRODUCTION
p o t e n t i a l l y m e n a c i n g . Because o f h i s d r e a d o f p o t e n t i a l
dangers

the

child

must

develop

certain

t r e n d s " p e r m i t t i n g h i m t o cope w i t h
some measure

o f safety.

"neurotic

the w o r l d

with

Narcissistic, masochistic,

per-

f e c t i o n i s t i c t r e n d s seen i n t h i s l i g h t are n o t d e r i v a t i v e s
of i n s t i n c t u a l fortes, b u t represent

primarily an

indi-

vidual's a t t e m p t to f i n d paths t h r o u g h a wilderness

full

of u n k n o w n dangeis. T h e manifest anxiety i n neuioses

is t h e n n o t t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e " e g o ' s " fear o f b e i n g
o v e r w h e l m e d by the onslaught of instinctual drives or
of b e i n g p u n i s h e d by a h y p o t h e t i c a l "super ego,"
is t h e r e s u l t o f t h e specific

safety

devices'

but

failure

to

operate.
T h e i n f l u e n c e these basic changes i n v i e w p o i n t h a v e
on

individual

psychoanalytical

concepts

will

be

dis-

cussed i n successive c h a p t e i s . I t sufhees h e i e t o p o i n t o u t

a few general implicationsSexual

problems, although they may sometimes

pre-

v a i l i n t h e s y m p t o m a t i c p i c t u r e , are n o l o n g e r c o n s i d ered to be i n the d y n a m i c center of neuioses.

difficulties aie

t h e effect

Sexual

r a t h e i t h a n t h e cause o f

the

neurotic character structure.

M o r a l problems o n the other h a n d gain i n i m p o r t a n c e . T o t a k e at t h e i r face v a l u e those m o r a l p r o b l e m s
w i t h w h i c h t h e p a t i e n t is o s t e n s i b l y s t r u g g l i n g ( " s u p e r ego," n e u i o t i c g u i l t feelings) appears to lead to a b l i n d
a l l e y . T h e y are p s e u d o m o r a f p r o b l e m s a n d h a v e t o b e
u n c o v e r e d as s u c h . B u t i t also b e c o m e s necessary t o h e l p
t h e p a t i e n t t o face s q u a r e l y

the t r u e m o r a l

problems

i n v o l v e d i n e v e r y n e u r o s i s a n d t o t a k e a s t a n d t o n arc!
them.
Finally, w h e n the "ego"

is n o l o n g e r r e g a r d e d as a n

INTRODUCTION
organ merely executing or checking instinctual drives,
s u c h h u m a n f a c u l t i e s as w i l l p o w e r , j u d g m e n t , d e c i s i o n s
are

reinstated i n their dignity. T h e

"ego"

Freud

de-

scribes t h e n appears to be n o t a u n i v e r s a l b u t a n e u r o t i c
phenomenon.

The

v i d u a l self m u s t

w a r p i n g of

t h e n be

the spontaneous

recognized

as a

f a c t o r i n t h e genesis a n d m a i n t e n a n c e

paramount

o f neuroses.

Neuroses thus represent a peculiar k i n d of

struggle

for life u n d e r difficult conditions. T h e i r very

consists o f

distuibances

i n the

indi-

relations

essence

t o self

and

o t h e r s , a n d c o n f l i c t s a r i s i n g o n these g i o u n d s . T h e s h i f t
in

emphasis

as t o t h e

fa'tors

considered

relevant

n e u r o s e s e n l a r g e s c o n s i d e r a b l y t h e tasks o f
ical therapy. T h e

the patient to gain masteiy

over

in

psychoanalvt

a i m o f t h e r a p y is t h e n n o t t o

help

his instincts b u t

to

lessen h i s a n x i e t y t o s u c h a n e x t e n t t h a t h e c a n d i s p e n s e
w i t h his " n e u r o t i c t r e n d s . " B e y o n d this a i m t h e r e looms
a n e n t i r e l y n e w t h e i a p e u t u g o a l , w h i c h is t o r e s t o i e t h e
individual

to himself, to help h i m lcgain

his

sponta

n e i t y a n d find h i s c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y i n h i m s e l f .
I t is^said t h a t t h e w r i t e r h i m s e l f p r o f i t s m o s t t h t o u g h
w r i t i n g a b o o k . I k n o w that I have benefited t h r o u g h
w r i t i n g this one. T h e

necessity t o f o r m u l a t e

thoughts

has g r e a t l y h e l p e d m c t o c l a r i f y t h e m . W h e t h e r

otheis

w i l l p i o f i t , n o one k n o w s i n advance. I suppose t h e n

aie

many

analysts

and

psychiatrists w h o

have

cvpcii

e i K e d m y u n c e i t a i n t i e s as t o t h e v a l i d i t y o f m a n y

thco

i c t i c t l c o n t e n t i o n s . I d o n o t expect t h e m to accept m \
formulations
complete

nor

in then
final.

entirety,
Nor

are

for
they

b e g i n n i n g of a new psychoanalytical
however,

these a r e
meant

to

"school."

neither
be
I

the
hope

t h a t t h e y are s u f f i c i e n t l y c l e a r l y p r e s e n t e d

to

INTRODUCTION

18

p e r m i t o t h e r s t o test t h e i r v a l i d i t y f o r t h e m s e l v e s . I also
h o p e t h a t t h o s e s e r i o u s l y i n t e r e s t e d i n a p p l y i n g psychoa n a l y s i s t o e d u c a t i o n , soci al w o r k a n d a n t h r o p o l o g y w i l l
receive some h e l p t o w a r d clarification o f the p r o b l e m s
with

w h i c h they are c o n f r o n t e d . F i n a l l y

I hope

that

t h o s e l a y m e n as w e l l as p s y c h i a t r i s t s w h o h a v e t e n d e d
t o r e p u d i a t e p s y c h o a n a l y s i s as a c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s t a r t l i n g
but

unsubstantiated assumptions

will

gain

from

this

d i s c u s s i o n a p e r s p e c t i v e o n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s as a science
o f cause a n d effect a n d as a c o n s t r u c t i v e t o o l o f u n i q u e
v a l u e f o r t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f o u i selves a n d o t h e r s .
During
to

the

the time of my d i m l y

validity

of

perceived

psychoanalytical

doubts

theories

as

t w o col-

leagues e n c o u r a g e d a n d s t i m u l a t e d m e , H a r a l d SchultzH e n c k e a n d W i l h e l m R e i c h . Schultz-Hencke questionecj

the

curative value of infantile memories a n d

sized

the

necessity

of analyzing primarily

empha-

the

actual

c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n . R e i c h , t h o u g h at t h a t t i m e engrossed
i n the contentions of the l i b i d o theory, p o i n t e d o u t the
necessity o f a n a l y z i n g i n t h e first i n s t a n c e t h e d e f e n s i v e
c h a r a c t e r t r e n d s a n e u r o t i c has b u i l t u p .
O t h e r influences o n the d e v e l o p m e n t o f m y

critical

a t t i t u d e were m o r e general. A n elucidation of c e u a i n

p h i l o s o p h i c a l concepts

brought home

to me

by

Max

H o r k h e i m e r h e l p e d m e to recogni/e the m e n t a l premises o f F r e u d ' s t h i n k i n g . T h e g r e a t e r f r e e d o m f r o m d o g m a t i c beliefs w h i c h I f o u n d i n this c o u n t r y a l l e v i a t e d

the

o b l i g a t i o n of t a k i n g psychoanalytical theories for

g r a n t e d , a n d gave m e t h e c o u r a g e t o p r o c e e d a l o n g t h e
lines w h i c h I considered right. F u r t h e r m o r e , acquaintance w i t h

a c u l t u r e w h i c h i n m a n y w a y s is

different

INTRODUCTION
from

the

European

taught me

t o realize

that

many-

n e u r o t i c c o n f l i c t s are u l t i m a t e l y d e t e r m i n e d b y c u l t u r a l
conditions.

I n this

widened

by

Fromm,

who

criticized

respect

acquaintance

my

knowledge

with

i n a series o f

the

papers

work
and

has
of

been
Erich

lectures

the lacj; of c u l t u r a l o r i e n t a t i o n i n

has

Freud's

w o r k s . H e also has g i v e n m e a n e w p e r s p e c t i v e o n m a n y
p r o l U e m s o f i n d i v i d u a l p s y c h o l o g y , s u c h as t h e c e n t r a l
s i g n i f i c a n c e w h i c h t h e loss o f self e n t a i l s f o r

neuroses.

I r e g r e t t h a t a t t h e t i m e o f w r i t i n g t h i s b o o k h i s systematic p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the r o l e o f social factors i n psycholo g y has n o t y e t b e e n

cannot quote

published, and that therefore

h i m i n m a n y instances

where

I should

h a v e l i k e d t o d o so.
I t a k e t h i s o p p o r t u n i t y t o express m y t h a n k s t o M i s s
Elizabeth

Todd,

who

has

edited

the

book

and

has

h e l p e d m e greatly b o t h by her constructive criticisms

a n d b y h e r s u g g e s t i o n s as t o a m o r e l u c i d o r g a n i z a t i o n
o f t h e m a t e r i a l . M y t h a n k s are d u e also t o m y

secretary,

M r s . M a r i e Levy, whose u n t i r i n g labors a n d fine u n d e r s t a n d i n g have been invaluable

A l s o I feel i n d e b t e d t o

M i s s A l i c e S d i u l / , w h o has g i v e n m e a b e t t e r
standing of the English

language.

under-

O T H E R

T H E

N E U R O T I C

N E W

WAYS

O U R

I N N E R

IN

BOOKS

B Y

P E R S O N A L I T Y

Dr.

O F

P S Y C H O A N A L Y S I S

C O N F L I C T S

Karen

OUR

Homey

T I M E

Self-Analysis

K A R E N

New York

w-w

- N O R T O N

&

Y,

M.

C O M P A N Y -

I N C .

Copyright, 1 9 4 2 , by
W .

W .

NORTON

&

COMPANY, INC.

New York, N . Y .

ritNTED I N T H E T7KTTED

STATES

OF

ATAVB.CA

FOB T H E PUBLISHERS B 7 T H E HOKWOOD

PRESS

C O N T E N T S

Introduction
I
II

Feasibility
The

III

Stages

IV

The

1
and Desirability

Driving

Forces

of

in

Neuroses

of Psychoanalytic
Patient's

Share

Self-Analysts

37

Understanding
in the

The

101

Analyst's

Share

in the

Psychoanalytic

Process

123

VI

Occasional

VII

Systematic

Self-Analysis:

VIII

Systematic

Self-Analysis

Self-Analysis

151

Preliminaries
of

ft

174

Morbid

Dependency
IX
X
XI

Spirit

190

and Rules

Dealing

73

Psychoanalytic

Process
V

*3

with

Limitations

of Systematic

Self-Analysis

Resistances
of

247
267

Self-Analysis

286

Index

305

I N T R O D U C T I O N

Psychoanalysis first developed as a method of therapy i n

the strict medical sense. F r e u d had discovered that certain circumscribed disorders that have no discernible
organic basissuch as hysterical convulsions, phobias,
depressions, drug addictions, functional stomach upsets
can b e cured by uncovering the unconscious factors
that underlie them. I n the course of time disturbances
of this kind were summarily called neurotic.
A f t e r a w h i l e w i t h i n t h e last t h i r t y yearspsychiatrists realized that neurotic people not only suffer from
these manifest symptoms but also are considerably disturbed i n a l l their dealings with life. A n d t h e y also iccog
nized the fact that m a n y p e o p l e have personality dis
orders without showing any of the definite symptoms
that had previously been regarded as characteristic of
neuroses. I n other words, i t gradually became more ap
parent that i n neuroses symptoms may or may not be
present but personality difficulties are never lacking. The
conclusion was thus inevitable that these less specific
difficulties constitute the essential core of neuroses.
The i ecognition of this fact was exceedingly construe
tive i n the development of psychoanalytical scieace, not
o n l y increasing i t s efficacy b u t also enlarging its scope.

I N T R O D U C T I O N

Manifest character disorders, such as a compulsive i n decision, a repeated w r o n g choice of friends or lovers,
gross i n h i b i t i o n s toward w o r k , became as m u c h an object of analysis as the gross c l i n i c a l symptoms. Nevertheless the focus of interest was n o t the personality a n d its
best possible development; the u l t i m a t e purpose was the
understanding a n d eventual removal of the obvious disorders, and analysis of the character was only a means
toward this end. I t was almost an accidental by-product
i f i n consequence of such w o r k a person's whole developm e n t took a better course.
Psychoanalysis is still and w i l l r e m a i n a method of
therapy for specific neurotic disorders. B u t the fact that
i t can be an a i d to general character development has
come to assume a weight of its o w n . T o an increasing
degree people t u r n to analysis n o t because they suffer
from depressions, phobias, or comparable disorders b u t
because they feel they cannot cope w i t h life or feel that
Cactors w i t h i n themselves are h o l d i n g t h e m back or i n j u r i n g their relationships w i t h others.
As w i l l happen when any new vista is opened u p , the
significance of this new o r i e n t a t i o n was at first overrated.
I t was frequently declared, and the o p i n i o n is s t i l l wide
spread, that analysis is the only means of f u r t h e r i n g personality g r o w t h . Needless to say, that is n o t true. l i f e
itself is the most effective help for o u r development. T h e
hardships that life forces u p o n usa necessity to leave
one's country, organic illness, periods of solitudeand
also its giftsa good friendship, even a mere contact w i t h
a t r u l y good a n d valuable h u m a n being, co-operative
8

Introduction

w o r k i n g r o u p s a l l such factors can help us reach o u r

f u l l potential. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the assistance thus offered
has certain disadvantages: the beneficent factors do n o t
always come at the t i m e we need t h e m ; the hardships
may n o t only be a challenge to o u r activity a n d courage
b u t surpass o u r available strength a n d merely crush us;
finally,

we may be too entangled i n psychic difficulties

to be able to utilize the h e l p offered by life. Since psychoanalysis has n o t these disadvantagesthough i t has others
i t can legitimately take its place as one specific means
i n the service of personal development.
A n y help of this k i n d is made d o u b l y necessary by the
intricate and difficult conditions that we a l l live under
i n o u r civilization. B u t professional analytical help, even
i f i t c o u l d be made available to more people, can scarcely
reach everyone w h o m i t is capable of benefiting. I t is for
this reason that the question of self-analysis has i m p o r tance. I t has always been regarded as n o t o n l y valuable
b u t also feasible to " k n o w oneself/' b u t i t is possible that
the endeavor can be greatly assisted by the discoveries of
psychoanalysis. O n the other hand, these very discoveries
have revealed more than was ever k n o w n before about
the intrinsic difficulties i n v o l v e d i n such an u n d e r t a k i n g .
Therefore h u m i l i t y as w e l l as hope is r e q u i r e d i n any
discussion of the possibility of psychoanalytic self-examination.
I t is the object of this book to raise this question seriously, w i t h a l l due consideration f o r the difficulties i n volved. I have attempted also to present certain basic
considerations regarding procedure, b u t since i n this
9

I N T R O D U C T I O N

field there is l i t t l e actual experience to serve as guide my

purpose has been p r i m a r i l y to raise the issue and to encourage endeavors toward a constructive self-examination
rather than to offer any clear-cut answers.
Attempts at constructive self-analysis can be i m p o r t a n t ,
i n the first place, for the i n d i v i d u a l himself. Such an endeavor gives h i m a chance for self-realization, and by
this 1 mean n o t o n l y the development of special gifts that
he may have been i n h i b i t e d f r o m u t i l i z i n g but also, even
more i m p o r t a n t , the development of his potentialities as
a strong and integrated h u m a n being, free f r o m c r i p p l i n g
compulsions. B u t there is also a broader issue involved.
A n integral part of the democratic ideals for w h i c h we
are fighting today is the belief that the i n d i v i d u a l a n d
as many i n d i v i d u a l s as possibleshould develop to the
f u l l of his potentialities. By h e l p i n g h i m to do this psychoanalysis cannot solve the ills of the w o r l d , b u t i t can at
least clarify some of the frictions and misunderstandings,
the hates, fears, hurts, and vulnerabilities, of w h i c h those
ills are at once cause and effect.
I n two earlier books I presented the framework of a
theory of neuroses w h i c h I have elaborated i n the present
volume. I w o u l d gladly have avoided presenting these
new viewpoints and formulations i n this book, b u t i t d i d
not appear sensible to w i t h h o l d a n y t h i n g that m i g h t be
useful for self-examination. I have t r i e d , however, to
present matters as simply as possible w i t h o u t d i s t o r t i n g
the subject matter. T h e h i g h l y intricate nature of psychological p i obi ems is a fact that cannot and must not be
disguised, b u t w i t h f u l l mindfulness of that intricacy I
JO

Introduction

have t r i e d n o t to increase i t by a l u m b e r i n g terminology.

I take this o p p o r t u n i t y to express m y thanks to Miss
Elizabeth T o d d for the astute understanding w i t h w h i c h
she has helped to organize the material. A n d I should
l i k e to thank m y secretary, M r s . M a r i e Levy, for her u n t i r i n g efforts. I wish, too, to express m y gratitude to the
patients who have allowed me to p u b l i s h t h e i r experiences i n self-analysis.

II

C H A P T E R

ONE

Feasibility
and Desirability of Self-Analysis

Every analyst knows that an analysis proceeds the more

quickly and efficiently the more the patient "co-operates."
W h e n speaking of co-operation I have not i n mind the
patient's polite and obliging acceptance of whatever the
analyst suggests. N o r am I referring primarily to the
patient's conscious willingness to give information about
himself; most patients who come to analysis of their own
accord sooner or later recognize and accept the necessity
of expressing themselves with utmost sincerity. I am
rather referring to a kind of self-expression which is as
little at the patient's conscious command as i t is at the
composer's command to express his feelings i n music. I f
factors within himself bar him from expression, the
composer is flatly unable to work; he is unproductive.
I

S E L F

A N A L Y S I S

Similarly, a patient, despite his best intentions to be cooperative, becomes unproductive as soon as his efforts
meet some "resistance."

B u t the more frequent the

periods i n w h i c h he is able to express himself freely, the

more he can tackle his o w n problems and the more significant is the c o m m o n w o r k of patient and analyst.
I have often t o l d ray patients that i t w o u l d be ideal i f
the analyst merely played the part of a guide on a difficult
m o u n t a i n t o u r , indicating w h i c h way w o u l d be profitable to take or to avoid. T o be accurate one should add
that the analyst is a guide w h o is n o t too certain of the
way himself, because though experienced i n m o u n t a i n
c l i m b i n g he has n o t yet c l i m b e d this particular m o u n t a i n . A n d this fact makes the patient's mental activity and
p r o d u c t i v i t y a l l the more desirable. I t is scarcely an overstatement that, apart f r o m the analyst's competence, i t
is the patient's constructive activity that determines the
length and outcome of an analysis.
T h e significance of the patient's mental activity i n
analytical therapy is often revealed when an analysis has
to be i n t e r r u p t e d or terminated for some reason or other
w h i l e the patient is still i n a bad c o n d i t i o n . B o t h patient
and analyst are dissatisfied w i t h the progress attained,
b u t after some t i m e has elapsed w i t h o u t further analysis,
they may

find themselves pleasantly surprised by the

patient's considerable and lasting improvement. I f caref u l examination does n o t show any change i n his circumstances that m i g h t account for the improvement, one
may be justified i n regarding i t as a belated effect of
analysis. Such an aftereffect, however, is n o t easy to ac-

Feasibility

and

Desirability

count for. Various factors may c o n t r i b u t e to i t . T h e previous w o r k may have enabled the patient to make such
accurate self-observations

that he is convinced

more

deeply than before of the existence of certain disturbi n g trends, or is even able to discover new factors w i t h i n
himself. O r i t may be that he had regarded any suggestion
made by the analyst as a foreign i n t r u s i o n and that he
can take h o l d of insights more easily when they re-emerge
as his o w n findings. O r , i f his t r o u b l e was a r i g i d need
to be superior to others and to defeat them, he may have
been incapable of g i v i n g the analyst the satisfaction of
d o i n g successful w o r k , and thus be able to recover only
w h e n the analyst is o u t of the picture. F i n a l l y , i t must
be remembered that delayed reactions occur also i n many
other situations: o n l y m u c h later may we grasp the real
meaning of a joke or a remark made i n a conveisation.
Different as these explanations are they all p o i n t i n
one d i r e c t i o n : they suggest that some mental activity
must have gone o n i n the patient w i t h o u t his being aware
of i t , or at least w i t h o u t consciously determined efforts.
T h a t such mental activities, and even meaningful d i rected activities, do occur w i t h o u t awareness we k n o w
from the existence of meaningful dreams and from such
experiences as b e i n g balked by a task i n the evening and
k n o w i n g the solution after awakening f r o m sleep. N o t
o n l y is there the famous mathematical p r o b l e m , of which
the solution presents itself i n the m o r n i n g , b u t a decision
befogged i n the evening may be clarified after having
"slept" over i t . A resentment n o t even perceived i n dayt i m e may have w o r k e d itself t h r o u g h to awareness so
J

S E L F - A N A

L Y S I i

keenly that we awake suddenly at five o'clock i n the

m o r n i n g , clearly recognizing provocation and reaction.
As a matter of fact, every analyst relies o n the operat i o n of these u n d e r g r o u n d m e n t a l activities. Such reliance is i m p l i c i t i n the doctrine that an analysis w i l l
proceed satisfactorily i f the "resistances" are removed. I
should l i k e to stress also the positive aspect: the stronger
and the less hampered a patient's incentive toward libera t i o n , the more productive activity w i l l he display. B u t
whether one emphasize the negative aspect (resistance)
or the positive one (incentive), the u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e
is the same: by r e m o v i n g obstacles or by e l i c i t i n g sufficient incentive the patient's m e n t a l energy w i l l be set to
w o r k and he w i l l produce material that w i l l eventually
lead to some f u r t h e r insight.
T h e question raised i n this book is whether one c o u l d
go one step f u r t h e r . I f the analyst relies o n the patient's
unconscious m e n t a l activity, i f the patient has the faculty
to w o r k alone toward the s o l u t i o n of some p r o b l e m ,
could this faculty be u t i l i z e d i n a more deliberate fashion? C o u l d the patient scrutinize his self-observations
or his associations w i t h his o w n critical

intelligence?

Usually there is a d i v i s i o n of labor between patient and

analyst. By a n d large, the patient lets his thoughts, feelings, a n d impulses emerge, a n d the analyst uses his c r i t i cal intelligence to recognize what the patient is d r i v i n g
at. H e questions the v a l i d i t y of statements, he puts together seemingly disconnected material, he makes suggestions as to possible meanings. I said " b y and large"
because the analyst uses also his i n t u i t i o n and the patient,

16

Feasibility

and

Desirability

too, may tie things together. R u t o n the whole such a

division of labor exists, and i t has definite advantages for
the analytical session. I t enables the patient to relax and
merely express or register whatever emerges.
B u t what about the day or the days between the analytical sessions? W h a t about longer i n t e r r u p t i o n s that
occur for various reasons? W h y leave i t to accident that
some p r o b l e m w i l l inadvertently clarify itself? W o u l d
i t not be possible to encourage the patient n o t only to
make deliberate and accurate self-observations b u t also
to arrive at some insight by using his power of reasoning?
Granted i t w o u l d be a h a r d j o b fraught w i t h hazards and
l i m i t a t i o n s w h i c h w i l l be discussed laterthese difficulties should n o t prevent us f r o m raising the question:
is i t impossible to analyze oneself?
I n a broader frame of reference this question is one of
venerable age: can one recognize oneself? I t is encouragi n g to find that people have always regarded this task,
though difficult, as feasible. T h e encouragement, how
ever, does n o t carry us far, because there is a vast distance
between the way the ancients looked at this task and the
way we look at i t . W e k n o w , particularly since Freud's
basic findings, that the task is i n f i n i t e l y more intricate
and difficult than the ancients ever imaginedso difficult, indeed, that i t is l i k e an adventure i n t o the u n k n o w n merely to raise the question seriously.
I n recent times any n u m b e r of books have appeared
w i t h the purpose of h e l p i n g people to cope better w i t h
themselves and others. Some of these, l i k e Dale Car

17

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

negie's How to Win Friends

and Influence

People,

have

l i t t l e i f a n y t h i n g to do w i t h recognition of self b u t offer

rather more or less good common-sense advice o n how
to deal w i t h personal and social problems. B u t some, l i k e
D a v i d Seabury's Adventures

in Self-Discovery,

definitely

a i m at self-analysis. I f I feel the need to w r i t e another

book o n the subject i t is because I believe that even the
best of these authors, such as Seabury, do not make sufficient use of the psychoanalytical technique inaugurated
by Freud and hence give insufficient i n s t r u c t i o n . * Furthermore, they do n o t recognize the intricacies involved,
as appears cleat ly i n such titles as Self-Analysis

Made

Easy. T h e tendency expressed i n books of this k i n d is

i m p l i c i t also i n certain psychiatric attempts at personality studies.
A l l these attempts suggest that i t is an easy matter to
recognize oneself. T h i s is an i l l u s i o n , a belief b u i l t o n
w i s h f u l t h i n k i n g , and a positively h a r m f u l i l l u s i o n at
that. People w h o embark o n that promised easy road w i l l
either acquire a false smugness, believing they know a l l
about themselves, or w i l l become discouraged when they
are blocked by the first serious obstacle and w i l l t e n d to
r e l i n q u i s h the search for t r u t h as a bad j o b . N e i t h e r result w i l l happen so easily i f one is aware that self-analysis
is a strenuous, slow process, b o u n d to be p a i n f u l a n d
* Harold
Democracy

D . jLassweJI
Through

in Chapter

Public

Opinion,

4, " K n o w

1 hyself,"

i n his

p o i n t s o u t the v a l u e o f free

association for self-recognition. B u t since the hook

is d e v o t e d t o

a n o t h e r s u b j e c t h e d o e s n o t d i s c u s s t h e specific issues i n v o l v e d i n
the q u e s t i o n of self-analysis.

18

Feasibility

and

Desirability

upsetting at times and r e q u i r i n g a i l available

construc-

tive energies
A n experienced analyst w o u l d never succumb to such
o p t i m i s m because he is too f a m i l i a r w i t h the h a r d and
sometimes desperate fight that a patient may p u t u p
before he is capable of facing a p r o b l e m squarely. A n
analyst w o u l d rather tend toward the opposite

extreme

of rejecting the possibility of self-analysis altogether, and

he w o u l d be so i n c l i n e d n o t only because of his experience b u t also o n theoretical grounds. Fie w o u l d b r i n g
f o r t h the argument, for instance, that a patient can free
himself f r o m his difficulties only when

re-experiencing

his i n f a n t i l e desires, fears, and attachments i n r e l a t i o n to

the analyst; left to his o w n devices the patient c o u l d at
best reach ineffective, "merely i n t e l l e c t u a l " insights. I f
arguments such as this were scrutinized i n d e t a i l w h i c h
w i l l n o t be done herethey w o u l d u l t i m a t e l y b o i l d o w n
to a disbelief that the patient's incentive is strong enough
to enable h i m to overcome by himself the obstacles litteri n g the road to self-recognition.
I a m stressing this p o i n t for good reasons. T h e

pa-

tient's incentive to arrive at some goal is an i m p o r t a n t

factor i n every analysis. One may safely say that an analyst
cannot b r i n g the patient any further t h a n the patient
himself wants to go. I n an analysis, however, the patient
has the advantage of the analyst's help, his encouragement, his guidance, the value of w h i c h we shall discuss i n
another chapter. I f the patient is left to his o w n resources
the matter of incentive becomes crucialso crucial, i n *9

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

deed, t h a t the feasibility of self-analysis hinges o n its

strength.
F r e u d , of course, recognized that manifest gross sufferi n g under n e u r o t i c problems may provide such an i n centive. B u t apparently he felt at a loss to account for
an incentive i f gross suffering has never existed or has
disappeared

d u r i n g treatment. H e suggested that the

patient's " l o v e " for the analyst m i g h t provide an addit i o n a l incentive, p r o v i d e d this " l o v e " does not a i m at a
concrete sexual satisfaction b u t is contented w i t h receivi n g and u t i l i z i n g the analyst's help. T h i s sounds plausible. W e must n o t forget, however, that i n every neurosis
the a b i l i t y to love is greatly i m p a i r e d , and that what appears as such is mostly the result of the patient's excessive
need for affection a n d approval. I t is t r u e that there are
p a t i e n t s a n d I suppose Freud had them i n m i n d w h o
go to considerable lengths to please the analyst, i n c l u d i n g a willingness to accept interpretations more or less
u n c r i t i c a l l y a n d i n c l u d i n g also an attempt to show
i m p r o v e m e n t . Efforts of this type, however,

are n o t

p r o m p t e d by " l o v e " for the analyst, b u t represent the

patient's means of allaying his l u r k i n g fear of people and
i n a broader sense his way of coping w i t h life, for he feels
helpless to do i t i n a more self-reliant manner. I n consequence, this m o t i v a t i o n to do good w o r k depends ent i r e l y o n the relationship w i t h the analyst. As soon as the
patient feels rejected or criticizedas this type does
easilyhe w i l l lose sight of his o w n interest, and the
psychoanalytical work t h e n becomes the battlefield for
the patient's spite a n d vengeance. Almost more impor20

Feasibility

and

Desirability

tant than the u n r e l i a b i l i t y of this incentive: the analyst

has to discourage i t . T h e tendency to do things merely
because someone else expects i t , regardless of his o w n
wishes, is a considerable source of t r o u b l e to the patient;
therefore i t has to be analyzed, n o t u t i l i z e d . T h u s the
only effective incentive that F r e u d recognized remains
the patient's wish to get r i d of manifest gross suffering;
and this m o t i v a t i o n , as F r e u d r i g h t l y asserted, does n o t
carry far because i t is b o u n d to d i m i n i s h i n exact prop o r t i o n w i t h a decrease of symptoms.
S t i l l , this incentive m i g h t suffice i f a r e m o v a l of symptoms were the only goal of analysis. B u t is it? F r e u d never
expressed unambiguously his view of these goals. T o say
that a patient should become capable of w o r k a n d enj o y m e n t is n o t m e a n i n g f u l w i t h o u t a qualification of
b o t h capacities. Capable of r o u t i n e w o r k or of creative
work? Capable of enjoying sexuality or l i f e i n general?
T o say that analysis should constitute a re-education is
likewise vague w i t h o u t an answer to the question, education for what? Probably F r e u d d i d n o t give this quest i o n m u c h t h o u g h t because f r o m his earliest to his latest
w r i t i n g s he was p r i m a r i l y interested i n the removal of
neurotic symptoms; he cared about a change of personali t y only i n so far as i t w o u l d guarantee a permanent cure
of symptoms.
Freud's goal is thus essentially to be defined i n a negative manner: g a i n i n g "freedom f r o m . " O t h e r authors,
however, i n c l u d i n g myself, w o u l d f o r m u l a t e the goal of
analysis i n a positive way: by r e n d e r i n g a person free
f r o m i n n e r bondages make h i m free for the development

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

of his best potentialities. T h i s may sound l i k e a mere

difference i n emphasis, b u t , even i f i t were n o t h i n g b u '
that, the different emphasis suffices to alter the matter of
incentive entirely.
T o set the goal i n the positive fashion has a realistic
value only i f there is i n the patient an incentive, sufficiently p o w e r f u l to be reckoned w i t h , to develop whatever faculties he has, to realize given potentialities, to
come to grips w i t h himself despite a l l the ordeals he may
have to go t h r o u g h at times; to p u t i t i n the simplest way
possible, i f there is an incentive to grow.
W h e n the issue is stated thus p l a i n l y i t is clear that
there is more i n v o l v e d here t h a n a difference i n emphasis, because Freud emphatically denied that such a
wish exists. H e even scoffed at i t , as i f the positing of such
a wish were a sort of h o l l o w idealism. H e p o i n t e d o u t
that urges t o w a r d self-development emanate f r o m "narcissistic" desires, that is, they represent a tendency toward
self-inflation a n d t o w a r d excelling others. F r e u d rarely
made a postulate merely for the love of theoretical con
siderations. A t b o t t o m there was almost always some
astute observation. I n this instance i t is the observation
that tendencies

toward self-aggrandizement

are some-

times a forceful element i n the wish for self-development. W h a t F r e u d refused to recognize is the fact that
this "narcissistic" element is a c o n t r i b u t i n g factor only.
I f the need for self-aggrandizement

has been analyzed

a n d abandoned, the wish to develop s t i l l remains, yes, i t

emerges more clearly a n d p o w e r f u l l y than before. T h e
"narcissistic" elements, w h i l e they have k i n d l e d the wish
22

Feasibility

and

Desirability

to grow, have at the same t i m e hampered its realization*

T o use the words of a patient: " T h e 'narcissistic' i m pulse is toward the development of a phony self." T h e
fostering of this phony self is always at the expense of the
real self, the latter b e i n g treated w i t h disdain, at best
l i k e a poor relation. M y experience is that the m o r e the
phony self evaporates, the more the real self becomes in
vested w i t h interest and the more u n b r i d l e d an incentive
emerges to u n f o l d by becoming free f r o m i n t e r n a l bondages, to live as f u l l a life as given circumstances p e r m i t .
I t seems to me that the wish for developing one's energies belongs among those strivings that defy

further

analysis.
Theoretically, Freud's disbelief i n a wish for self
development is l i n k e d u p w i t h his postulate that the
"ego" is a weak agency tossed about among the claims
of instinctual drives, of the outside w o r l d a n d of a forb i d d i n g conscience. U l t i m a t e l y , however, I believe that
the two formulations of analytical goals are expressions
of different philosophical beliefs as to the nature of man.
I n the words of M a x O t t o : " T h e deepest source of a man's
philosophy, the one that shapes a n d nourishes i t , is faith
or lack of faith i n m a n k i n d . I f he has confidence i n human beings and believes that something fine can be
achieved t h r o u g h t h e m , he w i l l acquire ideas about l i f e
and about the w o r l d w h i c h are i n harmony w i t h his confidence. Lack of confidence w i l l generate corresponding
ideas." I t may be m e n t i o n e d that F r e u d , i n his book on
the interpretation of dreams, at least i m p l i c i t l y recog
nized that some degree of self-analysis is possible, for here
23

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

he d i d analyze his o w n dreams. T h i s is particularly i n teresting i n view of the fact that his whole philosophy
denied the possibility of self-analysis.
B u t even i f we grant that there is sufficient incentive
for self-analysis there is still the question whether i t can
be undertaken by a " l a y m a n " who has n o t the necessary
knowledge,

t r a i n i n g , and experience. I t may well be

asked, and w i t h some asperity, whether I am suggesting

that three or f o u r chapters of this book can constitute
an adequate substitute for the specific skills of an expert.
N a t u r a l l y , I do n o t h o l d any substitute to be possible.
I do n o t aspire to offer even an approximate substitute.
T h u s i t appears that here we are at an impasse. B u t are
we really? Usually the application of an all-or-nothing
p r i n c i p l e implies some fallacy despite apparent plausib i l i t y . I n regard to this p r o b l e m i t is desirable to remember, w i t h all due respect for the role of specialization i n
c u l t u r a l development, that too much awe of specializat i o n can paralyze i n i t i a t i v e . W e are a l l too i n c l i n e d to
believe that o n l y a p o l i t i c i a n can understand politics,
that only a mechanic can repair o u r car, that only a
trained gardener

can p r u n e o u r trees. O f course, a

trained person can p e r f o r m more q u i c k l y and more efficiently than an u n t r a i n e d person, and i n many instances
the latter w i l l fail entirely. B u t the gap between a trained
and an u n t r a i n e d person is often regarded as w i d e r than
i t is. F a i t h i n specialization can easily t u r n i n t o b l i n d
awe and stifle any attempt at new activity.
General considerations of this k i n d are encouraging.
B u t i n order to arrive at a proper evaluation of the tech-

24

Feasibility

and

Desirability

nical possibility of self-analysis we must visualize i n concrete detail what constitutes the e q u i p m e n t of a professional analyst. I n the first place, the analysis of others
demands an extensive psychological knowledge of the
nature of unconscious forces, the forms of t h e i r m a n i festation, the reasons responsible for t h e i r power, the
influence wielded by t h e m , the ways of u n e a r t h i n g t h e m .
I n the second place, i t demands definite skills, w h i c h
must be developed by t r a i n i n g and experience: the analyst must understand h o w to deal w i t h the patient; he
must k n o w w i t h a reasonable degree of certainty w h i c h
factors i n the maze of m a t e r i a l presented should be
tackled and w h i c h left o u t for the t i m e being; he must
have acquired a highly developed a b i l i t y to "feel i n t o "
the patient, a sensitivity to psychic undercurrents that
is almost a sixth sense. Finally, the analysis of others demands a t h o r o u g h self-knowledge. I n w o r k i n g w i t h a pat i e n t the analyst has to project himself i n t o a strange
w o r l d , w i t h its o w n peculiarities a n d its o w n laws. A n d
there

is considerable

danger

that he

will

miscon-

strue, mislead, perhaps even inflict positive i n j u r y n o t

through bad w i l l b u t t h r o u g h carelessness, ignorance, or
conceit. Therefore n o t only must he have a t h o r o u g h
f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h his tools, and skill i n using t h e m , b u t ,
equally i m p o r t a n t , he must be straightened o u t i n his
relations to self a n d others. Since a l l three of these requirements are indispensable, nobody w h o does n o t f u l f i l l them should assume the responsibility i n v o l v e d i n
analyzing others.
These requirements cannot be automatically attrib%5

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

u t e d to self-analysis as w e l l , because analyzing ourselves

is i n certain essential points different f r o m analyzing
others. T h e difference most p e r t i n e n t here is the fact that
the w o r l d t h a t each of us represents is n o t strange to ourselves; i t is, i n fact, the only one we really k n o w . T r u e
enough, a neurotic person has become estranged from
large parts of this w o r l d a n d has an i m p e l l i n g interest not
to see parts of i t . Also there is always the danger that i n
his f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h himself he w i l l take certain significant factors too m u c h for granted. B u t the fact remains
that i t is his w o r l d , that a l l the knowledge about i t is
there somehow, that he need o n l y observe and make use
of his observations i n order to gain access to i t . I f he is
interested i n recognizing the sources of his difficulties, i f
he can overcome his resistances to recognizing t h e m , he
can i n some respects observe himself better than an outsider can. A f t e r a l l , he lives w i t h himself day and n i g h t .
I n his chances to make self-observations he m i g h t be compared w i t h an i n t e l l i g e n t nurse w h o is constantly w i t h a
patient; an analyst, however, sees the patient at best only
for an h o u r each day. T h e analyst has better methods for
observation, and clearer viewpoints f r o m w h i c h to observe and to make infeiences, b u t the nuise has opportunities for a w i d e r range of observation.
T h i s fact constitutes an i m p o r t a n t asset i n self-analysis.
Indeed, i t reduces the first of the requirements demanded of a professional analyst a n d eliminates the seco n d : i n self-analysis less psychological knowledge is demanded than i n the analysis of others, and we do n o t
need at a l l the strategical s k i l l that is necessary i n dealing

26

Feasibility

and

Desirability

w i t h any other person. T h e c r u c i a l difficulty i n selfanalysis lies n o t i n these fields b u t i n the e m o t i o n a l

factors that b l i n d us t o unconscious forces. T h a t the
m a i n difficulty is e m o t i o n a l rather than i n t e l l e c t u a l is
confirmed by the fact that w h e n analysts analyze themselves they have n o t such a great advantage over the laym a n as we w o u l d be i n c l i n e d to believe.
O n theoretical grounds, then, I see n o stringent reason
w h y self-analysis should n o t be feasible. G r a n t e d that
many people are too deeply entangled i n their o w n problems to be able to analyze themselves; granted that selfanalysis can never approximate the speed a n d accuracy
of analytical treatment by an expert; granted that there
are certain resistances that can be s u r m o u n t e d o n l y w i t h
outside h e l p s t i l l , a l l of this is no proof that i n p r i n ciple the j o b cannot be done.
I should n o t dare, however, to raise the question of
self-analysis o n the basis of theoretical considerations
alone. T h e courage to raise the question, a n d t o do i t
seriously, has arisen f r o m experiences i n d i c a t i n g that
self-analysis is possible. These are experiences that I
have had myself, that colleagues have had a n d t o l d me
about, that patients have h a d w h o m I have encouraged
to w o r k o n themselves d u r i n g i n t e r r u p t i o n s of the analytical w o r k w i t h me. These successful attempts d i d n o t
concern merely superficial difficulties. I n fact, some o i
them dealt w i t h problems that are generally deemed in
accessible even w i t h the help of an analyst. T h e y were
made, however, u n d e r one favorable c o n d i t i o n : a l l of
these people had been analyzed before they v e n t u r e d o n

27

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

self-analysis, w h i c h means that they were familiar w i t h

the m e t h o d of approach and knew f r o m experience that
i n analysis n o t h i n g short of ruthless honesty w i t h oneself is h e l p f u l . W h e t h e r and to what extent self-analysis
is possible w i t h o u t such previous experience must be
left an open question. T h e r e is, however, the encouragi n g fact that many people gain an accurate insight i n t o
their problems before c o m i n g for treatment. These i n
sights are insufficient, to be sure, b u t the fact remains
that they wet e acquired w i t h o u t previous analytical experience.
T h u s the possibilities of self-analysis are briefly as follows, p r o v i d e d a person is capable at all of analyzing
himself, of w h i c h something w i l l be said later. A patient
may undertake i t d u r i n g the longer intervals that occur
in most analyses: holidays, absences f r o m the city, for
professional or personal reasons, various other i n t e r r u p tions. A person w h o lives outside the few cities i n w h i c h
there are competent analysts may attempt to carry the
m a i n w o r k by himself and see an analyst only for occasional checkups; the same w o u l d h o l d for those who live
i n a city i n w h i c h there are analysts b u t for

financial

reasons cannot afford regular treatments. A n d it may be

possible for a person whose analysis has been prematurely
ended to carry on by himself. F i n a l l y a n d this w i t h a
question markself-analysis may be feasible

without

outside analytical help.

B u t here is another question. Granted that w i t h i n
l i m i t a t i o n s i t is possible to analyze oneself, is i t desirable?

28

Feasibility

and

Desirability

Is n o t analysis too dangerous a tool to use w i t h o u t the

guidance of a competent person? D i d n o t F r e u d compare
analysis w i t h s u r g e r y t h o u g h a d d i n g that people do
n o t die because of a w r o n g application of analysis as they
m i g h t f r o m an operation badly handled?
Since i t is never constructive to remain i n the l i m b o
of vague apprehensions, let us t r y to examine i n detail
what the possible dangers of self-analysis may be. I n the
first place, many people w i l l t h i n k that i t m i g h t increase
unwholesome introspection. T h e same objection has
been raised, a n d is s t i l l being raised, against any type of
analysis, b u t I should l i k e to reopen this discussion
because I am certain that i t w i l l be waged even m o r e
l o u d l y i f analysis is conducted w i t h o u t , o r w i t h l i t t l e ,
guidance.
T h e disapproval expressed i n the apprehension that
analysis m i g h t render a person more introspective seems
to arise f r o m a philosophy of l i f e w e l l represented i n
The Late

George Apleywhich

grants n o place to the

i n d i v i d u a l o r his i n d i v i d u a l feelings and sri ivings. W h a t

counts is that he fit i n t o the environment, be of service to
the c o m m u n i t y , and f u l f i l l his duties Hence whatever
i n d i v i d u a l fears or desires he has should be c o n t r o l l e d .
Self-discipline is the uppermost v i r t u e . T o give m u c h
thought to himself i n any way is self-indulgence a n d
"selfishness." T h e best representatives of psychoanalysis,
o n the other hand, w o u l d emphasize n o t o n l y the respons i b i l i t y toward odiers b u t that t o w a r d oneself as w e l l .
T her ef or e they w o u l d n o t neglect to stress the inalienable r i g h t of the i n d i v i d u a l to the p u r s u i t of happiness,
%9

i n c l u d i n g his r i g h t to take seriously his

development

t o w a r d i n n e r freedom and autonomy.

Each i n d i v i d u a l must make his o w n decision as to the
value of the t w o philosophies. I f he decides for the former there is n o t m u c h sense i n arguing w i t h h i m about
analysis, because he is b o u n d to feel i t n o t r i g h t that anyone should give so m u c h t h o u g h t to himself and his problems. One can merely reassure h i m that as a result of
analysis the i n d i v i d u a l usually becomes less egocentric
a n d more reliable i n his h u m a n relationships; then at
best he m i g h t concede that introspection may be a debatable means to a w o r t h y end.
A person whose beliefs c o n f o r m w i t h the other philosophy c o u l d n o t possibly h o l d that introspection i n itself
is blameworthy. For h i m the recognition of self is as i m p o r t a n t as the recognition of other factors i n the environment; to search for t r u t h about self is as valuable as to
search for t r u t h i n other areas of life. T h e only question
that w o u l d concern h i m is whether introspection is constructive or f u t i l e . I w o u l d say that i t is constructive i f
i t is used i n the service of a wish to become a better,
richer, and stronger h u m a n b e i n g i f i t is a responsible
endeavor of w h i c h the u l t i m a t e goal is self-recognition
and change. I f i t is an end i n itself, that is, i f i t is pursued
merely o u t of indiscriminate interest i n psychological
connectionsart for art's sakethen i t can easily degenerate i n t o what H o u s t o n Peterson calls " m a n i a psychological" A n d i t is equally f u t i l e i f i t consists merely
of i m m e r s i o n i n self-admiration o r self-pity, dead-end
r u m i n a t i o n s about oneself, empty self-recrimination*

Bo

Feasibility

and

Desirability

A n d here we arrive at the p e r t i n e n t p o i n t : w o u l d not

self-analysis easily degenerate i n t o just that type of aimless pondering? J u d g i n g f r o m m y experience w i t h patients, I believe that this danger is n o t so general as one
m i g h t be i n c l i n e d to t h i n k . I t appears safe t o assume that
o n l y those w o u l d succumb to i t w h o t e n d also i n their
w o r k w i t h an analyst to move constantly i n b l i n d alleys
of this k i n d . W i t h o u t guidance these persons w o u l d become lost i n f u t i l e wanderings. B u t even so, their attempts at self-analysis, w h i l e doomed to failure, c o u l d
scarcely be h a r m f u l , because i t is n o t the analysis that
causes their r u m i n a t i o n s . T h e y pondered a b o u t their
bellyache o r t h e i r appearance, about w r o n g done by
them o r to them, or spun o u t elaborate a n d aimless "psychological explanations" before they ever came i n touch
w i t h analysis. By t h e m analysis is usedor abusedas
justification for c o n t i n u i n g to move i n their o l d circles:
i t provides the i l l u s i o n that the circular movements are
honest self-scrutiny. W e should therefore reckon these
attempts among the l i m i t a t i o n s rather t h a n among the
dangers of self-analysis.
I n considering the possible dangers of self-analysis the
essential p r o b l e m is whether i t involves a risk of definite
h a r m to the i n d i v i d u a l . By endeavoring on this adventure singlehanded does he n o t conjure u p h i d d e n forces
w i t h which he is unable to cope? I f he recognizes a c r u
cial unconscious conflict, w i t h o u t yet seeing a way o u t ,
are there n o t aroused i n h i m such deep feelings of anxiety and helplessness that he m i g h t succumb to a depression, or even consider suicide?

3*

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

W e must distinguish i n this regard between transitory

a n d lasting impairments. T r a n s i t o r y impairments are
b o u n d to occur i n every analysis, because any reaching
d o w n to repressed material must stir u p anxiety previously allayed by defensive measures. Likewise, i t must
b r i n g to the foreground affects of anger and rage otherwise shut off f r o m awareness. T h i s shock effect is so
strong n o t because the analysis has led to the l e c o g n i t i o n
of some i n t o l e r a b l y bad or vicious t r e n d , b u t because i t
has shaken an e q u i l i b r i u m w h i c h , though precarious,
had prevented the i n d i v i d u a l f r o m feeling lost i n the
chaos of d i v e r g i n g drives. Since we shall discuss later the
nature of these transitory disturbances, i t may suffice
here to state merely the fact that they occur.
W h e n a patient meets such a disturbance d u r i n g the
analytical process he may simply feel p r o f o u n d l y pert u r b e d o r he may have recurrences of o l d symptoms.
N a t u r a l l y , then, he feels discouraged. These setbacks
are usually overcome after a short w h i l e . As soon as the
new insight is really integrated they vanish and give way
to the well-founded feeling of h a v i n g taken a step ahead.
T h e y represent the shocks and pains unavoidably i n volved i n a r e o r i e n t a t i o n of life, and are i m p l i c i t i n any
constructive process.
I t is at these periods of i n n e r upheaval that the pat i e n t w o u l d p a r t i c u l a r l y miss the h e l p i n g hand of an
analyst. B u t we are t a k i n g i t for granted that the whole
process is easier w i t h competent help. Here we are concerned w i t h the possibility that the i n d i v i d u a l m i g h t
n o t be able t o overcome these upsets alone a n d thus be
32

Feasibility

and

Desirability

permanently i m p a i r e d . O r that when he feels his foundations shaken he m i g h t do something desperate, such
as d r i v i n g or g a m b l i n g recklessly, jeopardizing his posit i o n , or a t t e m p t i n g suicide.
I n the cases of self-analysis w h i c h I have observed such
u n t o w a r d consequences have never occurred. B u t these
observations are as yet too l i m i t e d to produce any conv i n c i n g statistical evidence; I c o u l d not say, for instance,
that this u n f o r t u n a t e outcome has occurred i n o n l y one
case o u t of a h u n d r e d . T h e r e are, however, good reasons
to believe that the danger is so rare as to be negligible.
Observation i n every analysis shows that patients are well
able to protect themselves f r o m insights they are n o t yet
able to receive. I f they are given an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n that
represents too great a threat to their security they may
consciously reject i t ; o r they may forget i t , or invalidate
its relevance for them, o r w a r d i t off w i t h arguments, or
simply resent i t as u n f a i r criticism.
One may safely assume that these self-protective forces
w o u l d operate also i n self-analysis. A person a t t e m p t i n g
to analyze himself w o u l d simply fail to make any selfobservations that w o u l d lead to insights as yet intolerable. O r he w o u l d i n t e r p r e t t h e m i n such a way as to
miss the essential p o i n t . O r he w o u l d merely t r y to correct q u i c k l y and superficially an a t t i t u d e conceived by
h i m as faulty, and thereby close the door to f u r t h e r i n vestigation. T h u s i n self-analysis the actual danger w o u l d
be less than i n professional analysis, because the patient
i n t u i t i v e l y knows w h a t to avoid w h i l e an analyst, even
a sensitive one, may err a n d present to the p a t i e n t a pre-

33

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

mature solution. A g a i n the danger is one of

futility

t h r o u g h too m u c h evasion of problems rather than of

positive damage.
A n d i f a person does work t h r o u g h to some insight
deeply d i s t u r b i n g to h i m , I believe there 3 2 e several considerations that w e can rely u p o n . One is that h i t t i n g
r

u p o n some t r u t h is n o t only d i s t u r b i n g but is also, and

simultaneously, of a l i b e r a t i n g quality. T h i s liberating
force i n h c i e n t i n any t r u t h may supersede the d i s t u r b
ing effect f r o m the beginning. I f so, a feeling of relief
w i l l ensue immediately. B u t even i f the disturbing effect
prevails, the discovery of a t r u t h about oneself still i m
plies a d a w n i n g recognition of a way out; even i f this is
not seen clearly i t w i l l be felt i n t u i t i v e l y and thus w i l l
engender strength to proceed further.
A second factor to be considered is that even i f a t r u t h
is deeply f r i g h t e n i n g thei e is something l i k e a wholesome
f r i g h t . I f a person recognizes, for instance, that he has
been secretly d r i v i n g at self-destruction, his clear recogn i t i o n of that drive is m u c h less dangerous than l e t t i n g
i t silently operate. T h e recognition is frighrening, b u t i t
is b o u n d to mobilize counteracting self-preserving energies, p r o v i d e d there is any w i l l to live. A n d i f there is no
sufficient w i l l to live, a person w i l l go to pieces anyhow,
analysis or no analysis. T o express a similar thought i n
a more positive fashion: if a person has had sufficient
courage to discover an unpleasant t r u t h about

himself,

one may safely trust his courage to be strong enough to

carry h i m t h r o u g h . T h e mere fact that he has gone that
far indicates that his w i l l to come to grips w i t h himself

34

Feasibility

and

Desirability

is strong enough to prevent h i m f r o m becoming crushed.

B u t the period between starting to grapple w i t h a probl e m a n d solving and i n t e g r a t i n g i t may be prolonged i n
self-analysis.
Finally, we must n o t forget that really a l a r m i n g disturbances i n analysis rarely occur only because an interpretation cannot be properly grasped at the t i m e . M o r e
frequently the real source of disquieting developments
lies i n the fact that the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , or the analytical
situation as a whole, stirs u p hatred that is directed
against the analyst. T h i s hatred, i f barred f r o m awareness a n d thereby f r o m expression, can enhance existing
self-destructive

tendencies. T o let oneself go to pieces

may then become a means of revenge against the analyst.

I f a person is confronted w i t h an upsetting insight
q u i t e by himself, there is almost n o t h i n g left b u t to fight
i t through w i t h himself. Or, to be cautious, the temptat i o n to w a r d off the insight by m a k i n g others responsible
is lessened. T h e caution is w a n anted because, i f the tendency to make others responsible for his shortcomings is
strong anyhow, i t may flare up also i n self-analysis as soon
as he realizes a shortcoming, i f he has n o t yet accepted
the necessity of t a k i n g responsibility l o r himself.
I w o u l d say, then, that self-analysis is w i t h i n the range
of possibility, and that the danger of its resulting i n positive damage is comparatively slight. Certainly i t has vanous drawbacks that are more or less serious i n nature,
ranging, briefly, f r o m f a i l u r e to prolongation of the process; i t may take a considerably longer t i m e to get h o l d

35

of a p r o b l e m a n d to solve i t . B u t against these drawbacks

there are many factors w h i c h beyond d o u b t make selfanalysis desirable. T h e r e are, to begin w i t h , obvious external factors o f the k i n d m e n t i o n e d before. Self-analysis
w o u l d be desirable for those wh o because of money, time,
or location cannot undertake regular treatment. A n d
even for those w h o are having treatment i t m i g h t shorten
the procedure considerably i f i n the intervals between
analytical sessions, and also d u r i n g the sessions, they were
inspired w i t h the courage to do active and independent
w o r k o n themselves.
B u t even apart f r o m such blatant reasons, certain gains
are beckoning to those w h o are capable of self-analysis
w h i c h are m o r e s p i r i t u a l i n character, less tangible b u t
n o t less real. These gains can be summarized as an i n crease of i n n e r strength a n d therefore of self-confidence.
Every successful analysis increases self-confidence, b u t
there is a certain extra gain i n h a v i n g conquered territory e n t i r e l y t h r o u g h one's o w n i n i t i a t i v e , courage, and
perseverance. T h i s effect is the same i n analysis as i n
other areas of life. T o find a m o u n t a i n path a l l by oneself gives a greater feeling of strength than to take a path
that is shown, t h o u g h the w o r k p u t i n is the same and the
result is the same. Such achievement gives rise n o t only
to a justifiable p r i d e b u t also to a well-founded feeling
of confidence i n one's capacity to meet predicaments and
n o t to feel lost w i t h o u t guidance.

C H A P T E R

T W O

The Driving Forces in Neuroses

Psychoanalysis, as already discussed, has n o t o n l y a clinical value as a therapy for neuroses b u t also a h u m a n
value i n its potentialities for h e l p i n g people t o w a r d t h e i r
best possible f u r t h e r development. B o t h objectives can
be pursued i n other ways; peculiar to analysis is the att e m p t to reach these goals t h r o u g h h u m a n understandi n g n o t alone t h r o u g h sympathy, tolerance, and an
i n t u i t i v e grasp of interconnections, qualities that are i n dispensable i n any k i n d of h u m a n understanding, b u t ,
more fundamentally, t h r o u g h an effort to o b t a i n an accurate picture of the total personality. T h i s is undertaken by means of specific techniques for u n e a r t h i n g
unconscious factors, for F r e u d has clearly shown that we
cannot o b t a i n such a picture w i t h o u t recognizing the
role of unconscious forces. T h r o u g h h i m we k n o w that
such forces push us i n t o actions and feelings and re-

37

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

sponses that may be different f r o m what we consciously

desire a n d may even be destructive of satisfactory relations w i t h the w o r l d a r o u n d us.
Certainly these unconscious motivations exist i n everyone, a n d are by no means always productive of disturbances. I t is only when disturbances exist that i t is
i m p o r t a n t to uncover and recognize

the unconscious

factors. N o matter what unconscious forces drive us to

p a i n t or to w r i t e , we w o u l d scarcely bother to t h i n k
about t h e m i f we can express ourselves i n p a i n t i n g or
w r i t i n g w i t h reasonable adequacy. N o matter what u n conscious motivations carry us away to love or devotion,
wc are n o t interested i n them so l o n g as that love or dev o t i o n gives a constructive content to o u r lives. B u t we
do need to consider the unconscious factors i f apparent
success i n d o i n g productive w o r k or i n establishing a
good h u m a n relationship, a success that we desperately
wanted, leaves us o n l y empty and disgruntled, or i f one
attempt after another fails and, despite all efforts to the
contrary, we feel d i m l y that we cannot p u t the failures
altogether o n external circumstances. I n short, we need
to examine o u r unconscious motivations i f i t appears
that something f r o m w i t h i n is h a m p e r i n g us i n o u r pursuits.
Since F r e u d unconscious motivations have been accepted as elemental facts of h u m a n psychology, and the
subject need not be elaborated here, especially since
everyone can enlarge his knowledge about unconscious
motivations i n various ways. T h e r e are, i n the first place,
Freud's o w n writings, such as his Introductory

38

Lectures

Driving

Forces

in

Neuroses

on Psychoanalysis,

Psychopalhology

a n d The Interpretation

of Dreams,

of Everyday

Life,

and the books sum-

marizing his theories, such as Ives H e n d r i c k ' s Facts and

Theories

of Psychoanalysis.

Also w o r t h consulting are

those authors w h o t r y to develop Ficud's basic

such as H . S. Sullivan i n his Conceptions
chiatry, E d w a r d A . Strecker i n Beyond
tiers, Erich F r o m m i n Escape
i n The Neurotic

Personality

Ways in Psychoanalysis.
m a n n i n Principles

findings,

of Modern

the Clinical

from Freedom,
of Our Time

PsyFron-

o r myself
a n d i n Netv

A . H . Maslow a n d Bela M i t t e l

of Abnormal

Kunkel's books, such as Character

Psychology,
Growth

a n d Fiit?

and

Educa-

tion, suggest many valuable leads. Philosophical books,

particularly the w r i t i n g s of Emerson, Nietzsche, and
Schopenhauer, reveal psychological treasures for those
w h o read t h e m w i t h an open m i n d , as do a few of the
books o n the art of l i v i n g , such as Charles A l l e n Smart's
Wild

Geese

and How

to Chase

Them.

Shakespeaxe,

Balzac, Dostoevski, Ibsen, and others are inexhaustible

sources of psychological knowledge. A n d by n o means
least, a l o t can be learned f r o m observing the w o r l d
around us.
A knowledge of the existence and efficacy of such u n
conscious motivations is a helpful guide i n any attempt
at analysis, particularly i f i t is n o t merely given l i p service b u t is taken seriously, i t may even be a sufficient tool
tor sporadically discovering this o r that causal connect i o n . For a more systematic analysis, however, i t is nec
essary to have a somewhat more specific understanding
of the unconscious factors that d i s t u r b development.

39

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

I n any effort to understand personality i t is essential

to discover the u n d e r l y i n g d r i v i n g forces of that personality. I n a t t e m p t i n g to understand a disturbed persona l i t y i t is essential to discover the d r i v i n g forces responsible for the disturbance.
H e r e we are o n more controversial ground. Freud
believed that the disturbances generate f r o m a conflict
between e n v i r o n m e n t a l factors and repressed instinctual
impulses. A d l e r , more rationalistic and superficial than
F r e u d , believes that they are created by the ways and
means that people use to assert their superiority over
others. J u n g , more mystical than Freud, believes i n collective unconscious fantasies w h i c h , though replete w i t h
creative possibilities, may w o r k havoc because the unconscious strivings fed by t h e m are the exact opposite of
those i n the conscious m i n d . M y o w n answer is that i n the
center of psychic disturbances are unconscious strivings
developed i n order to cope w i t h life despite fears, helplessness, and isolation. I have called them "neurotic
trends." M y answer is as far f r o m final as that of Freud
or J u n g . B u t every explorer i n t o the u n k n o w n has some
vision of what he expects to f i n d , and he can have no
guarantee of the correctness of his vision. Discoveries
have been made even though the vision was incorrect.
T h i s fact may serve as a consolation for the uncertainty
of o u r present psychological

knowledge.

W h a t t h e n are neurotic trends? W h a t are their characteristics, t h e i r f u n c t i o n , their genesis, their effect on
o n e s life? I t should be emphasized again that their essen
4

Driving

Forces

in

Neuroses

tial elements are unconscious. A person may be aware of

their effects, though i n that case he w i l l probably merely
credit himself w i t h laudable character traits: i f he has,
for example, a neurotic need for affection he w i l l t h i n k
that his is a good and l o v i n g disposition; or i f he is i n
the g r i p of a neurotic perfectionism he w i l l t h i n k that
he is by nature more orderly and accurate than others.
H e may even glimpse something of the drives p r o d u c i n g
such effects, or recognize t h e m when they are b r o u g h t
to his a t t e n t i o n : he may become aware, for example, that
he has a need for affection or a need to be perfect. B u t
he is never aware to what extent he is i n the g r i p of these
strivings, to what extent they determine his life. Still less
is he aware of the reasons why they have such power over
him.
T h e outstanding characteristic of neurotic trends is
their compulsive nature, a q u a l i t y that shows itself i n
t w o m a i n ways. First, t h e i r objectives are pursued indiscriminately. I f i t is affection a person must have, he must
receive i t f r o m f r i e n d and enemy, f r o m employer and
bootblack. A person obsessed by a need for perfection
largely loses his sense of p r o p o r t i o n . T o have his desk i n
faultless order becomes as imperative for h i m as to prepare an i m p o r t a n t r e p o r t i n perfect fashion. Moreover,
the objectives are pursued w i t h supreme disregard for
reality and real self-interest. A w o m a n h a n g i n g o n to a
m a n to w h o m she relegates a l l responsibility for her l i f e
may be u t t e r l y oblivious t o such questions as whether
that particular m a n is an e n t i r e l y appropriate person to
hang o n to, whether she is actually happy w i t h him>

41

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

whether she likes and respects h i m . I I a person must be

independent and self-sufficient he w i l l icfuse to tie h i m self to anyone or anything, no matter how m u c h he spoils
his life thereby; he must n o t ask or accept help, no matter how m u c h he needs i t . T h i s absence of discriminat i o n is often obvious to others, b u t the person himself
may n o t be aware of i t . As a r u l e , however, i t w i l l strike
the oufsidei only i f the particular trends are inconveni e n t to h i m or i f they do not coincide w i t h recognized
patterns, l i e w i l l notice, for instance, a compulsive negat i v i s m b u t may n o t become aware of a compulsive compliance.
T h e second i n d i c a t i o n of the compulsive nature of
neurotic trends is the reaction of anxiety that ensues
f r o m t h e i r f r u s t r a t i o n . T h i s characteristic is highly significant, because i t demonstrates the safety value of the
trends. A person feels vitally threatened i l for any teason, i n t e r n a l or external, the compulsive pursuits are
ineffective. A perfectionistic person feels panicky i f he
makes any mistake. A person w i t h a compulsive need for
u n l i m i t e d freedom becomes frightened at the prospect
of any tie, whether i t be an engagement to marry or the
lease of an apartment. A good i l l u s t r a t i o n of fear reactions of this k i n d is contained i n Balzac's
Leather.

Chagrin

T h e hero i n the novel is convinced that his

span of life is shortened whenever he expresses a wish,

ifiid therefore he anxiously refrains from d o i n g so. B u t
once, w h e n off his guard, he does express a wish, and even
though the w i s h itself is u n i m p o r t a n t he becomes panicky. T h e example illustrates the terror that seizes a neu-

42

Driving

Forces

in

Neuroses

rotic person i f his security is threatened: he feels that

everything is lost i f he lapses f r o m perfection, complete
independence, or whatever standard i t is that represents
his d r i v i n g need. I t is this security value that is p r i m a r i l y
responsible for the compulsive character of the neurotic
trends.
T h e f u n c t i o n of these trends can be better understood
i f we take a look at t h e i r genesis. T h e y develop early i n
life t h r o u g h the c o m b i n e d effect of given temperamental
and e n v i r o n m e n t a l influences. W h e t h e r a c h i l d becomes
submissive or rebellious under die pressure of parental
coercion depends n o t only o n the nature of the coercion
b u t also on given qualities, such as the degree of his v i tality, the relative softness or hardness of his nature.
Since we k n o w less of the constitutional factors t h a n of
the e n v i r o n m e n t a l ones, a n d since the latter are the only
ones susceptible of change, 1 shall comment only o n
these.
U n d e r a l l conditions a c h i l d w i l l be influenced by his
environment. W h a t counts is whether this influence
stunts or furthers g r o w t h . A n d w h i c h development w i l l
occur depends largely o n the k i n d of relationship established between the c h i l d a n d his parents o r others around
h i m , i n c l u d i n g other c h i l d r e n i n the f a m i l y . I f the spirit
at home is one of w a r m t h , of m u t u a l respect a n d consideration, the c h i l d can grow u n i m p e d e d .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i n o u r c i v i l i z a t i o n there are many env i r o n m e n t a l factors adverse to a child's development.
Parents, w i t h the best of intentions, may exert so m u c h
pressure o n the c h i l d that his i n i t i a t i v e becomes para-

43

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

lyzett T h e r e may be a c o m b i n a t i o n of smothering love

and i n t i m i d a t i o n , of tyranny and glorification. Parents
may impress the c h i l d w i t h the dangers awaiting h i m
outside the walls of his home. One parent may force the
c h i l d to side w i t h h i m against the other. Parents may be
unpredictable a n d sway f r o m a j o l l y comradeship to a
strict a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m . Particularly i m p o r t a n t , a c h i l d
may be led to feel that his r i g h t to existence lies solely i n
his l i v i n g u p to the parents'

expectationsmeasuring

u p to t h e i r standards or ambitions for h i m , enhancing

their prestige, g i v i n g t h e m b l i n d devotion; i n other
words, he may be prevented f r o m realizing that he is
an i n d i v i d u a l w i t h his o w n rights and his o w n responsibilities. T h e effectiveness of such influences is n o t d i minished by the fact that they are often subtle and veiled.
Moreover, there is usually n o t just one adverse factor
b u t several i n c o m b i n a t i o n .
As a consequence of such an environment the c h i l d
does n o t develop a proper self-respect. H e becomes insecure, apprehensive, isolated, and resentful. A t the beg i n n i n g he is helpless toward these forces a r o u n d h i m ,
b u t gradually, by i n t u i t i o n and experience, he develops
means of c o p i n g w i t h the e n v i r o n m e n t and of saving his
o w n skin. H e develops a wary sensitivity as to h o w t o
m a n i p u l a t e others.
T h e p a r t i c u l a r techniques t h a t he develops depend
o n the whole constellation of circumstances. One c h i l d
realizes t h a t by s t u b b o r n negativism and occasional temper tantrums he can w a r d off i n t r u s i o n . H e shuts others

44

Driving

Forces

in

Neuroses

o u t of his life, l i v i n g o n a private island of w h i c h he is

master and resenting every demand made u p o n h i m ,
every suggestion or expectation, as a dangerous i n r o a d
o n his privacy. For another c h i l d n o other way is open
than to eradicate himself and his feelings a n d s u b m i t
b l i n d l y , e k i n g o u t merely a l i t t l e spot here a n d there
where he is free to be himself. These unoccupied t e r r i tories may be p r i m i t i v e or sublime. T h e y range f r o m
secret masturbation i n the seclusion of the b a t h r o o m to
the r e a l m of nature, books, fantasies. I n contrast to this
way, a t h i r d c h i l d does n o t freeze his emotions b u t clings
to the most p o w e r f u l of the parents i n a k i n d of desperate devotion. H e b l i n d l y adopts that parent's likes a n d
dislikes, his way of l i v i n g , his philosophy of life. H e may
suffer under this tendency, however, and develop simultaneously a passionate desire for self-sufficiency.
T h u s the foundations are l a i d for the neurotic trends.
T h e y represent a way of life enforced by unfavorable
conditions. T h e c h i l d must develop t h e m i n order t o survive his insecurity, his fears, his loneliness. B u t they give
h i m an unconscious feeling that he must stick to the
established path at a l l odds, lest he succumb to the dangers threatening h i m .
I believe that w i t h sufficient detailed knowledge of
relevant factors i n c h i l d h o o d , one can understand why
a c h i l d develops a p a r t i c u l a r set of trends. I t is n o t possible here to substantiate this assertion, because to do
so w o u l d necessitate recording a n u m b e r of c h i l d his
tories i n great detail. B u t i t is n o t necessary to substan-

45

S E L F

A N A L Y S I S

tiate i t , because everyone sufficiently experienced w i t h

c h i l d r e n or w i t h reconstructing their early development
can test i t o u t for himself.
W h e n this i n i t i a l development has once occurred is i t
necessarily lasting? I f given circumstances have made a
c h i l d c o m p l i a n t , defiant, diffident, must he necessarily
r e m a i n so? T h e answer is that although he w i l l not i n evitably r e t a i n his defensive techniques there is grave
danger that he w i l l . T h e y can be eradicated by an early
radical change of environment, or they can be modified,
even after a considerable

lapse of t i m e , through any

n u m b e r of f o r t u i t o u s happenings, such as f i n d i n g an
understanding teacher, a f r i e n d , lover, mate, an engrossi n g task suited to his personality and abilities. B u t i n
the absence of strong counteracting factors there is considerable danger that the trends acquired not only w i l l
persist b u t i n t i m e w i l l o b t a i n a stronger h o l d o n the
personality.
T o understand this persistence one must f u l l y realize
that these trends are more than a mere strategy evolved
as an effective defense against a difficult parent. T h e y
are, i n view of a l l the factors developing w i t h i n , the only
possible way for the c h i l d to deal w i t h life i n general. T o
r u n away f r o m attacks is the hare's strategy i n the face
of dangers, and i t is the only strategy he has; he c o u l d
not possibly decide to fight instead, because he simply
has n o t the means to do so. Similarly, a c h i l d g r o w i n g
u p under difficult conditions develops a set of attitudes
t o w a r d life w h i c h are fundamentally neurotic trends,
4

Driving

Forces

in

Neuroses

and these he cannot change by free w i l l b u t has to adhere

to by necessity. T h e analogy w i t h the hare is not entirely
valid, however, because the hare, by c o n s t i t u t i o n , has no
other ways of coping w i t h danger w h i l e the h u m a n bei n g , i f n o t mentally or physically defective by nature,
has other potentialities. H i s necessity to c l i n g to his special attitudes lies n o t i n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l i m i t a t i o n s b u t i n
the fact that the sum total of his fears, i n h i b i t i o n s , vulnerabilities, false goals, and illusory beliefs about the
w o r l d confines h i m to certain ways and excludes others;
i n other words, i t makes h i m r i g i d and does n o t p e r m i t
of basic alterations.
One way of i l l u s t r a t i n g this p o i n t is to compare how
a c h i l d and a m a t u r e a d u l t may cope w i t h persons pre
sen t i n g comparable difficulties. I t must be borne i n m i n d
that the f o l l o w i n g comparison has merely an illustrative
value and is not i n t e n d e d to deal w i t h a l l the factors i n volved i n the two situations. T h e c h i l d , C l a r e a n d here
I am t h i n k i n g of an actual patient to whose analysis I
shall r e t u r n later onhas a self-righteous mother w h o
expects the child's a d m i r a t i o n and exclusive devotion.
T h e a d u l t is an employee,

psychologically w e l l inte-

grated, who has a boss w i t h qualities s i m i l a r to those of

the mother. Both mother and boss are complacently selfa d m i r i n g , are arbitrary, favor others u n f a i r l y and tend
to become hostile i f what they regard as due homage is
not p a i d them or i f they sense a critical a t t i t u d e .
Under these conditions the employee, i f he has stringent reasons for h o l d i n g o n to his j o b , w i l l more or less
consciously evolve a technique for h a n d l i n g the boss.

47

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

H e w i l l p r o b a b l y r e f r a i n f r o m expressing criticism; make

i t a p o i n t to appreciate e x p l i c i t l y whatever good q u a l i
ties there are; w i t h h o l d praise of the boss's competitors;
agree w i t h the boss's plans, regardless of his o w n opinions; let suggestions of his o w n appear as i f the boss had
i n i t i a t e d t h e m . A n d what influence w i l l this strategy
have o n his personality? H e w i l l resent the discriminat i o n and dislike the deceit i t necessitates. B u t since he
is a self-respecting person he w i l l feel that the situation
reflects o n the boss rather t h a n o n himself, and the behavior he adopts w i l l n o t make h i m a compliant, bootl i c k i n g person. H i s strategy w i l l exist only for that patticular boss. T o w a r d the next employer, i f a change
should take place, he w o u l d behave differently.
For an understanding of neurotic trends m u c h depends o n recognizing their difference f r o m such ad hoc
strategy. Otherwise one c o u l d n o t appreciate their force
and pervasiveness and w o u l d succumb to a mistake similar to Adler's oversimplification and rationality. As a
result one w o u l d also take too l i g h t l y the therapeutic
w o r k to be done.
Clare's s i t u a t i o n is comparable to that of the employee, for the mother and the boss are similar i n character, b u t for Clare i t is w o r t h w h i l e to go i n t o more
detail. She was an unwanted c h i l d . T h e marriage was
unhappy. A f t e r h a v i n g one c h i l d , a boy, the mother d i d
not w a n t any more c h i l d r e n . G a t e was b o r n after several
unsuccessful attempts at an a b o r t i o n . She was n o t badly
treated or neglected i n any coarse sense: she was sent to
schools as good as those the brother attended, she re-

Driving

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in

Neuroses

ceived as many gifts as he d i d , she had music lessons w i t h

the same teacher, a n d i n a l l material ways was treated
as w e l l . B u t i n less tangible matters she received less than
the brother, less tenderness, less interest i n school marks
and i n the thousand l i t t l e daily experiences of a c h i l d ,
less concern w h e n she w as i l l , less solicitude to have her
r

around, less willingness to treat her as a confidante, less

a d m i r a t i o n for looks and accomplishments. T h e r e

was

a strong, t h o u g h for a c h i l d intangible, c o m m u n i t y between the mother and brother f r o m w h i c h she was excluded. T h e father was no help, l i e was absent most of
the t i m e , being a c o u n t r y doctor. Clare made some pathetic attempts to get close to h i m b u t he was not interested i n either of the c h i l d r e n . H i s affection was entirely
focused o n the mother i n a k i n d of helpless a d m i r a t i o n .
Finally, he was no help because he was openly despised
by the mother, w h o was sophisticated and attractive and
beyond d o u b t the d o m i n a t i n g spirit i n the family. T h e
undisguised hatred and contempt the m o t h e r felt for
the father, i n c l u d i n g open death wishes against h i m , cont r i b u t e d m u c h to Clare's feeling that i t was m u c h safer
to be on the p o w e r f u l side.
As a consequence of this situation Clare never had a
good chance to develop self-confidence. T h e r e was not
enough of open injustice to provoke sustained r e b e l l i o n ,
b u t she became discontented and cross and c o m p l a i n i n g .
As a result she was teased for always feeling hctself a
martyr. I t never remotely occurred to cither mother
or brother that she m i g h t be r i g h t i n feeling u n f a i r l y
treated. T h e y took i t for granted that her a t t i t u d e was a

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S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

sign of an ugly disposition. A n d Clare, never having felt

secure, easily yielded to the m a j o r i t y o p i n i o n about her
self and began to feel that everything was her fault. Compared w i t h the mother, w h o m everyone admired for her
beauty and charm, and w i t h the brother, who was cheerf u l and i n t e l l i g e n t , she was an ugly d u c k l i n g . She became
deeply convinced that she was u n l i k a b l e .
T h i s shift f r o m essentially true and warranted accusations of others to essentially u n t r u e and unwarranted
self-accusations had far-reaching consequences, as we
shall sec presently. A n d the shift entailed more than an
acceptance of the m a j o r i t y estimate of herself, i t meant
also that she repressed a l l grievances against the mother.
I f everything was her o w n f a u l t the grounds for bearing
a grudge against the mother were p u l l e d away f r o m under her. F r o m such repression of hostility i t was merely
a short step to j o i n the group of those who a d m i r e d the
mother. I n this further y i e l d i n g to majority o p i n i o n she
had a strong incentive i n the mother's

antagonism

toward everything short of complete a d m i r a t i o n : i t was

m u c h safer to find shortcomings w i t h i n herself than i n
the mother. I f she, too, a d m i r e d the mother she need
no longer feel isolated and excluded b u t could hope to
leceive some affection, or at least be accepted. T h e hope
tor affection d i d not materialize, b u t she obtained i n stead a gift of d o u b t f u l value. T h e mother, l i k e all those
who t h r i v e o n the a d m i r a t i o n of others, was generous
i n g i v i n g a d m i r a t i o n i n t u r n to those who adored her.
Clare was no longer the disregarded ugly d u c k l i n g , b u t
became the w o n d e r f u l daughter of a wonderful mother.
5

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Neuroses

T h u s , i n place of a badly shattered self-confidence, she

b u i l t u p the spurious p r i d e that is founded o n outside
admiration.
T h r o u g h this shift f r o m true rebellion to u n t r u e adm i r a t i o n Clare lost the feeble vestiges of self-confidence
she had. T o use a somewhat vague term, she lost herself.
By a d m i r i n g what i n reality she resented, she became
alienated f r o m her o w n feelings. She n o longer knew
what she herself l i k e d or wished or feared or resented.
She lost all capacity to assert her wishes for love, or even
any wishes. Despite a superficial p r i d e her conviction of
being unlovable was actually deepened. Hence later o n ,
when one or another person was f o n d of her, she could
not take the affection at its face value b u t discarded i t
i n various ways. Sometimes she w o u l d t h i n k that such
a person misjudged her for something she was n o t ; sometimes she w o u l d a t t r i b u t e the affection to gratitude for
having been useful or to expectations of her f u t u r e usefulness. T h i s distrust deeply disturbed every h u m a n relationship she entered i n t o . She lost, too, her capacity foi
critical j u d g m e n t , acting o n the unconscious m a x i m that
i t is safer to admire others than to be critical. T h i s attitude shackled her intelligence, w h i c h was actually ol a
high order, and greatly c o n t r i b u t e d to her feeling stupid.
I n consequence of a l l these factors three neurotic
trends developed. One was a compulsive modesty as to
her o w n wishes and demands. T h i s entailed a c o m p u l sive tendency to p u t herself i n t o second place, to t h i n k
less of herself t h a n of others, to t h i n k that others were

S E L F

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right and she was w r o n g . B u t even i n this restricted scope

she c o u l d n o t feel safe unless there was someone o n
w h o m she c o u l d depend, someone w h o w o u l d protect
and defend her, advise her, stimulate her, approve of
her, be responsible for her, give her everything she
needed. She needed a l l this because she had lost the
capacity to take her life i n t o her o w n hands. T h u s she
developed the need for a " p a r t n e r " f r i e n d , lover, husb a n d o n w h o m she c o u l d depend. She w o u l d subordinate herself to h i m as she had t o w a r d the mother. But
at the same time, by his u n d i v i d e d devotion to her, he
w o u l d restore her crushed d i g n i t y . A t h i r d neurotic
t r e n d a compulsive need to excel others and to t r i u m p h
over t h e m l i k e w i s e aimed at restoration of self-regard,
b u t i n a d d i t i o n absorbed all the vindictiveness accumu
la ted t h r o u g h hurts and h u m i l i a t i o n s .
T o resume o u r comparison and summarize what i t
was meant to illustrate: b o t h the employee and the c h i l d
develop strategies for dealing w i t h the situation; for b o t h
the technique is to p u t the self i n t o the background and
adopt an a d m i r i n g a t t i t u d e t o w a r d the one i n a u t h o r i t y .
T h u s their reactions may appear roughly comparable,
b u t i n i c a l i t y they are entirely different. T h e employee
does n o t lose his self-regard, does n o t relinquish his c r i t i
cal j u d g m e n t , does not repress his resentment. T h e c h i l d ,
however, loses her self-regard, represses her hostility,
abandons her critical faculties and becomes self-effacing
Briefly, the a d u l t merely adjusts his behavior w h i l e the
c h i l d changes her personality.
T h e inflexible, all-pervasive nature of the neurotic

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Neuroses

trends has a significant i m p l i c a t i o n for therapy. Patients

often expect that as soon as they have detected their compulsive needs they w i l l be able to r e l i n q u i s h t h e m . T h e y
are disappointed, then, i f the h o l d these trends have over
t h e m persists i n scarcely d i m i n i s h e d intensity. I t is t r u e
that these hopes are n o t entirely fantastic: i n m i l d neuroses the neurotic t r e n d may indeed disappear w h e n i t
is recognized, as w i l l be discussed i n one of the examples
cited i n the chapter o n occasional self-analysis. B u t i n
a l l more intricate neuroses such expectations are as f u t i l e
as i t w o u l d be to expect that a social calamity such as u n employment w o u l d cease to exist merely because i t is
recognized as a p r o b l e m . I n each instance, social or personal, i t is necessary to study and i f possible to influence
those forces w h i c h have created the d i s r u p t i v e t r e n d a n d
w h i c h account for its persistence.
I have emphasized the security offered by the neurotic
trends. As m e n t i o n e d before, this a t t r i b u t e accounts for
their compulsive character. B u t the part played by the
feeling of satisfaction that they engender, o r the hope
for satisfaction, should n o t be underrated. T h i s feeling
or hope is never missing, t h o u g h its intensity varies. I n
some neurotic trends, such as the need for perfection or
the compulsion t o w a r d modesty, the defensive aspect is
predominant. I n others the satisfaction a t t a i n e d o r hoped
for t h r o u g h the success of the s t r i v i n g can be so strong
that the latter takes o n the character of a d e v o u r i n g passion. T h e n e u r o t i c need for dependency, f o r example,
usually entails a v i v i d expectation of happiness w i t h
that person w h o w i l l take one's l i f e i n t o his hands. A

53

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

strong tinge of attained or anticipated satisfaction renders a t r e n d less accessible to therapy.

N e u r o t i c trends may be classified i n various ways.
Those e n t a i l i n g strivings for closeness w i t h others m i g h t
be contrasted w i t h those a i m i n g at aloofness and distance. Those i m p e l l i n g t o w a r d one or another k i n d of
dependency m i g h t be b u n d l e d together i n contrast w i t h
those stressing independence. T r e n d s toward expansiveness stand against those w o r k i n g toward a constriction of
life. T r e n d s t o w a r d an accentuation of personal peculiarities c o u l d be contrasted w i t h those a i m i n g at adaptat i o n o r at an eradication of the i n d i v i d u a l self, those
toward self-aggrandizement w i t h those that entail selfb e l i t t l i n g . B u t to carry t h r o u g h such classifications w o u l d
not make the p i c t u r e clearer, because the categories are
overlapping. I shall therelore merely enumerate those
trends w h i c h at the present time stand o u t as describable
entities. I a m positive that the list is neither complete
nor clear cut. O t h e r trends w i l l have to be added, and a
t r e n d presented as an autonomous entity may t u r n o u t
to be a mere variety of some other. I t w o u l d surpass the
scope oi this chapter to give detailed descriptions of the
various trends, even though such knowledge is desirable.
Some of t h e m are described i n greater detail i n previous
publications. I t must suffice here to list them a n d to give
a cursory enumeration of their m a i n characteristics.
1. T h e n e u r o t i c need t o r affection a n d approval (see
The Neurotic

Personality

the need for affection):

54

of Our Time,

Chapter 6, o n

Driving

Forces

in

Neuroses

indiscriminate need to please others and to be l i k e d and

approved of by others;
Automatic l i v i n g u p to the expectations of others;
Center of gravity i n others and n o t i n self, w i t h their
wishes and opinions the only t h i n g that counts;
Dread of self-assertion;
Dread of hostility o n the p a r t of others 0 1 of hostile feelings w i t h i n self.
2. T h e neurotic need for a " p a r t n e r " w h o w i l l take
over one's life (see New

Ways in Psychoanalysis,

ter 1 5 , on masochism, and Fromm's Escape from

ChapFree-

dom, Chapter 5, o n a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m ; also the example

given below i n Chapter 8):
Centei of gravity entirely i n the " p a r t n e r , " who is to
f u l f i l l a l l expectations of life and take responsibility
for good and e v i l , his successful m a n i p u l a t i o n becom
i n g the p r e d o m i n a n t task;
O v e r v a l u a t i o n of " l o v e " because " l o v e " is supposed to
solve a l l problems;
Dread of desertion;
Dread of being alone.
3. T h e neurotic need to restiict one's life w i t h i n nai
row borders:
Necessity to be undemanding and contented w i t h l i t t l e ,
and to restrict ambitions and wishes for material
things;
Necessity to r e m a i n inconspicuous and to take second
place;

55

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

B e l i t t l i n g of existing faculties and potentialities, w i t h

modesty the supreme value;
Urge to save rather than to spend;
Dread of m a k i n g any demands;
Dread of having or asserting expansive wishes.
These three trends are often f o u n d together, as m m b t
be expected,

because they all entail an admission of

weakness and constitute attempts to arrange life o n that

basis. T h e y are the opposite of trends toward r e l y i n g on
one's own strength or t a k i n g responsibility upon oneself. T h e three of them do not, however, constitute a
syndrome. T h e t h i r d may exist w i t h o u t the other two
p l a y i n g any noteworthy role.

4. T h e neurotic need for power (sec The

Personality

0} Our Time,

Neurotic

Chapter J O , on the need for

power, prestige, and possession):

D o m i n a t i o n over others craved for its o w n sake;
D e v o t i o n to a cause, d u t y , responsibility, though playi n g some part, n o t the d r i v i n g force;
Essential disrespect for others, their i n d i v i d u a l i t y , their
d i g n i t y , t h e i r feelings, the only concern being their
subordination;
Great differences as to degree of destructive elements i n volved;
I n d i s c r i m i n a t e adoration of strength and contempt for
weakness;
Dread of uncontrollable situations;
Dread of helplessness.
5

Driving

Forces

in

Neuroses

4a. T h e neurotic need to c o n t r o l self a n d others

t h r o u g h reason and foresight (a variety of 4 i n people
who are too i n h i b i t e d to exert power directly and
openly):
Belief i n the omnipotence of intelligence and reason;
Denial of the power of e m o t i o n a l forces and contempt
for t h e m ;
Extreme value placed o n foresight a n d p r e d i c t i o n ;
Feelings of superiority over others related to the faculty
of foresight;
Contempt for everything w i t h i n self that lags b e h i n d
the image of intellectual superiority;
Dread of recognizing objective l i m i t a t i o n s of the power
of reason;
Dread of "stupidity* and bad j u d g m e n t .
5

4b. T h e neurotic need to believe i n the omnipotence

of w i l l (to use a somewhat ambiguous t e r m , an i n t r o v e r t
variety of 4 i n h i g h l y detached people to w h o m a direct
exertion of power means too m u c h contact w i t h others):
Feeling of fortitude gained f r o m the belief i n the magic
power of w i l l (like possession of a w i s h i n g r i n g ) ;
Reaction of desolation to any frustration of wishes;
Tendency to r e l i n q u i s h or restrict wishes a n d to w i t h draw interest because of a dread of " f a i l u r e " ;
Dread of recognizing any l i m i t a t i o n s of sheer w i l l .
5. T h e neurotic need to e x p l o i t others a n d by hook
or crook get the better of t h e m :
Others evaluated p r i m a r i l y according to whether or not
they can be exploited or made use of;

57

S F L F - A N

Various

foci

of

exploitationmoney

A I Y S I S

(bargaining

amounts to a passion), ideas, sexuality, feelings;

Pride i n exploitative s k i l l ;
Dread of b e i n g e x p l o i t e d and thus of being " s t u p i d . "
6. T h e n e u r o t i c need for social recognition or prestige (may 0 1 may n o t be c o m b i n e d w i t h a craving for
power):
All

t h i n g s i n a n i m a t e objects, money, persons, one's

o w n qualities, activities, a n d feelingsevaluated only

according to their prestige value;
Self-evaluation entirely dependent on nature of p u b l i c
acceptance;
Differences as to use of t r a d i t i o n a l or rebellious ways of
i n c i t i n g envy or a d m i r a t i o n ;
Dread of losing caste ( " h u m i l i a t i o n " ) , whether t h r o u g h
external circumstances or t h r o u g h factors from w i t h i n .
7. T h e neurotic need for personal a d m i r a t i o n :
Inflated image of self (narcissism);
Need to be a d m i r e d not for what one possesses or presents i n the p u b l i c eye b u t for the imagined self;
Self-evaluation dependent on l i v i n g u p to this image
and on a d m i r a t i o n of i t by others;
Dread of losing a d m i r a t i o n ( " h u m i l i a t i o n " ) .
8. T h e neurotic a m b i t i o n for personal achievement:
Need to surpass others n o t t h r o u g h what one presents
01 is b u t t h r o u g h ones activities;
Self-evaluation dependent o n being the very bestlover,

58

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in

Neuroses

sportsman, w r i t e r , w o r k e r p a r t i c u l a r l y i n one's o w n
m i n d , recognition by others being v i t a l too, however,
a n d its absence resented;
A d m i x t u r e of destructive tendencies (toward the defeat
of others) never lacking b u t v a r y i n g i n intensity;
Relentless d r i v i n g of self to greater achievements, though
w i t h pervasive anxiety;
Dread of failure ( " h u m i l i a t i o n " ) .
Trends 6, 7, and 8 have i n c o m m o n a more or less open
competitive drive t o w a r d an absolute superiority over
others. B u t t h o u g h these trends overlap and may be combined, they may lead a separate existence. T h e need for
personal a d m i r a t i o n , for instance, may go w i t h a disregard of social prestige.
9. T h e neurotic need for self-sufficiency

and inde-

pendence:
Necessity never to need anybody, or to yield to any i n fluence, or to be t i e d d o w n to anything, any closeness
i n v o l v i n g the danger of enslavement;
Distance and separateness the only source of security;
Dread of needing others, of ties, of closeness, of love.
1 0 . T h e neurotic need for perfection and unassailab i l i t y (see New Ways in Psychoanalysis,
the super-ego, and Escape from Freedom,

Chapter 1 3 , o n
Chapter 5, on

automaton c o n f o r m i t y ) :
Relentless d r i v i n g for perfection;
R u m i n a t i o n s and self-recriminations regarding possible
flaws;

59

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

Feelings of superiority over others because of being perfect;

Dread of f i n d i n g flaws w i t h i n self or of m a k i n g mistakes;
D r e a d of c r i t i c i s m or reproaches.
A s t r i k i n g consideration i n r e v i e w i n g these trends
is that none of the strivings and attitudes they i m p l y is
i n itself " a b n o r m a l " or devoid of h u m a n value. Most of
us want and appreciate affection, self-control, modesty,
consideration of others. T o expect f u l f i l l m e n t of one's
life f r o m another person is regarded, at least for a w o m a n ,
as " n o r m a l " o r even virtuous. A m o n g the strivings are
some that we w o u l d n o t hesitate to estimate highly. Selfsufficiency, independence, and guidance t h r o u g h reason
are generally regarded as valuable goals.
I n view of these facts the question is b o u n d to arise
over a n d over again: why call these trends neurotic?
W h a t is really w r o n g w i t h them? Granted that w i t h some
people certain trends are p r e d o m i n a n t , even have a
measure of r i g i d i t y , w h i l e q u i t e different trends determ i n e the behavior of others, are n o t these varieties of
pursuits merely

the expression

of given

differences

among people of different sets of values, different ways

of coping w i t h life? Is i t n o t natural, for instance, that
a tenderhearted person w i l l p u t stock i n affection and a
stronger person i n independence and leadership?
T o raise these questions is useful because i t is n o t only
of theoretical b u t of e m i n e n t ly practical importance to
recognize the differences between such basic h u m a n
strivings a n d evaluations and their neurotic counter-

60

Driving

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in

Neuroses

parts. T h e objectives of the t w o types of strivings are

similar, b u t their basis and meaning are entirely different. T h e difference is almost as great as between + 7 a n d
7: i n b o t h cases we have the n u m b e r 7, just as we use
the same words, affection, reason, perfection, b u t the
prefix changes character and value. T h e contrasts underl y i n g the apparent similarities have already been touched
on i n the comparison of the employee and the c h i l d
Clare, b u t a few more generalized comparisons may i l l u m i n a t e f u r t h e r the difference between n o r m a l a n d
neurotic trends.
A wish for affection f r o m others is m e a n i n g f u l only i f
there is affection for t h e m , a feeling of having something
i n c o m m o n w i t h t h e m . T h e emphasis then w i l l be n o t
only o n the friendliness received b u t also o n the positive
feelings one is capable of h a v i n g for others a n d of showi n g to them. B u t the neurotic need for affection is devoid
of the value of reciprocity. For the n e u r o t i c person his
o w n feelings of affection count as l i t t l e as they w o u l d i f
he were surrounded by strange a n d dangerous animals.
T o be accurate, he does n o t even really w a n t the others'
affection, b u t is merely concerned, keenly a n d strenuously, that they make n o aggressive move against h i m .
T h e singular value l y i n g i n m u t u a l understanding, tolerance, concern, sympathy has n o place i n the relationship.
Similarly, the s t r i v i n g to perfect o u r gifts a n d o u r h u man faculties is certainly w o r t h o u r best efforts, so m u c h
so that no d o u b t the w o r l d w o u l d be a better place to
l i v e i n i f this s t r i v i n g were strong a n d alive i n a l l of us.

6l

S E L F

A N A L Y S I S

B u t the n e u r o t i c need for perfection, w h i l e i t may be

expressed i n identical terms, has lost this special value,
because i t represents an attempt to be or appear perfect
w i t h o u t change. T h e r e is n o possibility of improvement,
because finding areas w i t h i n the self that w o u l d need
change is f r i g h t e n i n g a n d therefore avoided. T h e only
real concern is to juggle away any deficiency lest one be
exposed to attacks, and to preserve the secret feeling of
superiority over others. As i n the neurotic need for affection, the person's o w n active p a r t i c i p a t i o n is lacking
or i m p a i r e d . Instead of being an active striving, this
t r e n d is a static insistence u p o n an illusory status

quo.

A last comparison: all of us have a h i g h regard for w i l l

power, regarding i t as a m e a n i n g f u l force i f p u t i n t o the
service of pursuits that are themselves i m p o r t a n t . B u t
the neurotic f a i t h i n the omnipotence of w i l l is illusory,
because i t completely disregards the l i m i t a t i o n s that may
defy even the most d e t e r m i n e d efforts. N o a m o u n t of
w i l l power gets us o u t of a Sunday-afternoon traffic j a m .
F u r t h e r m o r e , the v i r t u e of w i l l power is n u l l i f i e d i f the
p r o v i n g of its effectiveness becomes an a i m i n itself. A n y
obstacle standing i n the way of momentary impulses w i l l
drive the person i n the g r i p of this neurotic t r e n d i n t o
b l i n d a n d frantic action, regardless of whether he really
wants the p a r t i c u l a r object. T h e tables are actually reversed: i t is n o t that he has w i l l power, b u t that i t has h i m .
These examples may suffice to show that the neurotic
pursuits are almost a caricature of the h u m a n values they
resemble. T h e y lack freedom, spontaneity, and meaning.
A l l too often they involve i l l u s o r y elements. T h e i r value

62

Driving

Forces

in

Neuroses

is only subjective, and lies i n the fact that they h o l d the

more or less desperate promise of safety and of a solution
for a l l problems.
A n d one f u r t h e r p o i n t should be emphasized: n o t only
are the neurotic trends devoid of the h u m a n values that
they m i m i c , b u t they do n o t even repiesent w h a t the
person wants. I f he puts a l l his energies i n t o the p u r s u i t
of social prestige or power, for example, he may believe
that he really wants these goals; actually, as we have seen,
he is merely d r i v e n to w a n t t h e m . I t is as i f he were flying
i n an ait plane w h i c h he believes he is p i l o t i n g , w h i l e
actually the plane is directed by remote c o n t r o l .
I t remains to understand approximately how and to
what extent the neurotic trends may determine the person's character and influence his life. I n the fust place,
these pursuits render i t necessary for h i m to develop
certain subsidiary attitudes, feelings, and types of be
havior. I f his t r e n d is t o w a r d u n l i m i t e d

independence,

he w i l l desire secrecy a n d seclusion, be wary of a n y t h i n g

resembling an i n t r u s i o n i n t o his privacy, develop techniques for keeping others at a distance. I f his trend is
toward a constriction of life, he w i l t be modest, undc
manding, and ready to y i e l d to anyone who is more aggressive than he.
Also, the neurotic trends largely determine the image
a person has of what he is or should be. A l l neurotic persons are markedly unstable i n their self-evaluation, wave r i n g between an inflated and a deflated image of themselves. W h e n a neurotic t r e n d is recognized i t becomes

63

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

possible to understand specifically the reasons w h y a

particular person is aware of certain evaluations of h i m self and represses others, why he is consciously or u n consciously exceedingly p r o u d of certain attitudes or
qualities and despises others for no discernible objective
reason.
For example, i f A has b u i l t u p a protective belief i n
reason a n d foresight he w i l l n o t o n l y overrate what can
be accomplished by reason i n general, but also take a
special p r i d e i n his power of reasoning, his j u d g m e n t ,
his predictions. H i s notions of his superiority o\er others
w i l l then derive p r i m a r i l y f r o m a conviction that his is
a superior intelligence. A n d i f B feels he cannot possibly
stand o n his o w n , b u t must have a " p a r t n e r " who gives
content and d i r e c t i o n to his life, he is b o u n d to overrate
not only the power of love b u t also his o w n a b i l i t y to
love. H e w i l l mistake his need to hang o n to another person for a p a r t i c u l a r l y great a b i l i t y to love, and w i l l take
a special p r i d e i n this illusory capacity. Finally, i f C s
neurotic trend is to master any situation by his own
effoits, to be self-sufficient at any price, he w i l l take an
excessive p r i d e i n being capable a n d self-reliant and i n
never needing anybody.
T h e maintenance of these beliefsA's belief i n his
superior power of reasoning, B's i n his l o v i n g nature,
C's i n his competence to handle his affairs q u i t e by h i m selfbecomes as compulsive as the neurotic trends that
produced t h e m . B u t the p r i d e taken i n these qualities is
sensitive and vulnerable, and for good reasons. Its foundation is none too solid. I t is b u i l t o n too narrow a basis

Driving

Forces

in

Neuroses

a n d contains too many illusory elements. I t is actually a

p r i d e i n the qualities that are r e q u i r e d i n the service of
the neurotic trends rather than i n qualities actually existi n g . I n actual fact B has very l i t t l e ability to love, b u t his
belief i n this q u a l i t y is indispensable lest he recognize
the falseness of his pursuits. I f he harbored any d o u b t
as to his l o v i n g nature he w o u l d have to recognize that
i n reality he searches n o t for someone to love b u t for
someone who w i l l devote his life exclusively to h i m ,
w i t h o u t his being able to give m u c h i n r e t u r n . T h i s
w o u l d mean such a v i t a l threat to his security that he
w o u l d be b o u n d to react to a criticism o n this score w i t h
a m i x t u r e of panic a n d hostility, one or the other prev a i l i n g . Similarly, A w i l l react w i t h extreme i r r i t a t i o n to
any d o u b t cast o n his good j u d g m e n t . C, o n the other
hand, whose p r i d e lies i n n o t needing anybody, must feci
i r r i t a t e d at any suggestion that he cannot succeed w i t h o u t help or advice. T h e anxiety and hostility generated
by such trespasses o n the treasured image of self f u r t h e r
i m p a i r a person's relations to others, a n d thereby force
h i m to adhere a l l the more strongly to his protective
devices.
N o t only the evaluation of self is incisively influenced
by the neurotic trends, b u t also the evaluation of others.
T h e person craving for prestige w i l l judge others exclusively according to the prestige they enjoy: one w h o
enjoys greater prestige he w i l l p u t above himself, and
one w i t h lesser prestige he w i l l look d o w n u p o n , iegardless of the real values involved. T h e compulsively comp l i a n t person is l i k e l y to feel indiscriminate adoration

S E T

r -

N A

L \

S I S

of what appears to h i m as strength, even i f this "strength"

consists merely i n erratic or unscrupulous behavior. T h e
person w h o must e x p l o i t others may take a certain l i k i n g
to one w h o lends himself to e x p l o i t a t i o n , b u t also despises h i m ; he w i l l t h i n k of a compulsively modest per
son as either s t u p i d or hypocritical. T h e compulsively
dependent person may look enviously at the compulsively self-sufficient person, t h i n k i n g h i m free and u n
i n h i b i t e d , t h o u g h actually the latter is merely i n the
g r i p of a different neurotic trend.
A last consequence to be discussed here is the i n h i b i tions r e s u l t i n g from the neurotic trends. I n h i b i t i o n s may
be circumscribed, that is, concern a concrete action, sen
sation. or e m o t i o n , taking the f o r m , for example, of i m
potence o r an i n h i b i t i o n toward telephoning. O r they
may be diffuse and concern whole areas of life, such as
self-assertion, spontaneity, m a k i n g demands, c o m i n g close
to people. As a r u l e specific i n h i b i t i o n s are at the level of
awareness. Diffuse i n h i b i t i o n s , though m o i e i m p o r t a n t ,
arc less tangible.* I f they become very strong the person
may be generally aware of being i n h i b i t e d , w i t h o u t , how
ever, recognizing in what specific direction. T h e y may
be so subtle and h i d d e n , o n the other hand, that the
person is n o t aware of their existence and efficacy. Awareness of i n h i b i t i o n s may be befogged i n various ways, oi
w h i c h one of the commonest is rationalization: a person
w h o has i n h i b i t i o n s about speaking to others i n social
gatherings may be aware of being i n h i b i t e d on this score,
b u t also he may simply believe that he dislikes parties
* Sec H . Schultz-Hencke, Der gehemmle

66

Mensch.

Driving

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and considers t h e m b o r i n g , a n d find many good reasons

for refusing invitations.
T h e i n h i b i t i o n s produced by neurotic trends are p r i m a r i l y of the diffuse k i n d . L e t us for the sake of clarity
compare the person obsessed by a neurotic t r e n d w i t h a
rope dancer. T h e latter, i n order to reach the other end
of the rope w i t h o u t f a l l i n g d o w n , must avoid any glance
to r i g h t or left a n d m u s t keep his a t t e n t i o n fixed o n the
rope. H e r e we w o u l d n o t speak of an i n h i b i t i o n to glanci n g aside, because the rope dancer has a clear recognit i o n of the danger i n v o l v e d and consciously avoids that
danger. A person i n the clutches of a n e u r o t i c t r e n d
must equally anxiously avoid any deviation f r o m the
prescribed course, b u t i n his case there is an i m p o r t a n t
difference, for w i t h h i m the process is unconscious: strong
i n h i b i t i o n s prevent h i m f r o m wavering i n the course l a i d
d o w n for h i m .
T h u s a person w h o makes himself dependent o n a
partner w i l l be i n h i b i t e d f r o m m a k i n g

independent

moves of his o w n ; a person t e n d i n g toward a constriction

of l i f e w i l l be i n h i b i t e d f r o m having, and s t i l l more f r o m
asserting, any expansive wishes; a person w i t h a neurotic
need to control self and others by reason w i l l be i n h i b i t e d f r o m feeling any strong e m o t i o n ; and a person
w i t h a compulsive craving for prestige w i l l be i n h i b i t e d
f r o m dancing o r speaking i n p u b l i c or f r o m any other
activity that m i g h t jeopardize his prestige, and i n fact
his whole l e a r n i n g faculty may be paralyzed because i t is
intolerable for h i m to appear awkward d u r i n g the beg i n n i n g period. Different as they are, a l l these i n h i b i t i o n s

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

have an a t t r i b u t e i n c o m m o n : a l l of them represent a

check o n any spontaneity of feeling, thought, and action.
One can have no more than a studied spontaneity w h e n
dancing o n a rope. A n d the panic that seizes a neurotic
person i f something leads h i m to trespass his determined
boundaries is no less acute than that experienced by the
rope dancer w h o loses his footing.
T h u s each neurotic t r e n d generates n o t only a specific
anxiety b u t also specific types of behavior, a specific
image of self and others, a specific p r i d e , a specific k i n d
of v u l n e r a b i l i t y and specific i n h i b i t i o n s .
So far we have simplified matters by assuming that
any one person has o n l y one neurotic trend or a comb i n a t i o n of k i n d r e d trends. I t has been pointed o u t that
a t r e n d t o w a r d relegating one's life to a partner is often
c o m b i n e d w i t h a general need for affection and w i t h a
t r e n d toward constricting one's life w i t h i n narrow l i m i t s ;
that a craving for power so frequently goes w i t h a cravi n g for prestige that the two may appear as t w o aspects
of the same t r e n d ; that an insistence on absolute independence a n d self-sufficiency is often i n t e r t w i n e d w i t h a
belief that l i f e can be mastered t h r o u g h reason and fore
sight. I n these instances the coexistence of various trends
does n o t essentially complicate the picture, because w h i l e
the different trends may collide at timesthe need to be
a d m i r e d , for instance, may collide w i t h a need to d o m i n a t e t h e i r objectives are nevertheless n o t too far apart.
T h i s does n o t mean that there are n o conflicts: each neur o t i c t r e n d carries w i t h i n itself the germ of conflicts. B u t
w h e n the trends are k i n d r e d the conflicts are manageable

68

Driving

Forces

in

Neuroses

by way of repressions, avoidances, and the l i k e , t h o u g h

at great expense to the i n d i v i d u a l .
T h e situation changes essentially when a person has
developed several neurotic trends that are i n c o m p a t i b l e
i n nature. H i s position then is comparable to that of a
servant who is dependent o n t w o masters w h o give contradictory commands, b o t h expecting b l i n d obedience.
I f compliance is just as compulsive for h i m as absolute
independence he feels caught i n a conflict w h i c h does
n o t p e r m i t of any permanent solution. H e w i l l grope for
compromise solutions, b u t clashes w i l l be inevitable;
one p u r s u i t is b o u n d to interfere constantly w i t h its opposite. T h e same impasse occurs when a compulsive
need to dominate others i n a dictatorial fashion is comb i n e d w i t h a s t r i v i n g to lean on another person, or when
a need to e x p l o i t others, w h i c h precludes the person's
p r o d u c t i v i t y , is of equal intensity w i t h a need to be
a d m i r e d as the superior, protective genius. I t occurs, i n
fact, whenever contradictory trends exist together.
T h e neurotic "symptoms," such as phobias,

depres-

sions, alcoholism, u l t i m a t e l y result f r o m these conflicts.

T h e more thoroughly we recognize this fact the less w i l l
we be tempted to i n t e r p r e t the symptoms directly. I f
they are a result of conflicting trends i t is as good as useless to t r y to understand t h e m w i t h o u t having previously
gained an understanding of the u n d e r l y i n g structure.
I t should now be clear that the essence of a "neurosis"
is the neurotic character structure, the focal points of
w h i c h are the n e u r o t i c trends. Each of t h e m is the
nucleus of a structure w i t h i n the personality, and each

69

S E L F - A N A L Y S * *

of these substructures is interrelated i n many ways w i t h

other substructures. I t is n o t o n l y of theoretical interest
b u t of e m i n e n t practical importance to realize the nature
and c o m p l e x i t y of this character structure. Even psychiatrists, n o t to speak of laymen, t e n d to underrate the
intricacies of the nature of m o d e r n man.
T h e n e u r o t i c character structure is more or less r i g i d ,
b u t i t is also precarious and vulnerable because of its
many weak spotsits pretenses, self-deceptions, and i l lusions. A t i n n u m e r a b l e points, the nature of w h i c h
varies i n each i n d i v i d u a l , its failure to f u n c t i o n is noticeable. T h e person himself senses deeply that something is
f u n d a m e n t a l l y w r o n g , t h o u g h he does not k n o w what i t
is. H e may vigorously assert that everything is a l l r i g h t ,
apart f r o m his headaches or his eating sprees, b u t he
registers deep d o w n that something is wrong.
N o t o n l y is he ignorant of the source of trouble, b u t he
has considerable interest i n r e m a i n i n g ignorant, because,
as emphasized above, his neurotic trends have a definite
subjective value for h i m . I n this situation there are two
courses he may take: he may, despite the subjective value
of his n e u r o t i c trends, examine the nature and causes of
the deficiencies they produce; or he may deny that anyt h i n g is w r o n g or can be changed.
I n analysis b o t h courses are followed, one or the othei
p r e v a i l i n g at different times. T h e more indispensable
the neurotic trends are for a person, and the more questionable t h e i r actual value, the more vigorously and
r i g i d l y must he defend and justify t h e m . T h i s s i t u a t i o n
is comparable to the need of a government to defend and

70

Driving

Forces

in

Neuroses

justify its activities. T h e more debatable the government, the less can i t tolerate criticism and the more must
i t assert its rights. These self-justifications constitute
what I should l i k e to call secondary defenses. T h e i r purpose is not only to defend one or another questionable
factor b u t to safeguard the maintenance of the whole
neurotic structure. T h e y are l i k e a m i n e f i e l d laid o u t
a r o u n d the neurosis for its protection. Different t h o u g h
they appear i n detail, their common denominator is a
persuasion that i n essence everything is r i g h t , good, or
unalterable.
I t is i n accord w i t h the comprehensive f u n c t i o n of the
secondary defenses that the attitudes they e n t a i l tend to
be generalized i n order n o t to leave open any loophole.
T h u s , for example, a person who has surrounded h i m self w i t h an a r m o r of self-righteousness w i l l not only defend his power drive as r i g h t , r a t i o n a l , and warranted,
b u t w i l l be unable to a d m i t that a n y t h i n g he does, t r i v i a l
t h o u g h i t may be, is w r o n g or questionable. T h e secondary defenses may be so h i d d e n that they can be detected
only d u r i n g analytical w o r k , or they may constitute a
p r o m i n e n t feature of the observable picture of the personality; they are easily recognized, for instance, i n the
person who must always be r i g h t . T h e y must not necessarily appear as a character t r a i t b u t may take the f o r m
of moral or scientific convictions; thus an overemphasis
o n constitutional factors often represents a person's conviction that he is as he is " b y nature," a n d that hence
everything is unalterable. Also the intensity and r i g i d i t y
of these defenses vary considerably. I n Clare, for i n -

71

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

stance, whose analysis we f o l l o w t h r o u g h o u t the book,

they played h a r d l y any role. I n others they may be so
strong as to render any attempt at analysis impossible.
T h e more a person is i n t e n t u p o n m a i n t a i n i n g the status
quo the more impenetrable are his defenses. B u t w h i l e
there are variations i n transparency, intensity, and m a n i
testations, the secondary defenses, i n contrast to the m a n i f o l d shades a n d variations of the neurotic character structure itself, show a monotonous r e p e t i t i o n of the themes
"good," " r i g h t , " "unalterable," i n one or another combination.
I should l i k e now to r e t u r n to my i n i t i a l assertion that
neurotic trends are i n the center of psychic disturbances.
T h i s statement does n o t mean, of course, that the neur o t i c trends are what the i n d i v i d u a l feels most keenly as
disturbances: as mentioned before, he is usually unaware that they are the d r i v i n g forces i n his life. N o r does
i t mean that the neurotic trends are the ultimate source
of a l l psychic troubles: the trends themselves are a product of previous disturbances,

conflicts that have oc-

curred i n h u m a n relationships. M y contention is rather

that the focal p o i n t i n the whole neurotic structure is
what I have called the neurotic trends. T h e y provide a
way o u t of the i n i t i a l calamities, offering a promise that
life can be coped w i t h despite disturbed relationships to
self and others. B u t also they produce a great variety of
new disturbances: illusions about the w o r l d and about
the self, vulnerabilities, i n h i b i t i o n s , conflicts. T h e y are
at the same t i m e a solution of i n i t i a l difficulties and a
source of f u r t h e r ones.

72

C H A P T E R

Stages of Psychoanalytic

T H R E E

Understanding

A knowledge of the neurotic trends and their implications gives a rough conception of what has to be w o r k e d
t h r o u g h i n analysis. I t is also desirable, however, to k n o w
something about the sequence i n w h i c h the w o r k must
be done. A r e problems tackled i n a helter-skelter fashion?
Does one o b t a i n a piecemeal insight here and there u n t i l
at last the pieces of the jigsaw puzzle are p u t together
i n t o an understandable picture? O r are there principles
that may serve as a guide i n the maze of material offering
itself?
Freud's answer to this question seems easy enough.
Freud declared that a person w i l l first present i n the
analysis the same f r o n t that he presents to the w o r l d i n
general, a n d that t h e n his repressed strivings w i l l gradually appear, i n succession f r o m the less repressed to the
more repressed. I f we were to take a bird's-eye view of the

73

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

analytical procedure this answer w o u l d s t i l l h o l d true

A n d even as a guide for action the general p r i n c i p l e i n volved w o u l d be good enough i f the findings to be made
lay a r o u n d a single vertical l i n e along which we w o u l d
have to w i n d o u r way i n t o the depths. B u t i f we should
assume that this is the case, i f we should assume that i f
we only continue to analyze whatever material shows u p
we shall penetrate step by step i n t o the repressed area,
we may easily find ourselves i n a state of c o n f u s i o n
which indeed happens n o t i n f r e q u e n t l y .
T h e theory of neuroses developed

i n the previous

chapter gives us more specific leads. I t holds that there

are several focal points i n the neurotic personality given
by the neurotic trends and the structure b u i l t around
each of t h e m . T h e inference to be d r a w n for the thera
peutic procedure is, briefly, that wc must discover each
trend and each t i m e descend i n t o the denths. M o r e con
cretely, the implications of each neurotic t r e n d are repressed i n various degrees. Those that are less deeply
repressed are the first to become accessible; those that are
more deeply repressed w i l l emerge later. T h e extensive
example of self-analysis presented i n Chapter Eight w i l l
illustrate this p o i n t .
T h e same p r i n c i p l e applies to the order i n which the
neurotic trends themselves can be tackled. One patient
w i l l start by presenting the implications of his need for
absolute independence and superiority, and only m u c h
later can one discover and tackle indications of his compliance or of his need for affection. T h e next patient
w i l l start w i t h an open display of his need to be loved and

74

Stages

of

Understanding

approved of, and his tendencies to control others, i f he

has any, could n o t possibly be approached at the beginn i n g ; b u t a t h i r d one w i l l f r o m the b e g i n n i n g display
a h i g h l y developed power drive. T h e fact that a t r e n d
appears at the b e g i n n i n g indicates n o t h i n g about its
comparative importance or unimportance: the neurotic
trend that appears first is h o t necessarily the strongest
one i n the sense of having the greatest influence o n the
personality. W e c o u l d rather say that that t r e n d is the
first to crystallize w h i c h jibes best w i t h the person's conscious or semiconscious image of himself. I f secondary
defensesthe means of self-justificationare h i g h l y developed they may entirely dominate the p i c t u r e at the
beginning. I n that case the neurotic trends become visible and accessible o n l y later o n .
I should l i k e to illustrate the stages of understanding
w i t h the example of the patient Clare whose c h i l d h o o d
history was briefly o u t l i n e d i n the previous

chapter.

W h e n the analysis is reported for this purpose i t must,

of course, be grossly simplified and schematized. I must
leave o u t n o t only many details and ramifications b u t
also a l l the difficulties encountered d u r i n g the analytical
w o r k . Moreover, the various phases appear, i n summary,
more clear cut than they actually were: factors that appear i n the r e p o r t as belonging to the first phase, for i n stance, actually emerged then only d i m l y and became
clearer t h r o u g h o u t the analysis. I believe, however, that
these inaccuracies do n o t essentially detract f r o m the
v a l i d i t y of the principles presented.

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S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

Clare came for analytic treatment at the age of t h i r t y ,

for various reasons. She was easily overcome by a paralyzing fatigue that interfered w i t h her w o r k and hei
social life. Also, she complained about having remarkably l i t t l e self-confidence. She was the editor of a magazine, a n d t h o u g h her professional career and her present
position were satisfactory her a m b i t i o n to w r i t e plays
and stories was checked by insurmountable i n h i b i t i o n s .
She c o u l d do her l o u t i n e w o r k b u t was unable to do
p r o d u c t i v e w o r k , though she was i n c l i n e d to account for
this latter i n a b i l i t y by p o i n t i n g o u t her probable lack of
talent. She had been m a r r i e d at the age of twenty-three,
b u t the husband had d i e d after three years. After the
marriage she had had a relationship w i t h another m a n
w h i c h c o n t i n u e d d u r i n g the analysis. According to her
i n i t i a l presentation b o t h relationships were satisfactory
sexually as w e l l as otherwise.
T h e analysis stretched over a p e r i o d of four and a half
years. She was analyzed for one year and a half. T h i s t i m e
was followed by an i n t e r r u p t i o n of two years, i n which
she d i d a good deal of self-analysis, afterward r e t u r n i n g
to analysis for another year at i r r e g u l a r intervals.
Clare's analysis could be roughly d i v i d e d i n t o three
phases, the discovery of her compulsive modesty; the
discovery o f her compulsive dependence on a partner;
and finally, the discovery of her compulsive need to force
others to recognize her superiority. None of these trends
was apparent to herself or to others.
I n the first p e r i o d the data that suggested compulsive
elements were as follows. She tended to m i n i m i z e her

Stages

of

Understanding

o w n value and capacities: n o t only was she insecure about

her assets b u t she tenaciously denied t h e i r existence, i n sisting that she was n o t i n t e l l i g e n t , attractive, or gifted
a n d tending to discard evidence to the contrary. Also,
she tended to regard others as superior to herself. I f
there was a dissension of o p i n i o n she automatically believed that the others were right. She recalled that when
her husband had started an affair w i t h another w o m a n
she d i d n o t h i n g to remonstrate against i t , though the
experience was extremely p a i n f u l to her; she managed
to consider h i m justified i n p r e f e r r i n g the other o n the
grounds that the latter was more attractive and more
l o v i n g . Moreover, i t was almost impossible for her to
spend money o n herself: when she traveled w i t h others
she c o u l d enjoy l i v i n g i n expensive places, even though
she c o n t r i b u t e d her share i n the expenses, b u t as soon
as she was o n her o w n she c o u l d not b r i n g herself to
spend money o n such things as trips, dresses, plays, books.
Finally, though she was i n an executive position, i t was
impossible for her to give orders: she w o u l d do so i n an
apologetic way i f orders were unavoidable.
T h e conclusion reached f r o m such data was that she
had developed a compulsive modesty, that she felt compelled to constrict her life w i t h i n n a r r o w boundaries
and to take always a second or t h i r d place. W h e n this
trend was once recognized, and its o r i g i n i n c h i l d h o o d
discussed, we began to search systematically for its manifestations and its consequences. W h a t role d i d this t r e n d
actually play i n her life?
She c o u l d n o t assert herself i n any way. I n discussions

77

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

she was easily swayed by the opinions of others. Despite

a good faculty for j u d g i n g people she was incapable of
t a k i n g any c r i t i c a l stand t o w a r d anyone or anything, except i n e d i t i n g , w h e n a critical stand was expected of her.
She had encountered serious difficulties, for instance, by
f a i l i n g to realize that a fellow w o r k e r was t r y i n g to underm i n e her position; when this situation was f u l l y apparent
t o others she still regarded the other as her friend. H e r
compulsion to take second place appeared clearly i n
games: i n tennis, for instance, she was usually too i n h i b i t e d to play w e l l , b u t occasionally she was able to play
a good game and then, as soon as she became aware that
she m i g h t w i n , she w o u l d begin to play badly. T h e wishes
of others were more i m p o r t a n t than her o w n : she w o u l d
be contented to take her holidays d u r i n g the t i m e that was
least wanted by others, and she w o u l d do more w o r k
than she needed to i f the others were dissatisfied w i t h the
a m o u n t of w o r k to be done.
Most i m p o r t a n t was a general suppression of her feel
ings and wishes. H e r i n h i b i t i o n s concerning expansive
plans she regarded as p a r t i c u l a r l y "realistic"evidence
that she never wanted things that were beyond reach.
A c t u a l l y she was as l i t t l e "realistic" as someone

with

excessive expectations of life; she merely kept her wishes

beneath the level of the attainable. She was unrealistic
i n l i v i n g i n every way beneath her meanssocially, economically, professionally, s p i r i t u a l l y . I t was attainable
for her, as her later life showed, to be liked by many people, to look attractive, to w r i t e something that was valuable and o r i g i n a l .

Stages

of

Understanding

T h e most general consequences of this t r e n d were a

progressive l o w e r i n g of self-confidence and a diffuse discontentment w i t h life. O f the latter she had n o t been i n
the least aware, and could n o t be aware as l o n g as everyt h i n g was "good enough" for her and she was n o t clearly
conscious of having wishes or of their n o t being fulfilled.
T h e only way this general discontentment w i t h life had
shown itself was i n t r i v i a l matters and i n sudden spells
of crying w h i c h had occurred f r o m t i m e to t i m e and
which had been q u i t e beyond her understanding.
For q u i t e a w h i l e she recognized only fragmentarily
the t r u t h of these findings; i n i m p o r t a n t matters she
made the silent reservation that I either overrated her
or i e l t i t to be good therapy to encourage her. Finally,
however, she recognized i n a rather dramatic fashion that
real, intense anxiety l u r k e d b e h i n d this facade of m o d
esty. I t was at a t i m e when she was about to suggest an
improvement i n the magazine. She knew that her plan
was good, that i t w o u l d n o t meet w i t h too m u c h oppo
sition, that everyone w o u l d be appreciative i n the end.
Before suggesting i t , however, she had an intense panic
w h i c h could n o t be rationalized i n any way. A t the be
g i n n i n g of the discussion she still felt panicky and had
to leave the r o o m because of a sudden diarrhea. B u t as
the discussion t u r n e d increasingly i n her favor the panic
subsided. T h e p l a n was finally accepted and she received
considerable recognition. She went home w i t h a feeling
of elation and was still i n good spirits when she came to
the next analytical hour.
I dropped a casual remark to the effect that this was

79

S E L *

- A N A L

Y S I S

q u i t e a t r i u m p h for her, w h i c h she rejected w i t h a slight

annoyance. N a t u r a l l y she had enjoyed the recognition,
b u t her p r e v a i l i n g feeling was one of having escaped
f r o m a great danger. I t was o n l y after more than two
years had elapsed that she could tackle the other elements i n v o l v e d i n this experience, which were along
the lines of a m b i t i o n , dread of failure, t r i u m p h . A t that
t i m e her feelings, as expressed i n hei associations, w ere
T

all concentrated on the p r o b l e m of modesty. She felt

that she had been presumptuous to p r o p o u n d a new
p l a n . W h o was she to k n o w better! B u t gradually she
realized that this a t t i t u d e was based o n the fact that for
her the suggesting of a different course of action meant
a v e n t u r i n g o u t of the narrow artificial precincts that
she had anxiously preserved. O n l y when she recognized
the t r u t h of this observation d i d she become f u l l y convinced that her modesty was a faade to be m a i n t a i n e d
for the sake of safety. T h e result of this first phase of
work was a b e g i n n i n g of faith i n herself and a beginning
of courage to feel and assert her wishes and opinions.
T h e second period was dedicated prevailingly to w o r k
o n her dependency o n a " p a r t n e r . " T h e majority of the
problems involved she w o r k e d t h r o u g h by herself, as
w i l l be reported later on i n greater detail. T h i s dependency, despite its ovei w h e l m i n g strength, was still more
deeply repressed than the previous trend. I t had never
occurred to her that a n y t h i n g was w r o n g i n her relation
ships w i t h m e n . O n the contrary, she had believed them
to be p a r t i c u l a r l y good. T h e analysis gradually changed
this p i c t u r e .

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Stages

of

Understanding

T h e r e were three m a i n factors that suggested compulsive dependence. T h e first was that she felt completely lost, l i k e a small c h i l d i n a strange wood, when a
relationship ended or w h e n she was temporarily separated f r o m a person w h o was i m p o r t a n t t o her.

The

first experience of this k i n d occurred after she left home

at the age of twenty. She then felt l i k e a feather b l o w n
around i n the universe, and she wrote desperate letters
to her mother, declaring that she c o u l d n o t live w i t h o u t
her. T h i s homesickness stopped w h e n she developed a
k i n d of crush on an older m a n , a successful w r i t e r who
was interested i n her w o r k and furthered her i n a pat r o n i z i n g way. O f course, this first experience of feeling
lost when alone c o u l d be understood o n the basis of her
youth and the sheltered l i f e she had l i v e d . B u t later reactions were intrinsically the same, and f o r m e d a strange
contrast to the rather successful professional career that
she was achieving despite the difficulties m e n t i o n e d before.
T h e second s t r i k i n g fact was that i n any of these
relationships

the

whole

world around

her

became

submerged and only the beloved had any importance.

T h o u g h t s and feelings centered a r o u n d a call or a letter or a visit f r o m h i m ; hours that she spent w i t h o u t
h i m were empty, filled only w i t h w a i t i n g for h i m , w i t h
a pondering about his a t t i t u d e to her, a n d above all w i t h
feeling utterly miserable about incidents w h i c h she felt
as utter neglect or h u m i l i a t i n g rejection. A t these times
other h u m a n relationships, her w o r k , and other interests
lost almost every value for her.

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S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

T h e t h i r d factor was a fantasy of a great and masterf u l m a n whose w i l l i n g slave she was and who i n t u r n
gave her everything she wanted, f r o m an abundance of
material things to an abundance of mental stimulation,
and made her a famous w r i t e r .
As the implications of these factors were gradually
recognized the compulsive need to lean o n a " p a r t n e r "
appeared a n d was w o r k e d t h r o u g h i n its characteristics
and its consequences.

Its m a i n featuie was an entirely

repressed parasitic attitude, an unconscious wish to feed

o n the partner, to expect h i m to supply the content of
her life, to take responsibility for h e i , to solve a l l her
difficulties and to make her a great person w i t h o u t her
having to make efforts of her o w n . T h i s trend had alienated her n o t o n l y f r o m other people b u t also f r o m the
partner himself, because the unavoidable disappointments she felt w h e n her secret expectations of h i m rem a i n e d u n f u l f i l l e d gave rise to a deep i n n e r i r r i t a t i o n ;
most of this i r r i t a t i o n was repressed for fear of losing the
partner, b u t some of i t emerged i n occasional explosions.
A n o t h e r consequence was that she could not enjoy anyt h i n g except w h e n she shared i t w i t h the partner. T h e
most general consequence of this trend was that her relationships served o n l y to make her m o i e insecure and
more passive and to breed self-con tempt.
T h e interrelations of this t r e n d w i t h the previous one
were t w o f o l d . O n the one hand, her compulsive modesty was one of the reasons that accounted for her need
for a partner. Since she c o u l d n o t take care of her o w n

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of

Understanding

wishes she had to have someone else w h o took care of

them. Since she c o u l d n o t defend herself she

needed

someone else to defend her. Since she c o u l d n o t see her

o w n values she needed someone else to affirm her w o r t h .
O n the o t h e i hand, there was a sharp conflict between
the compulsive modesty and the excessive expectations
of the partner. Because of this unconscious conflict she
had to distort the s i t u a t i o n every t i m e she was disapp o i n t e d over u n f u l f i l l e d expectations. I n such situations
she felt herself the v i c t i m of intolerably harsh and abusive treatment, and therefore i e l t miserable and hostile.
Most of the hostility had to be repressed because of fear
of desertion, b u t its existence u n d e r m i n e d the relationship and t u r n e d her expectations i n t o v i n d i c t i v e demands. T h e resulting upsets proved to have a great
bearing o n her fatigue a n d her i n h i b i t i o n toward productive w o r k .
T h e result of this period of analytical w o r k was t h a t
she overcame her parasitic helplessness a n d became capable of greater activity of her o w n . T h e fatigue was n o
longer c o n t i n u a l b u t appeared only occasionally.

She

became capable of w r i t i n g , though she still had to face

strong resistances. H e r relationships w i t h people became
more friendly, though they were still far f r o m being
spontaneous;

she impressed others as being haughty

w h i l e she herself s t i l l felt q u i t e t i m i d A n expression o l

the general change i n her was contained i n a dream i n
w h i c h she drove w i t h her friend i n a strange country
and i t occurred to her that she, too, m i g h t apply for a

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S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

driver's license. Actually, she had a license and could

d r i v e as w e l l as the f r i e n d . T h e dream symbolized a
d a w n i n g insight that she had rights of her o w n and need
n o t feel l i k e a helpless appendage.
T h e t h i r d and last p e r i o d of analytical w o r k dealt
w i t h repressed ambitious strivings. T h e r e had been a
p e r i o d i n her life when she had been obsessed by frantic a m b i t i o n . T h i s had lasted f r o m her later years i n
grammar school u p to her second year i n college, and
had then seemed to disappear. One c o u l d conclude only
by inference that i t still operated underground. T h i s
was suggested by the fact that she was elated and overjoyed at any recognition, by her dread of failure, and
by the anxiety involved i n any attempt at independent
work.
T h i s t r e n d was more complicated i n its structure than
the t w o others, i n contrast to the others, i t constituted
an attempt to master life actively, to take u p a fight
against adverse forces. T h i s fact was one element i n its
c o n t i n u e d existence: she felt herself that there had been
a positive force i n her a m b i t i o n and wished repeatedly
to be able to retrieve i t . A second element feeding the
a m b i t i o n was the necessity to re-establish her lost self
esteem. T h e t h i r d element was vindictiveness: success
meant a t r i u m p h over all those who had h u m i l i a t e d her,
while f a i l u r e meant disgraceful defeat. T o understand
the characteristics of this a m b i t i o n wc must go back i n
her history a n d discover the successive changes i t underwent.
The

fighting

s p i r i t i n v o l v e d i n this trend appeared

Stages

of

Understanding

q u i t e early i n life. Indeed, i t preceded the development

of the other two trends. A t this p e r i o d of the analysis
early memories occurred to her of opposition, r e b e l l i o n ,
belligerent demands, a l l sorts of mischief. As we know,
she lost this light for her place i n the sun because the
odds against her were too great. T h e n , after a series of
unhappy experiences, this s p i r i t re-emerged w h e n she
was about eleven, i n the f o r m of a fierce a m b i t i o n at
school. N o w , however, i t was loaded w i t h repressed host i l i t y : i t had absorbed the piled-up vindictiveness for
the u n f a i r deal she had received and for her d o w n t r o d den d i g n i t y . I t had now acquired two of the elements
mentioned above: t h r o u g h being o n top she w o u l d reestablish her sunken self-confidence, and by defeating
the others she w o u l d avenge her injuries. T h i s grammarschool a m b i t i o n , w i t h a i l its compulsive a n d destructive
elements, was nevertheless realistic i n comparison w i t h
later developments,

for i t entailed efforts to surpass

others t h r o u g h greater

actual achievements.

During

h i g h school she was s t i l l successful i n being unquestionably the first. B u t i n college, where she met greater
competition, she rather suddenly dropped her a m b i t i o n
altogether, instead of m a k i n g the gi eater efforts that
the situation w o u l d have r e q u i r e d i f she s t i l l wanted to
be first. T h e r e were three m a i n reasons why she could
n o t muster the courage to make these gi eater efforts.
One was that because of her compulsive modesty she
had to fight against constant doubts as to her i n t e l l i gence. A n o t h e r was the actual i m p a i r m e n t i n the tree
use of her intelligence t h r o u g h the repression of her

S E L F - A N A L T S I S

c r i t i c a l faculties. Finally, she c o u l d n o t take the risk of

f a i l u r e because the need to excel the others was too compulsive.
T h e abandonment of her manifest a m b i t i o n d i d n o t ,
however, d i m i n i s h the impulse to t r i u m p h over others.
She had to find a compromise s o l u t i o n , and this, i n contrast to the frank a m b i t i o n at school, was devious i n character. I n substance i t was that she w o u l d t r i u m p h over
the others w i t h o u t d o i n g a n y t h i n g to b r i n g about that
t r i u m p h . She t r i e d to achieve this impossible feat i n
three ways, a l l of w h i c h were deeply unconscious. One
was to register whatever good l u c k she had i n life as a
t r i u m p h over others. T h i s ranged f r o m a conscious t r i u m p h at good weather o n an excursion to an unconscious t r i u m p h over some "enemy" f a l l i n g i l l or d y i n g .
Conversely, she felt bad l u c k n o t simply as bad l u c k b u t
as a disgraceful defeat. T h i s a t t i t u d e served to enhance
her dread of life because i t meant a reliance o n factors
that are beyond control. T h e second way was to shift the
need for t r i u m p h to love relationships. T o have a husband or lover was a t r i u m p h ; to be alone was a shameful defeat. A n d the t h i r d way of achieving t r i u m p h
w i t h o u t effort was the demand that husband or lover,
l i k e the masterful m a n i n the fantasy, should make her
great w i t h o u t her d o i n g a n y t h i n g , possibly by merely
g i v i n g her the chance to i n d u l g e vicariously i n his success. These attitudes created insoluble conflicts i n her
personal relationships and considerably reinforced the
need for a " p a r t n e r , " since he was to take over these a l l i m p o r t a n t functions.

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of

Understanding

T h e consequences o this trend were w o r k e d through

by recognizing the influence they had o n her a t t i t u d e
toward life i n general, t o w a r d w o r k , t o w a r d others, and
toward herself. T h e outstanding result of this examination was a d i m i n u t i o n of her i n h i b i t i o n s t o w a r d w o r k .
W e then tackled the interrelations of this t r e n d w i t h
the two others. T h e r e were, on the one h a n d , irreconcilable conflicts and, o n the other hand, m u t u a l reinforcements, evidence of how inextricably she was caught
i n her neurotic structure. Conflicts existed between the
compulsion to assume a h u m b l e place and to t r i u m p h
over others, between a m b i t i o n to excel and parasitic de
pendency, the two drives necessarily clashing and either
arousing anxiety or paralyzing each other. T h i s para
lyzing effect proved to be one of the deepest sources ol
the fatigue as w e l l as of the i n h i b i t i o n s t o w a r d w o r k . N o
less i m p o r t a n t , however, were the ways i n w h i c h the
trends reinforced one another. T o be modest a n d to p u t
herself i n t o a h u m b l e place became a l l the more necessary as i t served also as a cloak for the need for t r i u m p h .
T h e partner, as already mentioned, became an all the
more v i t a l necessity as he had also to satisfy i n a devious
way the need for t r i u m p h . Moreover, the feelings of h u m i l i a t i o n generated by the need to live beneath her emotional and mental capacities and by her dependency on
the partner kept evoking new feelings of vindictiveness,
and thus perpetuated a n d reinforced the need for t r i umph.
T h e analytical w o r k consisted i n d i s r u p t i n g step by
step the vicious circles operating. T h e fact that her com-

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S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

pulsive modesty had already given way to some measure

of self-assertion was of great h e l p because this progress
automatically lessened also the need for t r i u m p h . Simi l a r l y , the p a r t i a l solution of the dependency p r o b l e m ,
having made her stronger and h a v i n g removed many
feelings of h u m i l i a t i o n , made the need for t r i u m p h less
stringent. T h u s when she finally approached the issue
of vindictiveness, w h i c h was deeply shocking to her, she
c o u l d tackle w i t h increased i n n e r strength an already
d i m i n i s h e d p r o b l e m . T o have tackled i t at the beginn i n g w o u l d n o t have been feasible. I n the first place we
w o u l d n o t have understood i t , a n d i n the second place
she c o u l d n o t have stood i t .
T h e result of this last p e r i o d was a general liberation
of energies. Clare retrieved her lost a m b i t i o n o n a m u c h
sounder basis. I t was n o w less compulsive and less destructive; its emphasis shifted f r o m an interest i n success to an interest i n the subject matter. H e r relationships w i t h people, already i m p r o v e d after the second
period, now lost the tenseness created by the former m i x t u r e o f a false h u m i l i t y a n d a defensive haughtiness.
W i t h a l l due reservation f o r the oversimplifications
m e n t i o n e d above, I believe, f r o m experience, that this
r e p o r t illustrates the typical course of an analysis, or, to
p u t i t more cautiously, the ideal course of an analysis.
T h e fact that there were three m a i n divisions i n Clare's
analysis is o n l y incidental; there may just as well be two
or five. I t is characteristic, however, that i n each d i v i sion the analysis passed t h r o u g h three steps: recognition

88

Stages

of

Understanding

of a neurotic t r e n d ; discovery of its causes, manifestations, a n d consequences; and discovery o f its interrelations w i t h other parts of the personality, especially w i t h
other neurotic trends. These steps must be taken for
each neurotic t r e n d involved. Each t i m e a step is w o r k e d
t h r o u g h part of the structure becomes clearer u n t i l f i nally the whole emerges transparent. T h e steps are n o t
always taken i n the order named; more precisely, some
understanding of a trend's manifestations is necessary
before the t r e n d itself can be recognized as such. T h i s is
w e l l illustrated i n Clare's self-analysis, to be reported i n
Chapter Eight. Clare recognized many i m p o r t a n t i m plications of her m o r b i d dependency before she recognized the fact of being dependent a n d the p o w e r f u l urge
d r i v i n g her i n t o a dependent relationship.
Each of the steps has a particular therapeutic value.
T h e first step, the recognition of a neurotic t r e n d , means
the recognition of a d r i v i n g force i n the disturbance of
the personality, and this knowledge i n itself has a certain
value for therapy. F o r m e r l y the person felt powerless, at
the mercy of i n t a n g i b l e forces. T h e recognition of even
one of these forces n o t only means a general gain i n i n sight b u t also dispels some of the bewildered helplessness. Knowledge of the concrete reason for a disturbance
provides a realization that there is a chance to do somet h i n g about i t . T h i s change may be illustrated w i t h a
simple example. A farmer wants to grow f r u i t trees, b u t
his trees do n o t t h r i v e , though he puts great efforts i n t o
t h e i r care a n d tiics a l l the remedies he knows. A f t e r
some t i m e he becomes discouraged. B u t finally he dis-

S E L F -

A N A L Y S I S

covers that the trees have a special disease or need a special i n g r e d i e n t i n the soil, a n d there is an immediate
change i n his o u t l o o k o n the matter and his m o o d regarding i t , t h o u g h n o t h i n g has changed as yet i n the trees
themselves. T h e only difference i n the external situat i o n is that there is now a possibility of goal-directed ac
tion.
Sometimes the mete uncovering of a neurotic trend
is sufficient to cure a n e u r o t i c upset. A capable executive, for instance, was deeply disturbed because the att i t u d e of his employees, w h i c h had always been one of
devotion, changed for reasons outside his control. I n stead of settling differences i n an amicable way, they
started to make belligerent and unreasonable demands.
A l t h o u g h he was a h i g h l y resourceful person i n most
matters he felt u t t e r l y incapable of coping w i t h this new
situation, a n d reached such a measure of resentment and
despair that he considered w i t h d r a w i n g f r o m the business. I n this instance the mere uncovering of his deep
need for the devotion of people dependent o n h i m sufficed to remedy the situation.
Usually, however, the mere recognition of a neurotic
trend does n o t engender any radical change. I n the first
place, the willingness to change w h i c h is elicited by the
discovery of such a trend is equivocal and hence lacks
forcefulness, and, i n the second place, a willingness to
change, even i f i t amounts to an unambiguous wish, is
not yet an a b i l i t y to change. T h i s a b i l i t y develops o n l y
later.
T h e reason w h y the i n i t i a l willingness to overcome a

Stages

of

Understanding

neurotic t r e n d does n o t usually constitute a reliable

force, despite the enthusiasm that often goes w i t h i t , is
that the t r e n d has also a subjective value w h i c h the person does n o t want to r e l i n q u i s h . W h e n the prospect arises
of overcoming a particular compulsive need, those forces
are m o b i l i z e d w h i c h w a n t to m a i n t a i n i t . I n other words,
soon after the first l i b e r a t i n g effect of the discovery the
person is confronted w i t h a conflict: he wants to change
and he does n o t w a n t to change. T h i s conflict usually remains unconscious because he does n o t l i k e to a d m i t
that he wants to adhere to something w h i c h is against
reason and self-interest.
I f for any reason the d e t e r m i n a t i o n n o t to change
prevails, the l i b e r a t i n g effect of the discovery w i l l be only
a fleeting relief followed by a deeper d iscouragement.
T o r e t u r n to the analogy of the farmer, his change i n
s p i r i t w i l l n o t last l o n g i f he knows or believes that the
r e q u i r e d remedy is n o t available to h i m .
Fortunately these negative reactions are n o t too frequent. M o r e often the willingness and the u n w i l l i n g ness to change t e n d to compromise. T h e patient then
sticks to his resolution t o change, b u t wants to get away
w i t h as l i t t l e as possible. H e may hope that i t w i l l be
enough i f he uncovers the o r i g i n of die t r e n d i n c h i l d hood, or i f he merely makes resolutions to change, or
he may fall back on the delusion that a mere r e c o g n i t i o n
of the t r e n d w i l l change everything overnight.
I n the second step, however, as he works t h r o u g h the
implications of the t r e n d , he realizes more and more
deeply its unfortunate consequences, the degree to w h i c h
pi

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

i t cramps his life i n a l l respects. Suppose, for example,

that he has a neurotic need f o r absolute independence.
A f t e r recognizing the trend a n d l e a r n i n g something of
its origins he w o u l d have to spend q u i t e a w h i l e understanding w h y o n l y this way is open for reassuxance, and
h o w i t manifests itself i n his daily l i v i n g . H e w o u l d have
to see i n detail how this need expresses itself i n his attitude t o w a r d physical surroundings, how i t takes the
f o r m , perhaps, of an aversion to obstructed views, or an
anxiety that arises when he sits i n the m i d d l e of a r o w .
H e w o u l d have to k n o w how i t influences his attitude
t o w a r d dress, as evidenced by such signs as sensitivity
t o w a r d girdles, shoes, neckties, o r anything that may be
felt as a constriction. H e w o u l d have to recognize the
influence of the t r e n d on w o r k , shown perhaps i n a reb e l l i o n against r o u t i n e , obligations, expectations, sug
gestions, a r e b e l l i o n against t i m e a n d against superiors.
H e w o u l d have to understand its influence on love life,
observing such factors as an incapacity to accept any ties
or a tendency to feel that any interest i n another person means enslavement. T h u s an estimate w o u l d gradually crystallize as to the various factors which i n greater
or less degree serve to touch off the feeling of coercion
and to force h i m to be o n his guard. T h e mere k n o w l edge that he has a great wish for independence is not
nearly enough. I t is only w h e n he recognizes its allinclusive c o m p e l l i n g force and its negativistic character
that he can muster a serious incentive to change.
T h u s the therapeutic value of the second step is, first,
that i t strengthens a person's willingness to conquer the
9

Stages

of

Understanding

d i s t u r b i n g drive. Fie begins to appreciate the f u l l necessity for change, and his rather equivocal willingness to
overcome the disturbance turns i n t o an unambiguous
determination to grapple w i t h i t seriously.
T h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n certainly constitutes a powerful
and valuable

force,

indispensable

for effecting

any

change. B u t even the most vigorous d e t e r m i n a t i o n is

of l i t t l e avail w i t h o u t the a b i l i t y to carry i t t h r o u g h .
A n d this a b i l i t y is gradually increased as one manifestat i o n after another is clearly seen. W h i l e a person is
w o r k i n g at the implications of the neurotic t r e n d his
illusions, fears, vulnerabilities, a n d i n h i b i t i o n s are gradually loosened f r o m t h e i r entrenchments. As a result he
becomes less insecure, less isolated, less hostile, and d i e
resultant i m p r o v e m e n t i n his relationships w i t h others,
and w i t h himself, i n t u r n makes the neurotic t r e n d less
necessary and increases his capacity to deal w i t h i t .
T h i s part of the w o r k has the added value of k i n d l i n g
an incentive to discover those factors that impede a more
p r o f o u n d change. T h e forces thus far m o b i l i z e d have
helped to dissolve the power of the particular trend and
thereby to b r i n g about certain improvements. B u t the
t r e n d itself and many of its implications are almost sure
to be closely b o u n d u p w i t h other, possibly contradictory, drives. Therefore the person cannot f u l l y overcome
his difficulties by w o r k i n g only at the substructure developed a r o u n d a particular t r e n d . Clare, for instance,
lost some of her compulsive modesty t h r o u g h the analysis of that t r e n d , b u t certain of its implications were
o u t of reach at that t i m e because they were i n t e r t w i n e d

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w i t h the m o r b i d dependency and c o u l d be tackled only

i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h that f u r t h e r p r o b l e m .
T h i s t h i r d step, the recognition a n d understanding of
the interrelations of different neurotic trends, leads to
a grasp on the deepest conflicts. I t means an understanding of the attempts at solutions and of h o w these
attempts have meant o n l y a deeper and deeper entanglement. Before this p a r t of the w o r k is reached the person may have gained a deep insight i n t o the component
parts of a conflict, b u t still have adhered secretly to a
belief that they could be reconciled. H e may have realized deeply, for instance, the nature of his drive to be
despotic and also the nature of his need to be applauded
for superior wisdom. B u t he has t r i e d to reconcile these
trends by s i m p l y a d m i t t i n g occasionally

the despotic

d r i v e w i t h o u t h a v i n g the least i n t e n t i o n t o change i t . H e

has expected secretly that the admission of the despotic
t r e n d w o u l d allow h i m to c o n t i n u e i t and at the same
t i m e w i n h i m recognition for the amount of insight
shown. A n o t h e r person who strove for

superhuman

serenity, b u t also was d r i v e n by v i n d i c t i v e impulses, has

i m a g i n e d that he c o u l d be serene for the larger part of
the year b u t spare o u t a sort of leave of absence when he
c o u l d i n d u l g e i n his vindictiveness. I t is obvious that n o
fundamental change can take place as long as such solu
tions are secretly adhered to. As the t h i r d step is worked
t h r o u g h i t becomes possible to understand the makeshift nature of these solutions.
T h e therapeutic value of this step lies also i n the fact
that i t makes i t possible to disentangle the vicious circles

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of Hinders ta nding

operating among the various neurotic trends, the ways i n

w h i c h they reinforce one another as w e l l as the ways i n
w h i c h they conflict w i t h one another. T h u s i t means an
understanding at last of the so-called symptoms, that is,
the gross pathological manifestations, such as attacks of
anxiety, phobias, depressions, gross compulsions.
One often hears statements to the effect that what is
really i m p o r t a n t i n psychotherapy is to see the conflicts.
Such statements are of the same value as a c o n t e n t i o n
that what is really i m p o r t a n t is the neurotic v u l n e r a b i l i t y or r i g i d i t y or s t r i v i n g for superiority. W h a t is i m p o r t a n t is to see the whole structure, not more and n o t
less. Existing conflicts may sometimes

be

recognized

q u i t e early i n the analysis. Such recognition, however,

is of no avail u n t i l the components of the conflicts are
thoroughly understood and diminished i n their intensity. O n l y after this w o r k has been accomplished do the
conflicts themselves become accessible.
L e t us finish this discussion by asking foi the practical
value of the i n f o r m a t i o n presented i n this and the preceding chapter. Does i t give definite and detailed directions as to the road to be taken i n analysis? T h e answer
is that no a m o u n t of knowledge can f u l f i l l such expectations. One reason for this is that the differences among
people are too great to allow the p u r s u i t of any prescribed path. Even i f we should assume that there is b u t
a l i m i t e d n u m b e r of discernible neurotic ti ends existing
i n o u r c i v i l i z a t i o n , say fifteen, die possible combinations
of such trends w o u l d be practically i n f i n i t e . A n o t h e i

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reason is that i n analysis we see not one trend neatly separated f r o m another, b u t the sum total of entanglements;
a flexible i n g e n u i t y is therefore necessary i n order to isolate the components o f the p i c t u r e . A t h i r d complicat i o n is that often the consequences of the various trends
are n o t apparent as such b u t are themselves repressed,
thus m a k i n g recognition of the t r e n d considerably difficult. A n d , finally, analysis represents

a h u m a n rela-

tionship as w e l l as a common research. I t w o u l d be a

one-sided comparison to t h i n k of an analysis as an exploratory t r i p i n which two colleagues or friends are
engaged, b o t h as m u c h interested i n observing and understanding as i n i n t e g r a t i n g the observations and drawi n g the inferences. I n analysis the patient's peculiarities
and disturbancesnot to speak of the analyst'sare v i
tally i m p o r t a n t . H i s need for affection, his p r i d e , his
v u l n e r a b i l i t y , are just as present and as effective i n this
as i n other situations, and i n a d d i t i o n the analysis itself
inevitably elicits anxieties and hostilities and defenses
against insights that threaten his safety system or the
p r i d e he has developed. W h i l e a l l these reactions are
h e l p f u l , p r o v i d e d one understands them, they nevertheless render the process more complex and less susceptible
of generalization.
T h e assertion that to a large extent each analysis must
produce its o w n sequence for tackling problems may be
i n t i m i d a t i n g to apprehensive souls, particularly to those
who need a guarantee that they are always d o i n g the
r i g h t t h i n g . T h e y should keep i n m i n d , however, for
their o w n reassurance, that this sequence is n o t artifi-

96

Stages

of

Understanding

d a i l y created by the analyst's clever m a n i p u l a t i o n b u t

occurs spontaneously because i t lies i n the n a t u r e of the
problems that one becomes accessible aftex another one
is solved. I n other words, w h e n anyone analyzes himself
he w i l l usually take the steps described above by merely
f o l l o w i n g the material that presents itself. I t w i l l sometimes happen, of course, that he touches upon questions
that at the time b e i n g are n o t answerable. A t such points
an experienced analyst w i l l probably be able to see that
the particular subject is beyond the reach of the patient's
understanding a n d is therefore better left alone. L e t us
assume, for instance, that a patient who is s t i l l deeply
immersed i n convictions of his absolute s u p e r i o r i t y over
others brings u p m a t e r i a l suggesting that he has a fear
of n o t b e i n g acceptable to others. T h e analyst w i l l k n o w
that i t w o u l d be premature to tackle as yet the patient's
fear of rejection, because the latter w o u l d regard i t as i n conceivable that such a superior being as he believes
himself to be c o u l d possibly have such a fear. M a n y
other times the analyst w i l l recognize o n l y i n retrospect
that, and why, a p r o b l e m was n o t accessible at a certain
p o i n t . I n other words, he, too, can proceed only by t r i a l
and error.
I n self-analysis i t may even be that there is less temptat i o n to tackle a factor prematurely, because the person
w i l l i n t u i t i v e l y shirk a p r o b l e m that he is n o t yet able
to face. B u t i f he does notice, after g r a p p l i n g w i t h a problem for some time, that he is n o t getting any nearer to
a solution, he should remember that he may n o t yet be
ready to w o r k at i t a n d that perhaps he h a d better leave

97

S 7. L $

K A

f. Y S 1 S

i t alone for the t i m e being. A n d be need n o t be discouraged at this t u r n of events, for very often even a premature attack provides a significant lead for further w o r k .
I t need h a r d l y be emphasized, however, that there may
be other reasons w h y a solution that pieserits itself is
n o t accepted, and he should n o t resort too q u i c k l y to
the assumption that i t is merely p i e mature,
A n d i n f o i m a t i o n of the k i n d I have presented is helpful n o t o n l y i n forestalling unnecessary discouragement
b u t also i n more positive ways, for i t helps one to i n tegrate a n d understand peculiarities which otherwise
w o u l d r e m a i n disconnected observations. A person may
realize, for example, that he finds difficulties i n asking
for a n y t h i n g , f r o m i n q u i r i n g the r i g h t way on a m o t o r
t r i p to consulting a doctor for an illness, that he conceals
his g o i n g to analysis as i f i t were a disgrace, a despicable
easy road, because he feels he should be able to deal w i t h
his pioblems a l l by himself, that he becomes i r r i t a t e d if
anyone shows h i m sympathy or oilers advice a n d ieeis
h u m i l i a t e d i f he must accept help; and i f he has some
knowledge of neurotic trends the possibility w i l l occur
to h i m thpt all these reactions emanate f r o m an underlyi n g trend t o w a r d compulsive self-sufficiency. N a t u r a l l y ,
there is n o guarantee that the surmise is r i g h t . T h e ass u m p t i o n that he is generally weary of people m i g h t exp l a i n some of his reactions, though i t w o u l d not account
for the feeling of h u r t pride that arises o n some occasions. A n y surmise must be made tentatively and kept
i n abeyance u n t i l he has plenty of evidence for its validi t y . Even t h e n he must ascertain over and over again

$8

Stages

of

Understanding

whether the assumption really covers the g r o u n d or is

only partially v a l i d . N a t u r a l l y , he can never expect that
one t i e n d w i l l e x p l a i n everything: he must remember
that there w i l l be countercurrents. A l l he can reasonably
expect is that the t r e n d surmised represents one of the
c o m p e l l i n g forces i n his life and therefore must reveal
itself i n a consistent pattern of reactions.
H i s knowledge w i l l be of positive help also alter he
has recognized a neurotic t r e n d . A n understanding of ih<*
therapeutic importance of discovering the various manifestations and consequences of a t r e n d w i l l help h i m to
focus attention deliberately o n these instead of getting
lost i n a frantic search for the reasons of its power, most
of w h i c h can be undeistood only later o n . Such an under
standing w i l l be p a r t i c u l a r l y valuable i n d i r e c t i n g his
thoughts toward a gradual recognition of the price p a i d
for the pursuit of the trend.
I n regard to the conflicts the practical value of psychological knowledge lies i n the fact that i t prevents die
i n d i v i d u a l f r o m merely s h u t t l i n g to and fro between disparate attitudes. Claie, f o i instance, at the t i m e when
she analyzed heisclf, lost considerable t i m e s h u t t l i n g between a tendency lo p u t a l l blame o n others and a tend
ency to p u t a l l blame on herself. T h u s she became confused because she wanted to solve the question w h i c h of
these coritradictoi y tendencies she really had, or at least
w h i c h was prevailing, Actually, b o t h were present and
emerged f r o m contradictory neurotic trends. T h e tendency to f i n d f a u l t w i t h herself and to recoil f r o m accusing others was one of the results of her compulsive

99

modesty. T h e tendency to p u t the blame on others resulted f r o m her need to feel superior, w h i c h made i t
intolerable for her to recognize any shortcomings of her
o w n . I f at this t i m e she had thought of the possibility of
conflicting trends, arising f r o m conflicting sources, she
m i g h t have grasped the process a good deal earlier.
T h u s far we have briefly surveyed the structure of
neuroses a n d have discussed the general way i n w h i c h
the unconscious forces must be tackled i n order to obt a i n gradually a l u c i d p i c t u r e of the whole structure. W e
have as yet n o t touched u p o n specific means of unearthi n g t h e m . I n the f o l l o w i n g two chapters we shall discuss
the w o r k that patient and analyst must do i n ordex to
arrive eventually at an understanding of the patient's
personality.

10a

C H A P T E R

F O U R

The Patient's Share

in the Psychoanalytic Process

Self-analysis is an attempt to be patient and analyst at

the same time, and therefore i t is desirable to discuss the
tasks of each of these participants i n the analytic process.
I t should be borne i n m i n d , however, that this process is
n o t only the sum of the w o r k done by the analyst and the
w o r k done by the patient, b u t is also a human relationship. T h e fact that there are two persons involved has
considerable influence o n the w o r k done by each.
T h e r e are three m a i n tasks that confront the patient.
O f these the first is to express himself as completely and
frankly as possible. T h e second is to become aware of his
unconscious d r i v i n g forces and t h e i r influence o n his
life. A n d the t h i r d is to develop the capacity to change
those attitudes that are d i s t u r b i n g his relations
himself and the w o r l d a r o u n d h i m .
IOI

with

S E L F

- A N A L

S I S

Complete self-expression is achieved by means of free

association. I t was Freud's ingenious discovery that free
association, h i t h e r t o used o n l y for psychological experiments, c o u l d be utilized i n therapy. T o associate freely
means an endeavor o n the p a r t of the patient to expiess w i t h o u t reserve, and i n the sequence h i which i t
emerges, everything that comes i n t o h i K m i n d , icgardiess
of whether i t is or appears t r i v i a l , off the p o i n t , i n c o h c i cnt, i r r a t i o n a l , indiscreet, tactless, embarrassing, h u m i l i
ating. I t may n o t be unnecessary to add that "cvei y t h i n g "
is meant l i t e r a l l y . I t includes n o t only fleeting and diffuse
thoughts b u t also specific ideas ?nd m e m o r i e s i n c i
dents that have occurred since the last interview, memories of experiences at any p e r i o d of life, thoughts about
self and others, reactions to the analyst or the analytical
situation, beliefs i n regard to religion, morals, politics,
art, wishes and plans l o r die future, fantasies past a n d
present, and, of couise, dreams. I t is particularly important that the patient express every feeling that emerges,
such as fondness, hope, t r i u m p h , discouragement, relief, suspicion, anger, as w e l l as every diffuse or specific thought. O f course the patient w i l l have objections
to voicing certain things, for one reason or a n o t h e , b u t
r

he should express these objections instead of using then)

to w i t h h o l d the particular thought or feeling.
Free association differs f r o m o u r customary wa) of
t h i n k i n g o r talking not only i n its irpnkness and unre
seivedness, b u t also i n its apparent lack .sf d i i e r t i c n . I n
discussing a p r o b l e m , t a l k i n g about c u r p*ans lor the
week end, e x p l a i n i n g the value of merchandise to a cus
JQ2

fhe

Patient's

Share

tomer, we are accustomed to stick fairly closely to the

p o i n t . F r o m the diverse currents that pass t h r o u g h o u r
minds we tend to select those elements for expression
w h i c h are p e r t i n e n t to the situation. Even w h e n talki n g w i t h o u r closest friends we select what to express a n d
what to o m i t , even though we are not aware of i t . I n
free association, however, there is an effort to express
everything titat passes t h r o u g h the m i n d , regardless of
where i t may lead.
l i k e many other h u m a n endeavors, free association
can be used for constructive or for obstructive purposes.
I f the patient has an unambiguous d e t e r m i n a t i o n to reveal himself to the analyst his associations w i l l be meani n g f u l a n d suggestive. I f he has stringent interests n o t to
face certain unconscious factors his associations w i l l be
unproductive. These interests may be so p r e v a i l i n g that
the good sense of fiee association is t u r n e d i n t o nonsense. W h a t results then is a (light of meaningless ideas
having meiely a mock resemblance to their true purpose,
T h u s the value of free association depends entirely on
the s p i r i t i n w h i c h i t is done. I t the spirit is one of utm o j frankness and sincerity, of d e t e r m i n a t i o n to face
ones o w n problems, a n d of willingness to open oneself
to another h u m a n being, then rhe process can serve the
purpose ior which i t is i n t e n d e d .
I n general terms this purpose is to enable both analyst
and patient to understand how the fattens m i n d works
and thereby to uodeistand eventually the structure of
his personality. T h e r e are also specific issues, however,
w h i c h can be cleared u p by free associationsthe mean-

105

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

i n g of an attack of anxiety, of a sudden fatigue, of a fantasy or a dream, why the patient's m i n d goes blank at
a certain p o i n t , why he has a sudden wave of resentment
toward the analyst, why he was nauseated i n the restaurant last n i g h t , was i m p o t e n t w i t h his wife, or was
tongue-tied i n a discussion. T h e patient w i l l then t r y to
see what occurs to h i m when he thinks about the specific issue.
T o illustrate, a w o m a n patient had a dream i n w h i c h
one element was a distress about something precious
being stolen. I asked her what occurred to her i n connection w i t h this p a i t i c u l a r fragment of the dream. T h e
first association that appeared was a memory of a m a i d
w h o had stolen household goods over a period of two
years; the patient had d i m l y suspected the m a i d , and
she remembered the deep feeling of uneasiness she had
had before the final discovery. T h e second association
was a m e m o r y of c h i l d h o o d fears of gypsies stealing child r e n . T h e n e x t was a mystery story i n which jewels had
been stolen f r o m the c r o w n of a saint. T h e n she remembered a r e m a r k she had overheard, to the effect that
analysts are racketeers. F i n a l l y i t occurred to her that
something i n the dream r e m i n d e d her of the analyst's
office.
The

associations indicated beyond d o u b t that the

dream was related to the analytical situation. T h e rem a r k about analysts being racketeers suggested a concern about the fees, b u t this tack proved to be misleadi n g ; she had always regarded the fees as reasonable and
w o r t h w h i l e . Was the dream a response to the preceding

104

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Patient*$

Share

analytical hour? She d i d n o t believe that i t c o u l d be, because she had left the office w i t h a pronounced ieeling
o relief and gratitude. T h e substance of the previous
analytical session was that she had recognized her periods
of listlessness and inertia as a k i n d of subversive depression; that diese periods had n o t appeared to her or others
i n this l i g h t because she had had no feelings of despondency; that actually she suffered more and was more v u l nerable than she a d m i t t e d to herself; that she h a d often
repiessed h u r t feelings because she felt compelled to
play the role of an ideally strong character who c o u l d
cope w i t h everything. H e r relief had been similar to
that of a person w h o at great expense to himself has
l i v e d above his means all his life a n d now understands
for the first t i m e that such a bluff is n o t necessary. T h i s
relief, however, had n o t lasted. A t any rate, i t now struck
her suddenly that after that session she had been q u i t e
i r r i t a b l e , that she h a d had a slight stomach upset a n d
had been unable to f a l l asleep.
I shall n o t go over the associations i n detail. T h e most
i m p o r t a n t clue proved to be the association of the mystery story: I had stolen a jewel o u t of her c r o w n . T h e
striving to give to herself and others die impression of
outstanding strength had been a b u r d e n , to be sure, b u t
i t had also served several i m p o r t a n t functions: i t gave
her a feeling of p r i d e , w h i c h she badly needed as l o n g
as her real self-confidence was shaken; a n d i t was her
most p o w e r f u l defense against recognizing her existing
v u l n e r a b i l i t y a n d the i r r a t i o n a l trends accounting for
i t . T h u s the role she was p l a y i n g was actually precious

J05

S E I F

A N A L Y S I S

to her, a n d o u r uncovering the fact that i t was merely a

role constituted a threat to w h i c h she had reacted w i t h
indignation.
Free association w o u l d be e n t i r e l y unfit as a method
for m a k i n g an astronomical calculation or for g a i n i n g
clarity as to the meaning of a political situation. These
tasks r e q u i r e sharp and concise reasoning. B u t free association constitutes a t h o r o u g h l y appropriate m e t h o d
accoiding to o u r present knowledge, the o n l y method
for

understanding the existence,

importance, and

meaning of unconscious feelings and strivings.

One more w o r d about the value of fiee association for
self-iecoonition; i t does n o t w o r k made, i t w o u l d be
o

w r o n g to expect thai as soon as rational control is leleased all that we are afraid of or despise i n ourselves
w i l l be revealed. W e may be fairly sure that no more
w i l l appear this way than we are able to stand. O n l y derivatives of the impressed feelings or drives w i l l emeige,
and as i n dreams they w i l l emerge i n distorted f o r m or
i n symbolic expressions. T h u s i n the chain of associations m e n t i o n e d above the saint was an expression of
the patient's unconscious aspirations. O f course, unexpected factors w i l l sometimes appear i n a dramatic fashi o n , b u t this w i l l happen o n l y after considerable previous w o r k o n the same subject has brought them close
to the surface. Repiessed feelings may appear i n the
f o r m of a seemingly remote memory, as i n the chain of
associations already described. T h e r e the patient's anger
at me for having i n j u r e d her inflated notions about herself d i d n o t appear as such; o n l y indirectly she told me

106

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Patient's

Share

that I was l i k e a l o w c r i m i n a l w h o violated holy tabus

and robbed values precious to others.
Free associations do n o t w o r k miracles, b u t i f carried
out i n the r i g h t s p i r i t they do show the way the m i n d
ooerates, as X ravs show the otherwise invisible move
ments of lungs or intestines. A n d they do this i n a more
or less cryptic language.
T o associate freely is difficult for everyone. N o t only
does i t contrast w i t h o u r habits of c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d
w i t h conventional etiquette, b u t i t entails f u r t h e r difficulties w h i c h differ w i t h each patient. These may be
classified under various headings t h o u g h they are i n evitably overlapping.
I n the first place, there are patients i n w h o m the whole
process of association arouses fears or i n h i b i t i o n s , because i f they should p e r m i t free passage to every feeling
and thought they w o u l d trespass o n t e r r i t o r y that is t a b u .
T h e particular fears that w i l l be touched off depend u l t i mately o n the existing neurotic trends. A few examples
may illustrate.
A n apprehensive person, overwhelmed since his early
yeais by the threat of the unpredictable dangers of life,
is unconsciously set u p o n avoiding risks. H e clings to
the fictitious belief that by s t r a i n i n g his foresight to the
utmost he can c o n t r o l life. Consequently he avoids taki n g any step of w h i c h he cannot visualize the effects i n
advance: his uppermost law is never to be caught off
guard. For such a person free association means the utmost recklessness, since i t is the very meaning of the
process to allow everything to emerge w i t h o u t k n o w i n g

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

i n advance w h a t w i l l appear a n d whither i t w i l l lead.

T h e difficulty is of another k i n d for a highly detached
person w h o feels safe o n l y when wearing a mask and w h o
automatically wards off any i n t r u s i o n i n t o the precincts
of his private life. Such a one lives i n an ivory tower and
feels threatened by any attempt to trespass i n t o its vicini t y . F o r h i m free association means an unbearable i n t r u s i o n a n d a threat to his isolation.
A n d there is the person w h o lacks moral autonomy
a n d does n o t dare to f o r m his o w n judgments. H e is n o t
accustomed to t h i n k a n d feel a n d act o n his o w n i n i t i ative b u t , l i k e an insect e x t e n d i n g its feelers to test o u t
the situation, he automatically examines the environm e n t f o r w h a t is expected of h i m . H i s thoughts are good
o r r i g h t w h e n approved by others, a n d bad or w r o n g
w h e n disapproved. H e , too, feels threatened by the idea
of expressing everything that comes i n t o his m i n d , b u t
i n q u i t e a different way f r o m the others: k n o w i n g o n l y
how to respond, n o t how to express himself spontaneously, he feels at a loss. W h a t does the analyst expect
of him? Should he merely talk incessantly? Is the analyst
interested i n his dreams? O r i n his sexual life? Is he expected to f a l l i n love w i t h the analyst? A n d w h a t does
the latter approve or disapprove of? For this person the
idea of f r a n k a n d spontaneous self-expression conjures
u p a l l these d i s q u i e t i n g uncertainties, a n d also threatens
an exposure to possible disapproval.
A n d , finally, a person caught w i t h i n the traps of his
o w n conflicts has become i n e r t a n d has lost the capacity
to feel himself as a m o v i n g force. H e can proceed w i t h

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Patient's

Share

an endeavor o n l y w h e n the i n i t i a t i v e comes f r o m the

outside. H e is q u i t e w i l l i n g to answer questions b u t feels
lost when left to his o w n resources. T h u s he is unable
to associate freely because his capacity for spontaneous
activity is i n h i b i t e d . A n d this i n a b i l i t y to associate may
provoke i n h i m a k i n d of panic i f he is one to w h o m success i n a l l things is a d r i v i n g necessity, for he is likely
then to regard his i n h i b i t i o n as a " f a i l u r e . "
These examples illustrate how for some persons the
whole process of free association arouses fears or i n h i bitions. B u t even those w h o are capable of the process
i n general have i n t h e m one or another area that gives
rise to anxiety i f i t is touched u p o n . T h u s i n the example
of Clare, w h o o n the whole was able to associate freely,
a n y t h i n g approaching her repressed demands o n life
aroused anxiety at the b e g i n n i n g of her analysis.
Another difficulty lies i n the fact that an unreserved
expression of a l l feelings and thoughts is b o u n d to lay
bare traits that the person is ashamed of and that he is
h u m i l i a t e d to report. As m e n t i o n e d i n the chapter o n
neurotic trends, the traits that are regarded as h u m i l i a t i n g vary considerably. A person w h o is p r o u d of his cynical pursuit of material interests w i l l be bewildered and
ashamed i f he betrays idealistic propensities. A person
who is p r o u d of his angelic faade w i l l be ashamed to
betray signs of selfishness and inconsiderateness. A n d
the same h u m i l i a t i o n w i l l occur w h e n any pretense is
uncovered.
M a n y of the patient's difficulties i n expressing his
thoughts and feelings are related to the analyst. T h u s
JOp

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

the person w h o is unable to associate freelywhether

because i t w o u l d threaten his defenses or because he has
lost too m u c h of his o w n i n i t i a t i v e i s likely to transfer
to the analyst his aversion to the process or his chagrin
at failure, a n d react w i t h an unconscious defiant obstruct i o n . T h a t his o w n development, his happiness, is at
stake is practically forgotten. A n d even i f the process
does n o t give rise to hostility toward the analyst there
is the f u r t h e r fact that fears concerning the analyst's att i t u d e are always present to some degree. W i l l he understand? W i l l he condemn? W i l l he look d o w n u p o n me
or t u r n against me? Is he really concerned w i t h m y o w n
best development, o r does he w a n t to m o l d me i n t o his
pattern? W i l l he feel h u r t i f I make personal remarks
about him? W i l l he lose patience i f I do not accept his
suggestions?
I t is this i n f i n i t e variety of concerns and obstacles that
makes unreserved frankness such an extremely difficult
task. As a result, evasive tactics w i l l inevitably occur. T h e
patient w i l l deliberately o m i t certain incidents. Certain
factors w i l l never occur to h i m i n the analytical hour.
Feelings w i l l n o t be expressed because they are too fleeting. Details w i l l be o m i t t e d because he considers them
t r i v i a l . " F i g u r i n g o u t " w i l l take the place of a free flow
of thoughts. H e w i l l stick to a long-winded account of
daily occurrences. T h e r e is almost no end to the ways i n
w h i c h he may consciously o r unconsciously t r y to evade
this r e q u i r e m e n t .
T h u s , w h i l e i t may sound l i k e a simple task to say
everything that comes to one's m i n d , its difficulties i n
no

The

Patient's

Share

reality are so great that i t can be o n l y approximately

fulfilled. T h e bigger the obstacles i n the way, the more
unproductive w i l l the person become. B u t the more he
approximates i t , the more transparent w i l l he be to h i m self a n d to the analyst.
T h e second task c o n f r o n t i n g the patient i n analysis
is to face his problems squarelyto gain an insight i n t o
t h e m by recognizing factors that were h i t h e r t o unconscious. T h i s is n o t o n l y an i n t e l l e c t u a l process, however
as the w o r d "recognize" m i g h t suggest; as emphasized i n
analytical literature since Ferenczi and R a n k , i t is both
an intellectual a n d an emotional experience. I f I may
use a slang expiession, i t means g a i n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n
about ourselves w h i c h we feel i n o u r "guts."
T h e insight may be a recognition of an entirely repressed iactor, such as the discovery made by a c o m p u l
sivcly modest or benevolent person that actually he has
a diffuse contempt l o r people. I t may be a recognition
that a drive which is at the level of awareness has an
extent, intensity, and q u a l i t y that were never dreamed
of: a person may k n o w that he is ambitious, for instance,
b u t never have suspected before that his a m b i t i o n is an
all-devouring passion d e t e r m i n i n g his life a n d containi n g the destructive element of w a n t i n g a v i n d i c t i v e t r i u m p h over others. O r the insight may be a f i n d i n g that
certain seemingly unconnected factors are closely interrelated. A person may have k n o w n that he has certain
grandiose expectations as to his significance and his
achievements i n life, a n d have been aware also that he
I I I

S E L F - A N A L Y S T S

has a melancholy outlook and a general foreboding that

he w i l l succumb to some pending disaster w i t h i n a brief
span, b u t never have suspected that either attitude represents a p r o b l e m or that the two have any connection,
i n this case his insight m i g h t reveal to h i m that his urge
to be a d m i r e d for his u n i q u e value is so r i g i d that he
feels a deep i n d i g n a t i o n at its n o n f u l f i l l m e n t and therefore devalues life itself: like an inveterate aristocrat who
is faced w i t h the necessity of stooping to a lower standard of l i v i n g , he w o u l d rather stop l i v i n g than be satisfied w i t h less than he feels e n t i t l e d to expect. 1 hus his
preoccupation w i t h i m p e n d i n g disaster w o u l d actually
represent an u n d e r l y i n g wish to die, partly as a spiteful
gesture toward life for n o t having measured u p to his
expectations.
I t is impossible to say i n general terms what i t means
to a patient to obtain an insight i n t o his problems, just
as i t w o u l d be impossible to say what i t means to a person to be exposed to sunshine. Sunshine ma) k i l l h i m
or save his life, i t may be fatiguing or refreshing, its effect depending on its intensity and also on his o w n cond i t i o n . Similarly, an insight may be extremely painful
or i t may b r i n g an immediate relief. Here we are on
m u c h the same g r o u n d as was covered above i n the discussion of the therapeutic value of the various steps i n
analysis, b u t i t w i l l do no h a r m to recapitulate
remarks for this slightly different

those

context.

T h e r e are several reasons why an insight may produce

relief. T o begin w i t h the least i m p o r t a n t consideration,
i t is often a gratifying intellectual experience merely to
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learn the reasons for some phenomenon n o t h i t h e r t o

understood; i n any situation i n life i t is likely to be a
relief merely to recognize the t r u t h . T h i s consideration
applies not only to elucidations of present peculiarities
b u t also to memories of hitherto forgotten c h i l d h o o d
experiences, i f such memories help one to understand
precisely what factors influenced one's development at
the start.
M o r e i m p o r t a n t is the fact that an insight may reveal
to a person his o w n true feelings by showing h i m the
speciousness of his former attitude. W h e n he becomes
Irce to express the anger, i r r i t a t i o n , contempt, fear, or
whatever i t was that was h i t h e r t o repressed, an active
and alive feeling has replaced a paralyzing i n h i b i t i o n
a n d a step is taken toward f i n d i n g himself. T h e inadvertent laughter that frequently occurs at such discoveries reveals the feeling of l i b e r a t i o n . T h i s may h o l d
true even i f the finding itself is far f r o m agreeable, even
i f the person recognizes, for instance, that a l l his life he
has merely tried to "get b y " 0 1 has t r i e d to h u r t and
dominate others. I n addition to p r o d u c i n g this increase
i n self-fccling, i n aliveness, i n activity, the insight may
remove the tensions generated by his former necessity to
check his true feelings: by increasing the forces that
were needed for repression i t may inciease the a m o u n t
of available energies.
Finally, closely related to the l i b e r a t i o n of energies,
the l i f t i n g of a repression frees the way for action. As
l o n g as a striving o r feeling is repressed the person is
caught i n a b l i n d alley. As l o n g as he is entirely una-

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A N A L Y S I S

ware of a hostility to others, for example, and knows

o n l y that he feels awkward w i t h people, he is helpless
to do a n y t h i n g about his h o s t i l i t y ; there is no possibility
of understanding the reasons for i t or of discovering
when i t is justified or of d i m i n i s h i n g or removing i t .
B u t i f the lepression is l i f t e d and he feels die hostility
as such, then and only then can he take a good look at i t
and proceed to discover the vulnerable spots i n himseli
w h i c h produced i t and to which he has been as b l i n d as
to the hostility itself. By thus opening u p the possibility
of eventually changing something about the d i s t u r b i n g
factors, the insight is likely to produce considerable relief. Even i f immediate change is difficult there is the
vision of a future way o u t of the distress. T h i s holds true
even though the i n i t i a l reaction may be one of h u r t or
fright. Clare's insight i n t o the fact that she had excessive wishes and demands for herself provoked a panic i n
her at first, because i t shook the compulsive

modesty

w h i c h was one of the pillars s u p p o r t i n g her feeling of

security. B u t as soon as the acute anxiety subsided i t
gave her relief, for i t represented the possibility of a
liberation from the shackles that had t i e d her hand and
foot.
B u t the first reaction to an insight may be one of pain
rather than relief. As discussed i n a previous chapter,
there are two p r i n c i p a l kinds ol negati\e responses to
an insight. One is to feel i t only as a threat; the other is
to react i n discouragement and hopelessness. Different
though they appear, these t w o responses are essentially
merely variations i n degree. T h c > are b o t h determined
i i

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Patient's

Share

by the fact that the person is not, or not yet, able and
w i l l i n g to give u p certain fundamental claims o n life.
W h i c h claims they are depends, of course, o n his neurotic trends.
I t is because of the compulsive nature of these trends
that the claims are so r i g i d and so hard to r e l i n q u i s h .
One who is obsessed by a craving for power, for instance,
can do w i t h o u t comfort, pleasures, women,

friends,

everything that usually makes life desirable, b u t power

he must have. As l o n g as he is determined n o t to r e l i n quish this claim, any questioning of its value can only
i r r i t a t e or f r i g h t e n h i m . Such f r i g h t reactions are produced n o t only by insights disproving the feasibility of
his particular s t r i v i n g b u t also by those revealing that
its p u r s u i t prevents h i m f r o m a t t a i n i n g other objectives
that are also i m p o r t a n t to h i m , or f r o m

overcoming

p a i n f u l handicaps and sufferings. Or, to take other examples, one who suffers f r o m his isolation and his awkwardness i n contacts w i t h others, b u t is still basically
u n w i l l i n g to leave his ivory tower, must react w i t h anxiety to any insight showing h i m that he cannot possibly
attain the one objectiveless i s o l a t i o n w i t h o u t aband o n i n g the o t h e r h i s ivory tower. As long as a person
basically refuses to r e l i n q u i s h his compulsive belief that
he can master life t h r o u g h the sheer force of his w i l l ,
any insight indicating the fictitious nature of that belief must arouse anxiety, because i t makes h i m feel as
i f the g r o u n d o n w h i c h he stands is p u l l e d away f r o m
under h i m .
T h e anxiety produced by such insights is the person's
11$

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

response to a d a w n i n g vision that he must eventually

change something i n his loundations if he wants to become free. B u t the factors that must be changed are s t i l l
deeply entrenched, are still v i t a l l y i m p o r t a n t to h i m
as a means of coping w i t h himself and otheis. H e is
therefore afraid to change, and the insight produces not
relief b u t panic.
A n d i f he [eels deep d o w n that such a change, though
indispensable for his l i b e r a t i o n , is entirely out of the
question, he w i l l react w i t h a feeling of hopelessness
rather than f l i g h t . I n his conscious m i n d this feeling is
often overshadowed by a deep anger toward the analyst.
H e feels that the analyst is being pointlessly cruel i n
leading h i m to such insights w h e n he cannot do any
t h i n g about t h e m anyhow. T h i s reaction is understandable because none of us is w i l l i n g to endure hurts and
hardships i f they do n o t u l t i m a t e l y serve some purpose
we affirm.
A negative reaction to an insight is n o t necessarily the
last w o r d i n the matter. Sometimes, i n fact, i t is of rela
tively short d u r a t i o n and q u i c k l y changes to r e l i e t I
need n o t elaborate

here

the factors

that

determine

whether a person's attitude toward a particular insight

can change through f u r t h e r psychoanalytic w o r k . I t is
sufficient to say that a change is w i t h i n the range of possibility.
Reactions to findings about ourselves cannot be f u l l y
understood, however, by thus cataloguing them as prod u c i n g relief or fear or hopelessness. N o matter what
immediate reaction is provoked, an insight always means

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a challenge to the existing e q u i l i b r i u m . A person d r i v e n

by compulsive needs has functioned badly. H e has pursued certain goals at great expense to his genuine wishes.
H e is i n h i b i t e d i n many ways. H e is vulnerable i n large
a n d diffuse areas. T h e necessity to combat repressed
fears and hostilities saps his energy. H e is alienated f r o m
himself and others. B u t n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g a l l these defects
i n his psychic machinery the forces operating w i t h i n h i m
s t i l l constitute an organic structure w i t h i n w h i c h each
factor is interrelated w i t h the others. I n consequence,
n o factor can be changed w i t h o u t influencing the whole
organism. Strictly speaking there is n o such t h i n g as an
isolated insight. N a t u r a l l y i t often happens that a person w i l l stop at one or another p o i n t . H e may be satisfied w i t h the result attained, he may be discouraged, he
may actively resist going farther. B u t i n p r i n c i p l e every
insight gained, no matter how small i n itself, opens u p
new problems because of its i n t e r r e l a t i o n w i t h other
psychic factors, and thereby carries dynamite w i t h w h i c h
the whole e q u i l i b r i u m can be shaken. T h e more r i g i d
the neurotic system, the less can any modification be
tolerated. A n d the more closely an insight touches u p o n
the foundations, the more anxiety w i l l i t arouse. "Resistance/' as I shall elaborate later o n , u l t i m a t e l y springs
f r o m the need to m a i n t a i n the status

quo.

T h e t h i r d task a w a i t i n g the patient is to change those

factors w i t h i n himself w h i c h interfere w i t h his best development. T h i s does n o t mean o n l y a gross modificat i o n i n action or behavior, such as g a i n i n g or r e g a i n i n g

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

the capacity for p u b l i c performances, for creative w o r k ,

for co-operation, for sexual potency, or losing phobias
or tendencies t o w a r d depression. These changes w i l l automatically take place i n a successful analysis. T h e y are
not p r i m a r y changes, however, b u t result f r o m less visi b l e changes w i t h i n the personality, such as g a i n i n g a
more realistic a t t i t u d e toward oneself instead of waveri n g between self-aggrandizement and self-degradation,
g a i n i n g a s p i r i t of activity, assertion, and courage i n stead of i n e r t i a and fears, becoming able to plan instead
of d r i f t i n g , finding the center of gravity w i t h i n oneself
instead of hanging o n to others w i t h excessive expectations a n d excessive accusations, gaining greater friendliness a n d understanding for people instead of harbori n g a defensive diffuse hostility. I f changes like these
take place external changes i n overt activities or symptoms are b o u n d to follow, a n d to a corresponding degree.
M a n y changes that go o n w i t h i n the personality do
n o t constitute a special p r o b l e m . T h u s an insight may
i n itself constitute a change, i f i t is a real emotional experience. One m i g h t say that n o t h i n g has changed i f an
insight is gained, for example, i n t o a hostility hitherto
repressed: the hostility is s t i l l there, and only the awareness of i t is different. T h i s is t r u e only i n a mechanistic
sense. A c t u a l l y i t makes an enormous difference i f the
person w h o had k n o w n o n l y that he was stilted, fatigued,
o r diffusely i r r i t a t e d recognizes

the concrete hostility

w h i c h , t h r o u g h its very repression, had generated these

disturbances. As already discussed, he may feel l i k e another h u m a n b e i n g i n such a m o m e n t of discovery. A n d

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unless he manages to discard the recognition i m m e d i ately i t is b o u n d to influence his relations w i t h other
people; i t w i l l arouse a feeling of surprise at himself,
stimulate an incentive to investigate the meaning of the
hostility, remove his feeling of helplessness i n the face
of something u n k n o w n , and make h i m feel more alive.
T h e r e are also changes that occur automatically as
an indirect result of an insight. T h e patient's compulsive needs w i l l be d i m i n i s h e d as soon as any source of
anxiety is d i m i n i s h e d . As soon as a repressed feeling of
h u m i l i a t i o n is seen and understood, a greater

friend-

liness w i l l result automatically, even though the desira b i l i t y of friendliness has not been touched u p o n . I f a
fear of failure is \ ecognized and lessened, the person w i l l
spontaneously

become more active and take risks that

he h i t h e r t o unconsciously avoided.
T h u s far, insight and change appear to coincide, and
i t m i g h t seem unnecessary to present these two processes
as separate tasks. B u t there are situations d u r i n g analysisas there are i n life i t s e l f w h e n despite an insight
one may fight tooth and nail against changing. Some of
these situations have already been discussed. T h e y may
be generalized by saying that when a patient recognizes
that he must renounce or modify his compulsive claims
on life, i f he wants to have his energies free for his proper
development, a h a r d fight may begin i n w h i c h he uses
his last resources to disprove the necessity or the possib i l i t y of change.
A n o t h e r situation i n w h i c h insight and change may
be q u i t e distinct arises w h e n the analysis has led the perlip

S E L

I' -

A N A L Y S I S

son face to face w i t h a conflict i n w h i c h a decision must

be made. N o t all conflicts uncovered i n psychoanalysis
are of this nature, i f contradictory drives arc recognized
between, f o r instance, having to control others and havi n g to comply w i t h their expectations, theie is no ques
t i o n of deciding between the two tendencies. B o t h must
be analyzed, a n d when the person has found a better rel a t i o n to himself and others both w i l l disappear or be
considerably modified. I t is a different matter, however,
i f a h i t h e r t o unconscious conflict emerges between material self-interest and ideals. T h e issue may have been
befogged i n various ways: the cynical attitude may have
been conscious w h i l e the ideals were repressed, or con
sciously refuted i f they sometimes penetrated to the surface; or the wish for material advantages (money, prestige) may have been repressed w h i l e consciously the
ideals were r i g i d l y adhered to; or there may have been
a c o n t i n u a l crisscrossing between taking ideals i n a cynical or i n a serious way. B u t when such a conflict comes
out i n the open i t is n o t enough to see it and to understand its ramifications. A f t e r a thorough clarification of
a l l the problems i n v o l v e d the patient must eventually
take a stand. H e must make u p his m i n d whether and
to what extent he wants to take his ideals seriously, and
what space he w i l l allot to material interests. Here, then,
is one of the occasions w h e n a patient may hesitate to
take the step f r o m insight to a revision of his attitudes.
I t is certainly true, however, that the three tasks w i t h
w h i c h a patient is confronted are closely interrelated.
H i s complete self-expression prepares the way for the
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insights, and the insights b r i n g about or prepare for

the change. Each step influences the others. T h e more
he shrinks back f t o m gaining a certain insight, the more
his free associations w i l l be impeded. T h e more he resists a certain change, the more he w i l l fight an insight.
T h e <oal, however, is chansre. T h e h m h value a t t r i b u t e d
o

'

to self-recognition is n o t for the sake of insight alone,

b u t for the sake of insight as a means of revising, modifyi n g , c o n t r o l l i n g the feelings, strivings, and attitudes.
T h e patient's a t t i t u d e t o w a r d changing often goes
t h r o u g h various steps. Frequently he starts treatment
w i t h unadmitted expectations of a magical cure, w h i c h
usually means a hope that a l l his disturbances w i l l vanish w i t h o u t his having to change a n y t h i n g or even w i t h o u t having to w o r k actively at himself.

Consequently

lie endows the analyst w i t h magical powers and tends to

admire h i m b l i n d l y . T h e n , w h e n he realizes that this
hope cannot be fulfilled, he tends to w i t h d r a w the previous ''confidence" altogether. l i e argues that i f the analyst
is a simple h u m a n being l i k e himself what good can he
do him? M o r e i m p o r t a n t , his o w n feeling of hopelessness about d o i n g a n y t h i n g actively w i t h himself comes
to the surface. O n l y when a n d i f his energies can be l i b erated for active a n d spontaneous w o r k can he finally
regard his development as his o w n j o b , and the analyst
as someone w h o merely lends h i m a h e l p i n g hand.
T h e tasks w i t h w h i c h the patient i n analysis is confronted are replete w i t h difficulties and w i t h benefits.
T o express oneself w i t h u t t e r frankness is hard, b u t i t is
also a blessing. A n d the same can be said about g a i n i n g
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insight a n d about change. T o resort to analysis as one

of the possible helps toward one s own development is
therefore far f r o m taking the easy road, i t requiies on
the part of the patient a good deal of determination,
self-discipline, and active struggle. I n this respect i t is
no different f r o m other situations in life that help ones
g r o w t h . W e become stronger through overcoming
hardships we meet o n o u r way.

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C H A P T E R

F I V E

The Analyst's Share

in the Psychoanalytic Process

T h e analyst's general task is to h e l p the p a t i e n t to recognize himself and to r e o r i e n t his life as far as the patient
himself deems i t necessary. I n order to convey a more
specific impression of what the analyst does i n p u r s u i n g
this goal, i t is necessary to d i v i d e his w o r k i n t o categories
and discuss these i n d i v i d u a l l y . Roughly, his w ork can
7

he broken d o w n i n t o five m a i n divisions: observation;

understanding; i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ; help i n resistance; and
general h u m a n help.
T o some extent the analyst's observations are n o t different f r o m those of any observant person; to some extent they have a specific character. L i k e everyone else,
die analyst w i l l observe general qualities i n the patient's
behavior, such as aloofness, w a r m t h , r i g i d i t y , spontane

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ity, defiance, compliance, suspicion, confidence, assertiveness, t i m i d i t y , ruthlessness, sensitivity. I n the mere
process of listening to the patient he w i l l , w i t h o u t direct
effort, gain many general impressions: whether the pat i e n t is able to let himself go or is tense and constrained;
whether he talks i n a systematic, controlled fashion or
is j u m p y a n d scattered; whether he presents

abstract

generalities or concrete details; whether he is circumstantial or to the p o i n t ; whether he talks spontaneously

or leaves the i n i t i a t i v e to the analyst; whether he is conventional or expresses what he really thinks and feels.
I n his more specific observations the analyst learns,
first, f r o m what the patient tells h i m about his experiences, past and present, his relationships w i t h himself
and others, his plans, his wishes, his fears, his thoughts.
Second, he learns f r o m observing the patient's behavior
i n his office, for each patient reacts differently to arrangements concerning fees, time, l y i n g d o w n , and other objective aspects of analysis. A n d each patient reacts differently to the fact that he is being analyzed. One patient
regards analysis as an interesting intellectual process b u t
refutes the idea that he really needs i t ; another treats i t
as a h u m i l i a t i n g secret; w h i l e a t h i r d is p r o u d of i t as a
special privilege. Moreover, patients e x h i b i t an endless
variety of attitudes toward the analyst himself, w i t h as
many i n d i v i d u a l shades as exist otherwise i n h u m a n relationships. F i n a l l y , patients show innumerable subtle
and gross vacillations i n t h e i r reactions, and these vacillations themselves are revealing. These two sources of
i n f o r m a t i o n t h e patient's communications about h i m -

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self and the observation of his actual

behaviorcom-

plement each other just as they do i n any relationship.

Even i f we k n o w a great deal about a person's history
and a l l his present ways of dealing w i t h friends, women,
business, politics, o u r p i c t u r e of h i m becomes far more
clear and complete i f we meet h i m personally and see
h i m i n action. B o t h sources are indispensable; one is n o
less i m p o r t a n t than the other.
L i k e any other observation, that of the analyst is
tinged by the nature of his interest. A saleswoman w i l l
heed other qualities i n a customer than a social worker
w i l l i n a client a p p l y i n g for help. A n employer interv i e w i n g a prospective employee w i l l focus o n questions
of i n i t i a t i v e , adaptability, r e l i a b i l i t y , w h i l e a minister
t a l k i n g to a parishioner w i l l be more interested i n questions of m o r a l behavior and religious belief. T h e analyst's interest does n o t focus u p o n one p a r t of the patient, n o t even u p o n the disturbed part, b u t necessarily
embraces the whole personality. Since he wants to u n derstand its entire structure, and since he does n o t k n o w
offhand what may be more relevant and w h a t less, his
attention must absorb as many factors as possible.
T h e specific analytical observations derive f r o m the
analysts purpose of recognizing a n d understanding the
patient's unconscious motivations. T h i s is t h e i r essential difference f r o m general observations. I n the latter,
too, we may sense certain undercurrents, b u t such i m pressions r e m a i n more or less tentative and even unformulated; also, we do n o t bother as a r u l e to distinguish
whether they are d e t e r m i n e d b y psychic factors of o u r
12$

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

o w n or by those of the observed person. T h e analyst's

specific observations, however, are an indispensable part
of the analytic process. T h e y constitute a systematic
study of unconscious forces as revealed i n the patient's
free associations. T o these the analyst listens attentively,
t r y i n g n o t to select any one element prematurely b u t to
pay an even interest to every detail.
Some of the analyst's observations w i l l fall i n l i n e i m
mediately. Just as one discerns i n a foggy landscape the
d i m o u t l i n e of a house o r a tree, the analyst w i l l have no
difficulty i n q u i c k l y recognizing one or another general
character trait. B u t for the most part his observations
are o n l y a maze of seemingly unconnected items. H o w ,
then, does he arrive at an understanding?
I n some ways his w o r k m i g h t be compared w i t h that
of the detective i n mystery stories. I t is w o r t h emphasizi n g , however, that whereas the detective wants to dis
cover the c r i m i n a l the analyst does n o t want to find out
what is b a d i n the patient, b u t attempts to understand
h i m as a whole, good and bad. Also, he deals n o t w i t h
several people, a l l u n d e r suspicion, b u t w i t h a m u l t i t u d e
of d r i v i n g forces i n one person, a l l under suspicion not
of being bad b u t of being d i s t u r b i n g . T h r o u g h concentrated and i n t e l l i g e n t observation of every detail he
gathers his clues, sees a possible connection here and
there, a n d forms a tentative picture; he is n o t too easily
convinced of his solution, b u t tests i t over and over again
to see whether i t really embraces a l l factors. I n mystery
stories there w i l l be some people w o r k i n g w i t h the de-

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tective, some only apparently d o i n g so and secretly ob

strucung his w o r k , some definitely w a n t i n g to h i d e and
becoming aggressive i f they reel threatened. Similarly,
m analysis part of the patient co-operatesthis is an i n dispensable c o n d i t i o n a n o t h e r part expects the analyst
to do all the work a n d still another uses all its energies
to hide or mislead and becomes panicky a n d hostile
when threatened w i t h discovery.
I t is mainly [ r o m the patient's tree associations,

as

described in the previous chapter, that the analyst derives his understanding of unconscious motivations and
t a c t i o n s . T h e patient is not usually aware of the i m p l i cations oi what he presents. Therefore the analyst- i n
order to form a coherent picture o u t of the m u l t i t u d e oi
disuepain elements presented to h i m , must no* o n h
listen to the manifest content b u t also try to understand
what the patient really wants to express. H e tries to grasp
the red thread that passes through the apparently amorphous mass of material. I f too many u n k n o w n quantities
are involved he sometimes fails i n this endeavor. Sometimes the context almost speaks l o r ifseli. T h e f o l l o w i n g
examples arc selected for their simplicity.
A patient tells me that he had a bad nigrht and that he
Seels more depressed than ever. His secretary has had an
attack of influenza, and this n o t only disturbs his busi
ncss arrangements b u t also upsets h i m because of his fear
of infection. H e talks then about the 1 r i g h t f u l injustice
done to small European countries. T h e n he thinks of a
physician who annoyed h i m by f a i l i n g to give h i m clear
i n f o r m a t i o n about the contents of a d r u g . T h e n a tailo*
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comes u p i n his m i n d who had n o t delivered a coat as

promised.
T h e m a i n theme is annoyance at u n t o w a r d events.
T h e egocentric nature of the grievances is shown by his
e n u m e r a t i n g the secretary's illness i n one line w i t h the
u n r e l i a b i l i t y of the tailor, as i f both were personal offenses against h i m . T h e fact that the secretary's flu has
rearoused his fear of infection does n o t lead h i m to t h i n k
that he should t r y to overcome this fear. H e expects, i n stead, that the w o r l d should be so arranged as n o t to
arouse his fears. T h e w o r l d should attend to his needs.
H e r e the theme of injustice comes i n : i t is unfair that
others do n o t heed his expectations. Since he is afraid of
infection nobody i n his e n v i r o n m e n t should fall i l l . T h u s
others become responsible for his difficulties. H e is as
helpless against such influences as small European countries are against invasion (actually he is helpless i n the
clutches of his o w n expectations). T h e association concerning the doctor also acquires a special meaning i n this
context. I t , too, implies expectations n o t complied w i t h ,
and i n a d d i t i o n i t refers to his grievance against me for
n o t offering h i m a clear s o l u t i o n of his problems, instead
of g r o p i n g a r o u n d and expecting his co-operative activity.
A n o t h e r simple example. A young g i r l tells me that she
had an attack of h e a r t p o u n d i n g when shopping. H e r
heart was n o t strong, b u t she d i d not see w h y shopping
should affect i t since she c o u l d dance for hours w i t h o u t
h a r m . N o r c o u l d she see any psychic reasons for the heartp o u n d i n g . She had bought a superbly beautiful blouse
for her older sister as a b i r t h d a y gift, and was delighted

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to do so. She anticipated w i t h pleasure h o w m u c h the

sister w o u l d enjoy and admire the g i l t . A c t u a l l y , she had
spent her last penny o n i t . She was short of money because she had straightened o u t a l l her debts, or at any
rate had made arrangements by w h i c h she c o u l d pay
t h e m off i n several months. T h i s she said w i t h distinct
self-admiration. T h e blouse was so b e a u t i f u l that she
w o u l d have l i k e d to have i t herself. T h e n , after having
apparently dropped the subject, a n u m b e r of grievances
against the sister appeared. She complained

bitterly

about how the sister interfered w i t h her, h o w she made

nonsensical reproaches.

These grievances were

inter-

m i n g l e d w i t h derogatory remarks w h i c h made the sister

appear q u i t e i n f e r i o r to the patient.
Even at first sight this unpremeditated sequence of
emotions indicates conflicting feelings t o w a r d the sister:
a wish to w i n her love, and, o n the other h a n d , resentment. W h e n shopping, this conflict was accentuated. T h e
l o v i n g side asserted itself i n the purchase of the present:
the resentment had to be suppressed for the t i m e being
and thus clamored a l l the louder for its share. T h e result
was the h e a r t p o u n d i n g . Such clashes of contradictory
feelings w i l l not always elicit anxiety. Usually one of the
incompatible feelings is repressed, or b o t h j o i n i n some
compiomise solution. H e r e , as the associations show, n o
side of the conflict was altogether repressed. Instead, love
and resentment, b o t h o n a conscious level, were placed
o n a seesaw. W h e n the one feeling went u p , i n awareness,
the other went d o w n .
O n closer scrutiny the associations disclosed more de*

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S I S

tails. T h e theme of self-admiration, blatant i n the first

series, reappears i m p l i c i t l y i n the second. T h e derogatory
remarks about the sister n o t o n l y express diffuse hostility
b u t serve to make the patient's o w n l i g h t outshine the
sister's. T h e tendency io p u t herself above the sister is
evident t h r o u g h o u t the associations, i n the fact that she
c o n t i n u a l l y , even though inadvertently, contrasted hei
own generosity and sacrificing love w i t h the sister s bad
behavior. T h i s close connection between self-admiration
and r i v a l r y w i t h the sister suggests the possibility that the
need to be superior to the sister was an essential i actor i n
the development and maintenance of the self-admiration.
T h i s assumption also sheds another l i g h t on the conflict
that occurred i n the store. T h e impulse to buy the expensive blouse represented n o t only, as i t were, a heroic
d e t e r m i n a t i o n to resolve the conflict b u t also a wish to
establish her o w n supremacy over the sister, partly by
w i n n i n g her a d m i r a t i o n , partly by showing heiself the
more loving, sacrificing, forgiving. O n the other hand,
by g i v i n g to the sister a more beautiful blouse than she
had, she actually placed her i n a "superior" position, i n
o l d e r to understand the importance of this p o i n t , i t
should be m e n t i o n e d that the question of who was better
dressed played a significant role i n the battle of r i v a l r y ;
the patient, for instance, had often appropriated the
sister's dresses.
I n these examples the process of understanding is relatively simple, b u t they make i t clear that no observations
should be regarded as u n i m p o r t a n t . Just as the patient
should express w i t h o u t reserve everything that comes to

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his m i n d , the analyst should regard every d e t a i l as potentially meaningful. H e should n o t discard offhand any
remark as irrelevant b u t should take seriously

every

single observation, w i t h o u t exception.

Furthermore, he should constantly ask himself w h y
this particular feeling or t h o u g h t of the patient comes u p
just now. W h a t does i t mean i n this specific context? A
friendly feeling t o w a r d the analyst, for instance, may i n
one context indicate genuine gratitude for help a n d
understanding; i n another i t may connote the p a t i e n t s
increased need for affection because i n the preceding
h o u r the tackling of a new p r o b l e m aroused anxiety; i n
a t h i r d i t may be the expression of a desire to o w n the
analyst body a n d soul because a conflict has been u n covered w h i c h the patient hopes that " l o v e " w i l l solve.
I n the example cited i n the previous chapter the analyst
was compared to a robber or a racketeer, n o t because of
a permanent grievance against h i m , b u t for the specific
reason that the patient's p r i d e had been h u r t i n the
previous hour. T h e association concerning the injustice
done to Euiopean countries w o u l d have a different meani n g i n another contextsympathy w i t h the oppressed,
for example. I t was o n l y i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the patient's
annoyance at the secretary's illness a n d his other associations that this r e m a r k revealed how intensely he felt i t
u n f a i r that his expectations were n o t met. A failure to
examine an association's exact connections w i t h precedi n g and succeeding associations, a n d w i t h preceding experiences, may n o t o n l y lead to w r o n g interpretations b u t
also deprive the analyst of an o p p o r t u n i t y to learn some*

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t h i n g about the patient's reactions to a specific occurrence.

T h e chain of associations that reveals a connection
need n o t be a l o n g one. Sometimes a sequence of only
t w o remarks opens u p a path for understanding, provided the second is n o t a b r a i n c h i l d b u t is b o r n spontaneously. A

patient, for instance,

came to analysis

feeling t i r e d and uneasy, and his first associations were

u n p r o d u c t i v e . H e had been d r i n k i n g the n i g h t before. I
asked h i m whether he had a hangover, which he denied.
T h e last h o u r had been very productive for i t had
b r o u g h t to l i g h t the fact that he was afraid of t a k i n g
responsibility because he was terrified of possible failure.
T h u s I asked h i m whether he wanted to rest o n his
laurels. A t this a memory emerged of his mother dragg i n g h i m t h r o u g h museums and of his boredom and annoyance at the experience. T h e r e was only this one association, b u t i t was revealing. I t was partly a response
to my r e m a r k about his resting o n his laurels. I was just
as bad as the mother pushing h i m f r o m one p r o b l e m to
another. ( T h i s reaction was characteristic of h i m be
cause he was hypersensitive to a n y t h i n g resembling coercion, t h o u g h at the same t i m e his o w n i n i t i a t i v e for
tackling problems was i n h i b i t e d . ) H a v i n g become aware
of his annoyance w i t h me and of his active reluctance to
go on, he t h e n felt free to feel and express another sentiment. Its essence was that psychoanalysis was worse t h a n
the situation i n the museum because i t meant h e m s
dragged o n to see one failure after another. W i t h this
association he u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y resumed the thread of

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the preceding hour, w h i c h had revealed his hypersensit i v i t y to failure. I t meant an elaboration of the previous
findings for i t showed that for h i m any factor i n his personality w h i c h prevented h i m f r o m f u n c t i o n i n g smoothly
and effectively meant a " f a i l u r e . " H e thereby revealed
one of his basic resistances to psychoanalysis.
T h e same patient came another t i m e feeling depressed.
H e had met a f r i e n d the n i g h t before w h o t o l d h i m about
his c l i m b i n g of a Swiss m o u n t a i n , the Piz P a l i i . T h e rep o r t had awakened the memory of a t i m e w h e n he was
i n Switzerland a n d c o u l d n o t c l i m b this m o u n t a i n because i t was befogged d u r i n g the days he had at his disposal. H e had been furious at that time, a n d the n i g h t
before he had felt the o l d rage r i s i n g again. H e lay awake
for hours evolving plans how he c o u l d s t i l l assert his
wish, how he c o u l d overcome all obstacles of war, money,
time. Even after he fell asleep his m i n d fought against
the obstacles i n his way, and he awoke depressed. D u r i n g
the analysis an apparently irrelevant p i c t u r e came u p i n
his m i n d of the outskirts of a M i d w e s t e r n t o w n , w h i c h
for h i m was the epitome of the drab a n d desolate. T h i s
mental image expressed his feelings about life at that
moment. B u t what was the connection? T h a t life was
desolate i f he c o u l d n o t c l i m b the Piz Palii? I t is t r u e
that when he was i n Switzerland he had set his heart u p o n
c l i m b i n g the m o u n t a i n , b u t the frustration of this special
wish could h a r d l y be the explanation. M o u n t a i n c l i m b i n g was no passion of his; the i n c i d e n t had occurred years
ago and he had since forgotten about i t . A p p a r e n t l y ,
then, i t was n o t the Piz P a l i i that was b o t h e r i n g h i m .

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W h e n he calmed d o w n he realized that he w o u l d not

even care to c l i m b i t now. T h e tevival of thai Swiss ex
perience meant something m u c h more incisive. I t had
disturbed an illusory belief that i f he set his w i l l on
achieving something he should be able lo do i t . A n y
unsurpassable obstacle meant to h i m a frustration of his
w i l l , even i f i t was so much o u t of his command as a
fog i n the mountains. T h e associations concerning the
desolate outskirts of a M i d w e s t e r n t o w n indicated the
enormous significance he attached to his belief i n the
sheer force of w i l l . I t meant that life was not w o r t h l i v i n g
if he must r e l i n q u i s h this belief.
Repetitive themes or sequences i n the materia! p*c
sented by the patient are p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l for understanding, i f the associations end always w i t h i m p l i c i t
evidence that the patient has superior intelligence 0 1
rationality, or is i n general a remarkable person, the
analyst w i l l understand that his belief i n his possession
of these qualities is of paramount emotional value to
h i m . A patient who misses no o p p o r t u n i t y to demon
strate how analysis has harmed h i m w i l l lead the analyst
to different hypotheses f r o m those suggested by a patient
w h o misses n o o p p o r t u n i t y to emphasize his improvement. I n the former instance i f the demonstrations of
i m p a i r m e n t coincide w i t h repeated reports cf being unfairly treated, i n j u r e d , or victimized, the analyst

will

begin to watch for those factors w i t h i n the patient that

e x p l a i n why he experiences a large p r o p o r t i o n of l i f e i n
exactly this way, and also for the consequences entailed
by this a t t i t u d e . Repetitive themes, since they reveal

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certain typical reactions, also provide a clue for understanding why the patient's experiences often follow a
certain stereotyped pattern; for example, w h y he freq u e n t l y starts o n an enterprise w i t h enthusiasm
drops i t soon after, or why he frequently

and

encounters

similar disappointments w i t h friends or lovers.

T h e analyst w i l l find valuable clues also i n the patients
contradictions, of w h i c h as many are b o u n d to appear as
arc present i n the patient's structure. T h e same holds
true of exaggerations, such as reactions of violence, gratitude, shame, suspicion, apparently disproportionate to
the provocation. Such a surplus of affect always signalizes a h i d d e n p r o b l e m , and i t leads the analyst to look for
the emotional significance that the provocation has for
the patient.
Dreams and fantasies are also of eminent importance
as a means toward understanding. Since they are a relatively direct expression of unconscious feelings and strivings they may open u p avenues for understanding that
are otherwise hardly visible. Some dreams are rather
transparent; as a r u l e , however, they speak a cryptic language that can be understood o n l y w i t h the assistance of
free associations.
T h e particular p o i n t at w h i c h the patient turns f r o m
co-operation to defensive

maneuvers

of one k i n d

or

another furnishes another help for understanding. As the

analyst gradually discovers the reasons for these resistances he gains increasing understanding of the patient's
peculiarities. Sometimes the fact that a patient stalls or
fights, and the immediate reason why he does so, are

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transparent. M o r e often astute observation is necessary

to detect that a blockage exists, and the help of the
patient's free associations is necessary to understand the
reasons for i t . I f the analyst succeeds i n understanding
the resistance he w i l l gain an increased knowledge as to
the precise factors that h u r t or f r i g h t e n the patient and
the precise n a t u r e of the reaction they produce.
S i m i l a r l y i l l u m i n a t i n g are the themes that the patient
omits, or deserts q u i c k l y i f he touches u p o n them. T h e
analyst w i l l have an i m p o r t a n t clue i f , for example, the
patient r i g i d l y avoids expressing any critical thoughts
concerning the analyst though he is otherwise overexacting and overcritical. A n o t h e r example of this k i n d
w o u l d be a patient's f a i l u r e to t e l l a specific incident
which had occurred the previous day a n d had upset h i m .
A l l these clues help the analyst to o b t a i n gradually a
coherent p i c t u r e of the patient s life, past and present,
and of the forces operating i n his personality. B u t they
also help toward an understanding of the factors operati n g i n the patient's relationship to the analyst and the
analytical s i t u a t i o n . For several reasons i t is i m p o r t a n t
to understand this relationship as accurately as possible.
For one t h i n g , i t w o u l d block the analysis entirely if,
for instance, a hidden resentment toward the analyst re
m a i n c d under cover. W i t h the best w i l l i n the w o r l d a
patient cannot express himself freely and spontaneously
i f he has an unsolved resentment i n his heart toward the
person to w h o m he reveals himself. Second, since the
patient cannot feel and react differently toward the analyst f r o m the way he does t o w a r d other people, he uncon

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sciously displays i n analysis the same i r r a t i o n a l emotionat

factors, the same strivings and reactions, that he displays
i n other relationships. T h u s the co-operative study of
these factors makes i t possible for the analyst to understand the patient's disturbances i n his h u m a n relationships i n general, and these, as we have seen, are the crucial issue i n the whole neurosis.
T h e clues that may help t o w a r d a gradual understandi n g of the patient's structure are, i n fact, practically i n finite. B u t i t is i m p o r t a n t to m e n t i o n that the analyst
makes use of the clues n o t only by means of precise reasoning b u t also, as i t were, i n t u i t i v e l y . I n other words,
he cannot always precisely e x p l a i n how he arrives at his
tentative assumption. I n my own work, for example,
I have arrived sometimes at an understanding t h r o u g h
free associations of m y o w n . W h i l e listening to a patient
some incident may emerge i n my m i n d that the patient
has t o l d me l o n g ago, w i t h o u t my k n o w i n g offhand what
bearing i t has o n the present situation. O r a f i n d i n g regarding anodier patient may occur to me. I have learned
never to discard these associations, and they have often
proved h e l p f u l when they were seriously examined.
W h e n the analyst has recognized some possible connection, w h e n he has gained an impression as to the u n conscious factors that may be operating i n a certain context, he w i l l tell the patient his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i f he sees
fit to do so. Since this is no discourse o n psychoanalytic
technique, and since the art of t i m i n g a n d m e t i n g o u t
interpretations is irrelevant i n self-analysis, i t may suffice
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here to say that the analyst w i l l offer an interpretation

i f he thinks the patient can stand i t and can utilize i t .
Interpretations are suggestions as to possible meanings.
T h e y are by nature more or less tentative, and the pa
dent's reactions to them vary. I f an interpretation is
essentially r i g h t i t may strike home and stimulate associations showing its f u r t h e r implications. O r the patient
may test i t o u t and gradually q u a l i f y i t . Even when i t is
only partly r i g h t i t may thus give rise to new trends ol
thought, p r o v i d e d the patient is co-operating. But an
interpret a ti on may also provoke anxiety or defensive
reactions. H e i e the discussion i n the preceding chapter,
concerning the p a t i e n t s reaction to insights, is relevant.
Whatever the reactions arc, the analyst's task is to understand them and learn from them.
Psychoanalysis i n its very essence is co-operative work,
both patient a n d analyst bent on understanding the
patient's difficulties. T h e latter tries to lay himself open
to the analyst and, as we have seen, the analyst observes,
tries to understand, and, i f appropriate, conveys his
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n to the patient, l i e then makes suggestions
as to possible meanings and both try to test o u t the
validity of the suggestions. T h e y try to recognize, for
instance, whether an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is right only for the
present context or is of general importance, whether i t
has to be qualified or is v a l i d only under certain condi
tions. A n d as long as such a co-operative spirit prevails
i t is comparatively easy for the analyst to understand the
patient and to convey to h i m his findings.
T h e real difficulties arise w h e n , i n technical terms,

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the patient develops a "resistance." T h e n , i n tangible or

intangible ways, he refuses to co-operate. H e is late or
forgets the appointment. H e wants to take some days or
weeks off. H e loses interest i n the c o m m o n w o r k and
m a i n l y wants the analyst's love and friendship. H i s associations become shallow, unproductive, and evasive,
instead of e x a m i n i n g suggestions made by the analyst,
he resents them and feels attacked, h u r t , misunderstood,
h u m i l i a t e d . H e may reject every attempt to h e l p w i t h a
rigid

feeling of hopelessness and f u t i l i t y . Fundamentally

the reason for this impasse is that certain insights are n o t

acceptable to the patient; they are too p a i n f u l , too frightening, and they u n d e r m i n e illusions that he cherishes
and is incapable of r e l i n q u i s h i n g . Therefore he fights
t h e m off i n one way or another, t h o u g h he does n o t know
that he is a t t e m p t i n g to w a r d off p a i n f u l insights: a l l he
knows, or thinks he knows, is that he is misunderstood or
h u m i l i a t e d or t h a t the w o r k is futile.
U p to this point the analyst, on the whole, has followed
the patient. T h e r e is a certain a m o u n t of i m p l i c i t g u i d ance, of course, i n each suggestion of a possible leada
new slant offered by an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a question raised,
a d o u b t expressed. B u t for the most part the i n i t i a t i v e lies
w i t h the patient. W h e n a resistance has developed, however, interpretative w o r k and i m p l i c i t guidance may be
insufficient, and then the analyst must definitely take the
lead. I n these periods his task is, first, to recognize the
resistance as such, and, second, to help the patient to
recognize i t . A n d he must n o t only help h i m to see that
he is engaged i n a defensive battle b u t also f i n d o u t , w i t h

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or w i t h o u t the patient's help, what i t is that the latter is

w a r d i n g off. H e does so by going back i n his m i n d over
the previous sessions and t r y i n g to discover what may
have struck the patient before the session i n w h i c h the
resistance started.
I t is sometimes easy to do this, b u t i t may be extremely
difficult. T h e b e g i n n i n g of the resistance may have been
unnoticeable. T h e analyst may n o t yet be aware of the
patient's vulnerable spots. B u t i f the analyst can recognize the presence of a resistance, and can succeed i n conv i n c i n g the p a t i e n t that one is operating, the source can
often be discovered t h r o u g h c o m m o n search. T h e i m mediate gain f r o m this discovery is that the way is cleared
for f u r t h e r w o r k , b u t an understanding of the sources of
a resistance also provides the analyst w i t h significant i n f o r m a t i o n concerning the factors the patient wants to
keep u n d e r cover.
T h e analyst's active guidance is l i k e l y to be particularly necessary when the patient has arrived at an insight
that has far-reaching i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r example, when
he has succeeded i n seeing a neurotic t r e n d and i n recogn i z i n g i n i t a d r i v i n g force of p r i m a r y order. T h i s could
be a t i m e of harvest, a t i m e i n w h i c h many previous findings m i g h t f a l l i n l i n e and f u r t h e r ramifications m i g h t
become apparent. W h a t frequently happens instead is
that at this very p o i n t , for reasons presented i n the t h i r d
chapter, the p a t i e n t develops a resistance and tries to get
away w i t h as l i t t l e as possible. H e may do so i n various
ways. H e may automatically search for and express some
ready-at-hand explanation. O r he may i n a more or less

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subtle way disparage the significance of the

finding.

He

may respond w i t h good resolutions to control the t r e n d

by sheer w i l l , a course which recalls the paving of the
road to h e l l . Finally, he may prematurely raise the quest i o n why the t r e n d has obtained such a h o l d o n h i m ,
delving i n t o his c h i l d h o o d and at best b r i n g i n g f o r t h
relevant

data c o n t r i b u t i n g to the understanding

of

origins, for he is actually using this dive i n t o the past as

a means of escaping f r o m the realization of what the discovered t r e n d means for his actual life.
These efforts to rush away f r o m an i m p o r t a n t insight
as q u i c k l y as possible are understandable,

i t is difficult

for a person to face the fact that he has p u t all his energies
i n t o the p u r s u i t of a p h a n t o m . M o r e i m p o r t a n t , such an
insight confronts

h i m w i t h the necessity for

radical

change. I t is only n a t u r a l that he should t e n d to close his

eyes to a necessity so d i s t u r b i n g to his whole e q u i l i b r i u m .
B u t the fact remains that through this hasty repeat he
prevents the insight f r o m " s i n k i n g i n " and thereby deprives himself of the benefits i t m i g h t mean for h i m
Here the help the analyst can give is to take the lead,
revealing to the patient his recoiling tactics and also
encouraging h i m to w o r k t h r o u g h i n great detail a l l the
consequences the t r e n d has for his life. As

mentioned

before, a t r e n d can be coped w i t h only i f its extent and

intensity and implications are f u l l y confronted.
A n o t h e r p o i n t at w h i c h a resistance may necessitate
active guidance f r o m the analyst occurs w h e n the patient
unconsciously shirks a square recognition

that he is

caught i n a conflict of opposing drives. H e r e again his

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L Y S I S

tendency to m a i n t a i n the status quo may block a l l progress. H i s associations may represent only a futile shutt l i n g between one aspect of the conflict and another. H e
may talk about ins need to force others i n t o h e l p i n g h i m
by arousing p i t y , and soon after about his pride preventi n g h i m f r o m accepting any help. As soon as the analyst
comments on the one aspect he w i l l shuttle to the other.
T h i s unconscious strategy may be difficult to recognize
because i n p u r s u i n g i t the patient may b r i n g f o r t h valuable material here a n d there. Nevertheless, i t is the
analyst's task to recognize such evasive maneuvers and to
direct the patient's activity t o w a i d a square recognition
of the existing conflict.
Also i n the later phases of analysis i t is sometimes necessary for die analyst to assume the lead i n dealing w i t h a
resistance. H e may be struck by a realization that despite
much w o i k done, m u c h insight gained, n o t h i n g changes
i n the patient. I n such cases he must desert his role as
interpreter a n d confront the patient openly w i t h the
discrepancy between insight and change, possibly raising
the question as to unconscious reservations that the patient may have w h i c h prevent h i m f r o m l e t t i n g any i n
sight really touch h i m .
T h u s far the analyst's w o r k is of an intellectual char
acter: he puts his knowledge i n t o the service of the patient. B u t his help extends beyond what he can give o n
the basis of his specific competence, even i f he is n o t
aware of offering more than his technical skill.
I n the first place, by his veiy presence, he gives the

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patient a unique o p p o r t u n i t y to become aware of bis

behavior toward people. I n other relationships the patient is l i k e l y to focus his t h i n k i n g p r i m a r i l y o n the
peculiarities of others, their injustice, their selfishness,
their defiance, their unfairness, their u n r e l i a b i l i t y , their
hostility; even i f he is aware of his o w n reactions he is
i n c l i n e d to regard them as provoked by the others. I n
analysis, however, this particular personal complication
is almost entirely absent, n o t only because the analyst
has been analyzed, and continues to analy?e himself, b u t
also because his l i f e is n o t entangled w i t h the patient's
life. T h i s detachment isolates the patient's peculiarities
from the befogging circumstances

that o r d i n a r i l y sur-

r o u n d them.
A n d i n the second place, by his f r i e n d l y interest, the
analyst gives the patient a good deal of what may be called
general h u m a n help. T o some extent this is inseparable
f r o m the intellectual help. T h u s the simple fact that the
analyst wants to understand the patient implies that he
takes h i m seriously. T h i s i n itself is an emotional support
of p r i m a r y importance, especially at those times when
the patient is harassed by emerging fears and doubts,
when his frailties are exposed, his pride attacked, his
illusions u n d e r m i n e d , for the patient is often too alienated f r o m himself to take himself seriously. T h i s statement may sound implausible, because most neurotic
persons have an i n o r d i n a t e sense of their o w n i m p o r
tance, either i n regaid to their u n i q u e potentialities or
i n regard to their u n i q u e needs. B u t to t h i n k of ourselves
as all i m p o r t a n t is radically different f r o m t a k i n g our-

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selves seriously. T h e former a t t i t u d e derives f r o m an

inflated image of the self; the latter refers to the real self
and its development. A neurotic person often rationalizes
his lack of seriousness i n terms of "unselfishness" or i n a
contention that i t is ridiculous or presumptuous to give
m u c h t h o u g h t to oneself. T h i s fundamental disinterest
i n the sell is one of the great difficulties i n self-analysis,
and, conversely, one of the great advantages of professional analysis is the fact that i t means w o r k i n g w i t h
someone w h o t h r o u g h his o w n a t t i t u d e inspires the courage to be o n f r i e n d l y terms w i t h oneself.
T h i s h u m a n support is particularly valuable

when

the patient is i n the g r i p of an emerging anxiety. I n such

situations the analyst w i l l rarely reassure the patient
directly. R u t the fact that the anxiety is tackled as a concrete p r o b l e m , w h i c h can be solved eventually, lessens
the terror of the u n k n o w n , regardless of the content of
the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . Similarly, w h e n the patient is discouraged and i n c l i n e d to give u p die struggle the analyst
does more for h i m than merely i n t e r p r e t i n g : his very
attempt to understand this a t t i t u d e as the outcome of a
conflict is a greater support to the patient than any patt i n g o n the back o r any effort to encourage h i m i n so
many words.
T h e r e are also the times when those fictitious foundations upon w h i c h the patient has b u i l t up his p r i d e become shaky, and he starts to d o u b t himself. I t is good to
lose h a r m f u l illusions about oneself. B u t we must not
forget that i n all neuroses solid self-confidence is greatly
i m p a i r e d . Fictitious notions of superiority substitute for

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i t . B u t the patient, i n the midst of his struggle, cannot

distinguish between the two. T o h i m an u n d e r m i n i n g of
his inflated notions means a destruction of his faith i n
himself. H e realizes that he is n o t as saintly, as loving,
as powerful, as independent as he had believed, and he
cannot accept himself bereft of glory. A t that p o i n t he
needs someone who does n o t lose faith i n h i m , even
though his o w n faith is gone.
I n more general terms the h u m a n help that the analyst
gives the patient is similar to what one f r i e n d m i g h t give
to another: emotional support, encouragement, interest
i n his happiness. T h i s may constitute the patient's first
experience of the possibility of h u m a n understanding,
the first t i m e that another person has bothered to see that
he is n o t simply a spiteful, suspicious, cynical, demandi n g , bluffing i n d i v i d u a l , b u t , w i t h a clear recognition of
such trends, still likes a n d respects h i m as a s t r i v i n g and
struggling h u m a n being. A n d i f the analyst has proved to
be a reliable f r i e n d , this good experience may help the
patient also to retrieve his f a i t h i n others.
Since o u r interest here is i n the possibility of selfanalysis i t may be w e l l to review these functions of the
analyst and see to what extent they can be taken over
by a patient w o r k i n g alone.
T h e r e is no d o u b t that the observations of a trained
outsider w i l l be more accurate than o u r observation of
ourselves, particularly so since concerning ourselves we
are far from i m p a r t i a l . Against this disadvantage, however, stands the fact, already discussed, that we are more

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i a m i l i a r w i t h ourselves than any outsider can he. Experience gained i n psychoanalytic treatment shows beyond any d o u b t that patients can develop an amazing
faculty of keen self-observation i f they are bent on understanding their o w n problems.
i n self-analysis understanding a n d i n t e r p r e t i n g are a
single process. T h e expert, as a result of his experience,
w i l l catch the possible meaning a n d significance of observations m o r e q u i c k l y than w i l l a person w o r k i n g alone,
just as a good mechanic w i l l k n o w more q u i c k l y what is
w r o n g w i t h a car. As a r u l e his undeistanding w i l l also
be more complete, for i t w i l l grasp more implications
and w i l l m o i e readily recognize interrelations w i t h factors already tackled. Here the patient's psychological
knowledge w i l l be of some help, though i t certainly can
not substitute for the experience gained by w o r k i n g day
i n and day o u t at psychological problems. I t is unquestionably possible for h i m , however, as the example presented i n Chapter E i g h t w i l l demonstrate, to grasp the
meaning of his o w n observations. T o be sure, he w i l l
probably proceed more slowly a n d less accurately, b u t i t
should be remembered that also i n professional analysis
the tempo of the process is m a i n l y determined not by the
analyst's capacity to understand b u t by the patient's capacity to accept the insights. H e r e i t is well to remember
a w o r d of consolation that F r e u d has given to young
analysts starting their w o r k w i t h patients. T h e y should
not be too m u c h concerned, he p o i n t e d out, w i t h their
capacity to evaluate associations. T h e real difficulty i n
analysis is n o t that of i n t e l l e c t u a l understanding b u t

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that of dealing w i t h the patient's resistances. I believe

that this holds true for self-analysis as w e l l .
Can a person overcome his o w n resistances? T h i s is the
real question u p o n the answer to w h i c h hinges the feasib i l i t y of self-analysis. Nevertheless, the comparison w i t h
p u l l i n g oneself u p by one's bootstrapswhich is b o u n d
to occurseems unwarranted, because the fact remains
that there is one p a r t of the self which wants to go ahead.
W h e t h e r the j o b can be done depends, of course, on the
intensity of the resistances as w e l l as on the strength of
the incentive to overcome them. B u t the i m p o r t a n t quest i o n a n d I shall n o t a t t e m p t to answer i t u n t i l a latex
chapteris to what extent i t can be done rather t h a n
whether i t can be done at a l l .
T h e r e remains the fact that the analyst is n o t merely
an i n t e r p r e t i n g voice. H e is a h u m a n being, a n d the
h u m a n relationship between h i m and the patient is an
i m p o r t a n t factor i n the therapeutic process. T w o aspects
of this relationship were p o i n t e d out, the first being that
i t presents a u n i q u e and specific o p p o r t u n i t y for the
patient to study, by observing his behavior w i t h the
analyst, what his typical behavior is toward other people i n general. T h i s advantage can be fully replaced i f he
learns to watch himself i n his customary relationships.
T h e expectations, wishes, fears, vulnerabilities, and i n hibitions that he displays i n his w o r k w i t h the analyst are
not essentially different f r o m those he displays i n his
relations w i t h friends, lover, wife, c h i l d r e n , employer,
colleagues, or servants. I f he is seriously i n t e n t u p o n
recognizing the ways i n w h i c h his peculiarities enter i n t o

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all

these relationships, ample opportunities for self-

scrutiny are p r o v i d e d h i m by the mere fact that he is a

social being.
B u t whether he w i l l make f u l l use of these sources of
i n f o r m a t i o n is, of course, another question. T h e r e is no
d o u b t that he faces an arduous task w h e n he attempts to
estimate his o w n share i n the tensions between himseli
and othersa task m u c h more arduous than that i n the
analytical situation, where the analysts personal equat i o n is negligible, and i t is therefore easier for h i m to see
the difficulties that he himself produces. I n ordinary relationships, where the others are replete w i t h peculiarities of t h e i r o w n , he may tend, even i f he has the most
sincere intentions to observe himself objectively, to make
them responsible for the difficulties or frictions that arise,
and to regard himself as an innocent v i c t i m or, at best, as
showing merely a justified reaction to their unreasonableness. I n the latter case he w i l l n o t necessarily be so u n subtle as to i n d u l g e i n overt accusations; he may a d m i t i n
an apparently rational manner that he has been i r r i t a b l e ,
sulky, u n f a i t h f u l , even unjust, b u t secretly regard such
attitudes as justified and adequate responses to the offenses given by the others. T h e more intolerable i t is for
h i m to face his o w n f r a i l t i e s a n d also the more acute
the d i s t u r b i n g factors that are i n t r o d u c e d by the others
t h e greater is the danger that he w i l l thus deprive h i m self of the benefit he could derive f r o m recognizing his
own share. A n d the danger is of exactly the same nature
i f he tends to exaggerate i n the opposite direction by
whitewashing the others and blackening himself.

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T h e r e is another factor that makes i t easier for a

person to see his peculiarities i n the course of his relationship w i t h the analyst than i n his association w i t h others.
H i s d i s t u r b i n g character traitshis diffidence, dependency, arrogance, vindictiveness, his tendencies to w i t h draw a n d freeze u p at the slightest hurts, or whatever
they may beare always contrary to his best self-interest,
n o t only because they render his associations w i t h otheis
less satisfactory b u t also because they make h i m dissatisfied w i t h himself. T h i s fact is often b l u r r e d , however, i n
his customary relations w i t h others. H e feels that he w i l l
gain something by staying dependent, by t a k i n g revenge,
by t r i u m p h i n g over others, and therefore he is less w i l l i n g to recognize w h a t he is doing. T h e same traits displayed i n analysis w o r k so blatantly against his selfinterest that he can scarcely fail t o see their i n j u r i o u s
character, and hence the urge to b l i n d f o l d himself against
t h e m is considerably lessened.
B u t w h i l e i t is n o t easy i t is entirely w i t h i n the range
of possibility f o r a person to overcome the emotional
difficulties i n v o l v e d i n studying his behavior toward
others. As w i l l be seen i n the example of self-analysis
presented i n Chapter Eight, Clare analyzed the intricate
p r o b l e m of her m o r b i d dependency by scrutinizing her
relationship w i t h her lover. A n d she succeeded i n spite
of the fact that b o t h the difficulties m e n t i o n e d above
were present to a h i g h degree: the disturbances i n the
personality of her lover were at least as great as her o w n ;
and certainly she had a v i t a l interest, f r o m the v i e w p o i n t
of her neurotic expectations a n d fears, n o t to recognize

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that her " l o v e " was actually a need for dependency.

T h e other aspect of the relationship w i t h the analyst
is the e x p l i c i t and i m p l i c i t h u m a n help he extends to
the patient. Whereas the other assistance he gives is replaceable to a greater or lesser extent, the merely h u m a n
help is, by d e f i n i t i o n , entirely lacking i n self-analysis. I f
the person w h o is w o r k i n g by himself is fortunate enough
to have an understanding f r i e n d w i t h w h o m he can discuss his findings, or i f he can check u p o n them w i t h an
analyst f r o m t i m e to t i m e , he w i l l feel less alone i n his
work. B u t neither expedient c o u l d w h o l l y substitute for
all the i n t a n g i b l e values of w o r k i n g o u t his problems i n
close co-operation w i t h another h u m a n being. T h e absence of this help is one of the factors that makes selfanalysis the harder road.

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S I X

Occasional Self-Analysis

T o analyze oneself occasionally

is comparatively easy

and sometimes productive of immediate results. Essentially i t is what every sincere person does when he tries
to account for real motivations b e h i n d the way he feels
or acts. W i t h o u t k n o w i n g m u c h , i f anything, about
psychoanalysis,

a m a n w h o has fallen i n love w i t h a

particularly attractive or wealthy g i r l c o u l d laise w i t h

himself the question whether vanity or money plays a
part in his feeling. A m a n who has ignored his better
j u d g m e n t and given i n to his wife 01 his colleagues i n an
argument could question i n his o w n m i n d whether he
yielded because he was convinced of the comparative
insignificance of the subject at stake or because he was
afraid of an ensuing fight. I suppose people have always
examined themselves i n this way. A n d many people do
so who otherwise tend to reject psychoanalysis entirely.

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

T h e p r i n c i p a l d o m a i n of occasional self-analysis is n o t
the intricate involvements of the n e u r o t i c character structure, b u t the gross manifest symptom, the concrete a n d
usually acute disturbance which either strikes ones curiosity or commands ones immediate attention because of
its distressing character. T h u s the examples reported i n
this chapter concern a functional headache, an acute
attack of anxiety, a lawyer's iear of p u b l i c performances,
an acute functional stomach upset. B u t a startling dream,
the f o r g e t t i n g of an a p p o i n t m e n t , or an i n o r d i n a t e i r r i t a t i o n at a taxidriver's t r i v i a l cheating m i g h t just as
well elicit a wish to understand oneselfor, more pre
cisely, to discover the reasons responsible for that particular effect.
T h i s latter distinction may seem hairsplitting, b u t
actually i t expresses an i m p o r t a n t difference between occasional g r a p p l i n g w i t h a p r o b l e m and systematic work
at oneself. T h e goal of occasional self-analysis is to recognize those factors that provoke a concrete disturbance,
and to remove them. T h e broader incentive, the wish to
be better equipped to deal w i t h life i n general, may
operate here too, b u t even i f i t plays some role i t is restricted to the wish to be less handicapped by certain
fears, headaches, o r other inconveniences. T h i s is i n contrast to the m u c h deeper and more positive desire to develop to the best of one's capacities.
As the examples w i l l indicate, the disturbances that
produce a n a t t e m p t at e x a m i n a t i o n may be acute or of
l o n g standing; they may result p r e d o m i n a n t l y f r o m actual difficulties i n h e r e n t i n a situation or they may be
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Self-Analysis

expressions of a chronic neurosis. W h e t h e r they y i e l d to

a short-cut approach o r can be solved w i t h more intensive w o r k depends o n factors that w i l l be discussed later.
Compared w i t h the preconditions for a systematic selfanalysis, those for occasional analysis are moderate. I t
suffices to have some psychological knowledge, a n d this
need n o t be book knowledge b u t may be gained f r o m
ordinary experience. T h e o n l y indispensable requirem e n t is a willingness to believe that unconscious factors
may be sufficiently p o w e r f u l to t h r o w the whole personality o u t of gear. T o p u t i t negatively, i t is necessary n o t
to be too easily satisfied w i t h ready-at-hand explanations
for a disturbance. A m a n , for instance, who has become
inordinately upset about being cheated o u t of a d i m e by
a taxidriver should n o t be content to tell himself that
after a l l no one likes to be cheated. A person suffering
f r o m an acute depression must be skeptical about exp l a i n i n g his state o n the basis of w o r l d conditions. H a b i t u a l forgetting of appointments is n o t very w e l l explained by saying that one is too busy to remember.
I t is p a r t i c u l a r l y easy to brush aside those symptoms
that are n o t obviously psychic i n character, such as headaches, stomach upsets, or fatigue. As a matter of fact, one
can observe tw o opposite attitudes t o w a r d such disturbr

ances, both equally extreme and one sided. T h e one consists i n automatically ascribing headaches to weather
conditions, fatigue to overwork, stomach upsets to spoiled
food or gastric ulcers, w i t h o u t even considering the possib i l i t y that psychic factors are involved. T h i s a t t i t u d e may
be assumed because of sheer ignorance, b u t also i t is a

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characteristic neurotic tendency i n persons who cannot

tolerate die idea o any unevenness or flaw i n themselves.
A t the other extreme are those w h o are convinced that
every disturbance is psychic i n o r i g i n . For such a person
i t is o u t of the question that he m i g h t be tired because of
an overdose of hectic w o r k , that he m i g h t have caught a
cold because he was exposed to a too vigorous infection,
f i e cannot tolerate the idea that any external factor can
have the power to ailcct h i m . I f any disturbance befalls
h i m i t is because he himself has brought i t about; and i f
a symptom is psychic i n o r i g i n i t is i n his own power to
remove i t .
Needless to say, b o t h attitudes are compulsive and the
most constructive a t t i t u d e is somewhere between them.
W e may feel genuinely concerned about w o r l d conditions, though such a concern should drive us i n t o action
and n o t i n t o a depression. W e may feel tired because of
too m u c h w o r k a n d too l i t t l e sleep. W e may have headaches because of a bad eye c o n d i t i o n or a b r a i n t u m o r .
Certainly n o physical symptom should be a t t r i b u t e d to
psychic factors before the medical explanation is t h o r
oughly investigated. T h e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t is that w i t h
f u l l regard for the plausible explanation one should aho
take a good look into one s emotional life. Even i f the
difficulty is a case of flu i t m i g h t be h e l p f u l , after g i v i n g
i t the proper medical a t t e n t i o n , to raise the question
whether some unconscious psychic factors were present,
operating to lower resistance to infection or to retard
recovery.
I f these general considerations are borne i n m i n d I

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believe that the f o l l o w i n g examples w i l l sufficiently delineate the problems i n v o l v e d i n occasional self-analysis.
J o h n , a good-natured businessman, apparently h a p p i l y
m a r r i e d for five years, suffered f r o m diffuse i n h i b i t i o n s
and " i n f e r i o r i t y feelings" and i n recent years had developed occasional headaches w i t h o u t any

detectable

physical basis. H e had n o t been analyzed b u t he was fairly

f a m i l i a r w i d i the psychoanalytic way of t h i n k i n g . Later
he came to me for analysis of a rather intricate character
neurosis, a n d his experience i n w o r k i n g alone was one
of the factors that convinced h i m of the possible value
of psychoanalytic therapy.
W h e n he started to analyze his headaches i t was w i t h o u t i n t e n d i n g to do so. H e , his wife, a n d two friends
w e n t to a musical comedy and he developed a headache
d u r i n g the play. T h i s struck h i m as queer because he
had felt well before going to the theater. A t first, w i t h
some i r r i t a t i o n , he ascribed his headache to the fact that
the play was bad and the evening was a waste of time, but
he soon realized that after a l l one does n o t get headaches
f r o m a bad play. N o w that he t h o u g h t about i t , the play
was n o t so bad after a l l . B u t of course i t was n o t h i n g compared w i t h the play of Shaw's that he w o u l d have preferred. These last words stuck i n his m i n d h e " w o u l d
have preferred." H e r e he felt a flash of anger and saw
the connection H e had been overruled when the choice
between the plays was u p for discussion. I t was n o t even
m u c h of a discussion: he felt he should be a good sport,
and what d i d i t matter anyhow. A p p a r e n t l y i t had mat-

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tered to h i m , however, and he had been deeply angry

about being coerced. W i t h that recognition the headache
was gone. H e realized also that this was not the first
headache that originated i n diis way. T h e r e were bridge
parties, for instance, w h i c h he hated to j o i n b u t was
persuaded to do so.
H e was startled to discover this connection between
repressed anger and headaches, b u t he gave i t no furdier
thought. A few days later, however, he woke u p early,
again w i t h a s p l i t t i n g headache. H e had attended a staff
meeting of his organization the n i g h t before. T h e y had
been d r i n k i n g afterward, and at first he accounted for
the headache by t e l l i n g himself that probably he had
d i u n k too m u c h . W i t h that he t u r n e d on the other side
and t r i e d to fall asleep again, b u t he could not. A fly
buzzing a r o u n d his face i r r i t a t e d h i m . A t first the i r r i tation was barely noticeable, b u t i t grew rapidly to f u l l b l o w n anger. T h e n he recalled a dream or a dream
fragment: he had squashed two bedbugs w i t h a piece of
b l o t t i n g paper. T h e b l o t t i n g paper had many holes. As a
matter of fact, he remembered that the holes were all over
the paper and formed a regular pattern.
T h i s r e m i n d e d h i m of tissue paper that he had folded
as a c h i l d , for c u t t i n g o u t patterns. H e was q u i t e taken
by their beauty. A n incident emerged i n w h i c h he had
shown die tissue to his mother, expecting a d m i r a t i o n ,
b u t she had paid only perfunctory attention. T h e blott i n g paper then r e m i n d e d h i m of the staff meeting. T h e r e
he had scribbled o n paper because he felt bored. N o , he
had n o t merely scribbled; he had d r a w n small caricatures

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Self-Analysis

of the chairman and of his opponent. T h e w o r d "oppon e n t " struck h i m , because he had n o t consciously regarded that person as an opponent. A resolution had had
to be voted o n , about w h i c h he felt vaguely uneasy. B u t he
saw no clear objection to i t . Hence the objection he had
raised was actually n o t to the p o i n t . I t was weak and
made no impression. O n l y now he realized that they had
p u t something over o n h i m , for the acceptance of the
resolution meant a l o t of tedious w o r k for himself. T h e y
had been so clever that i t had escaped h i m ; A t this p o i n t
he suddenly laughed because he recognized the meaning
of the bedbugs. T h e chairman a n d the o p p o n e n t t h e y
were bloodsuckers, as distasteful as bedbugs. Also, he was
as afraid of bedbugs as he was of these exploiters. W e l l ,
he had taken revengeat least i n his dream. A g a i n the
headache vanished.
O n three subsequent occasions he searched for a h i d den anger as soon as the headache started, f o u n d the
anger and then lost his headache. A f t e r that the headaches disappeared entirely.
I n reviewing this experience one is struck at first by the
lightness of the labor i n comparison w i t h the result
attained. B u t miracles occur i n psychoanalysis as seldom
as anywhere else. W h e t h e r a symptom can be easily removed depends on its f u n c t i o n i n the whole structure.
I n this case the headaches had n o t assumed any f u r t h e r
role, such as preventing J o h n f r o m d o i n g things he was
afraid of d o i n g or resented doing, or serving as a means
of demonstrating to others that they had given offense
o r inflicted i n j u r y , or serving as a basis for d e m a n d i n g

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special consideration. I f headaches o r any other symptoms have assumed i m p o r t a n t functions such as these,
t h e i r cure w i l l r e q u i r e l o n g and penetrating w o r k . One
w i l l then have to analyze a l l the needs they satisfy and
they w i l l probably n o t disappear u n t i l the w o r k is practically finished. I n John's case they had not assumed any
such functions, and probably resulted merely f r o m tension increased by the repressed anger.
T h e extent of John's accomplishment is d i m i n i s h e d
also by another consideration. I t was a gain, certainly,
to be r i d of the headaches, b u t i t seems to me that we are
i n c l i n e d to overrate the significance of such gross, tangible symptoms and to underrate the importance of less
tangible psychic disturbances, such as, i n this case, John's
alienation f r o m his own wishes and opinions and his
i n h i b i t i o n toward self-assertion. I n these disturbances,
w h i c h later proved to be h i g h l y significant for his life
a n d his development, n o t h i n g was changed by his w o r k .
A l l that happened was that he became somewhat more
aware of r i s i n g angers and that his symptoms disappeared.
A c t u a l l y , any of the incidents that J o h n happened to
analyze c o u l d have yielded more insight than he gained
f r o m them. T h u s in his analysis of the anger that emerged
d u r i n g the musical comedy there were numerous questions that he failed to touch o n . W h a t was the real nature
of his relationship w i t h his wife? Was the c o m p a t i b i l i t y ,
of w h i c h he was p r o u d , due o n l y to compliance on his
part? Was she domineering? O r was he merely hypersensitive to a n y t h i n g resembling coercion? Furthermore,
w h y d i d he repress the anger? Was i t necessary because

i8
5

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Self-Analysis

of a compulsive need for affection? Was he apprehensive

of a rebuke f r o m his wife? D i d he have to m a i n t a i n an
image of himself as a person who was never disturbed by
"trifles"? Was he afraid of having to fight for his wishes?
Finally, was he really only angry at the others for having
overruled h i m , or was he p r i m a r i l y angry at himself for
having given i n because of sheer weakness?
T h e analysis of the anger f o l l o w i n g the staff meeting
m i g h t also have opened u p f u r t h e r problems. W h y was
he n o t more alert to his o w n interests when they were
jeopardized? A g a i n , was he afraid to fight for them? O r
had the anger such dimensionssquashing the bedbugs
t h a t i t was safer to repress i t altogether? Also, d i d he
lay himself open to e x p l o i t a t i o n by being too compliant?
O r d i d he experience something as e x p l o i t a t i o n w h i c h
v/as actually merely a legitimate expectation of his cooperation? F u r t h e r m o r e , what about his wish to impress
othersthe memory of expecting a d m i r a t i o n from his
mother? Was his failure to impress his colleagues an essential element i n his anger? A n d to what extent was he
angry at himself for h a v i n g been so unassertive? N o n e of
these problems was touched u p o n . John let the matter
rest when he had discovered the effect of repressed anger
at the others.
T h e second example is the experience that first set me
to considering the possibility of self-analysis. Marry was
a physician w h o came to me for analysis because of attacks of panic, w h i c h he t r i e d to allay by t a k i n g m o r p h i n e
and cocaine; also he had spells of exhibitionistic impulses.

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T h e r e was n o d o u b t that he had a severe neurosis. A f t e r

some months of treatment he went away o n a vacation,
and d u r i n g this t i m e he analyzed by himself an attack of
anxiety.
T h e b e g i n n i n g of this piece of self-analysis was accidental, as i t was i n the case of J o h n . T h e starting p o i n t
was a severe attack of anxiety, apparently provoked by a
real danger. H a r r y was c l i m b i n g a m o u n t a i n w i t h his
g i r l , i t was strenuous c l i m b i n g b u t n o t dangerous as long
as they c o u l d see clearly. I t became perilous, however,
when a snowstorm arose and they weie enveloped i n a
thick fog. H a r r y then became short of breath, his heart
pounded, he became panicky and finally had to lie down
to rest. l i e d i d n o t give the i n c i d e n t any thought b u t
vaguely ascribed the attack to his exhaustion and to the
actual danger. T h i s is an example, by the way, of how
easily w e may be satisfied w i t h w r o n g explanations if we
want to be, for H a r r y was physically strong and anything
b u t a coward i n the face of an emergency.
T h e next day they went o n a n a r r o w path hewn i n t o
the steep, rocky w a l l of the m o u n t a i n . T h e g i r l went
ahead. T h e h e a r t p o u n d i n g started again when H a r r y
caught himself at a thought or an impiilse to push her
d o w n the cliffs. T h a t naturally startled h i m , and, be
sides, he was devoted to her. H e t h o u g h t first of Dreiser's
American

Tragedy, i n w h i c h the boy drowns his g i r l i n

order to get r i d of her. T h e n he thought of the attack of

the previous day and barely recaptured a similar i m pulse he had had then. I t had been a fleeting one, and
he had checked i t as i t arose. H e remembered clearly,

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however, a m o u n t i n g i r r i t a t i o n against the g i r l before

the attack, and a sudden wave of hot anger, w h i c h he
had pushed aside.
T h i s , then, was the meaning of the attack of anxiety:
an impulse of violence b o r n o u t of a conflict between a
sudden hatred on the one hand, and, o n the other, his
genuine fondness for the g i r l . H e felt relieved, and also
p r o u d for having analyzed the first attack and stopped
the second.
H a r r y , i n contrast to J o h n , went a step farther, because he felt alarmed by his recognition of hatred and
a murderous impulse toward the g i r l he loved. W h i l e
c o n t i n u i n g to walk he raised the question why he should
want to k i l l her. I m m e d i a t e l y a talk they had had the
previous m o r n i n g recurred to h i m . T h e g i r l had praised
one of his colleagues for his clever dealing w i t h people
and for being a c h a r m i n g host at a party. T h a t was a l l .
A n d that c o u l d n o t have aroused this much hostility. Yet
when t h i n k i n g about i t he felt a r i s i n g anger. Was he
jealous? B u t there was no danger of losing her. T h i s colleague, though, was taller dian he, and non-Jewish (on
b o t h points he was hypersensitive), and he d i d have a
clever tongue. W h i l e his thoughts were

meandering

along these lines he forgot his anger against the g i r l and

focused his a t t e n t i o n o n comparing himself w i t h the colleague. T h e n a scene occurred to h i m . l i e was probably
f o u r or five years o l d , and had tried to c l i m b a tree b u t
c o u l d not. H i s older brother had c l i m b e d i t w i t h ease
and teased h i m f r o m above. A n o t h e r scene came back
v i v i d l y w h e n his mother praised this b r o t h e r and he was

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left out. T h e older brother was always ahead of h i m . I t

must have been the same t h i n g that i n f u r i a t e d h i m yesterday: he s t i l l c o u l d n o t stand to have any man praised
i n his presence. W i t h this insight he lost his tenseness,
c o u l d c l i m b easily, and again felt tender toward the g i r l .
Compared w i t h the first example, the second achieved
i n one way more and i n another less. Despite the greater
superficiality of J o h n s sell-analysis, he d i d take one step
that H a r r y d i d not take. J o h n d i d not rest satisfied when
he had accounted for only one particular situation: he
recognized the possibility that all his headaches m i g h t
result f r o m a repressed anger. H a r r y d i d not go beyond
the analysis of the one situation. I t d i d not occur to h i m
to wonder whether his finding had a bearing o n other
attacks ot anxiety. O n the other hand, the insight that
H a r r y arrived at was considerably deeper than John s.
T h e recognition of the murderous impulse was a real
emotional experience; he f o u n d at least an i n k l i n g of
the reason for his hostility; and he recognized the fact
that he was caught i n a conflict.
I n the second incident, too, one is astonished at the
n u m b e r o t questions n o t touched u p o n . G r a n t i n g that
H a r r y became i r r i t a t e d at praise of another man, whence
the intensity of the reaction? I f that praise was the only
source of his hostility why was i t such a threat to h i m as
to arouse violence? Was he i n the g r i p of an excessively
great and excessively vulnerable vanity? I f so, what were
the deficiencies i n h i m that needed so m u c h covering up?
T h e r i v a l r y w i t h the brother was certainly a significant
historical factor, b u t insufficient as an explanation. T h e

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other side of the conflict, the nature of his devotion to

the g i r l , is entirely untouched. D i d he need her p r i m a r i l y for her admiration? H o w m u c h dependency was
i n v o l v e d i n his love? W e r e there other sources of hostili t y toward her?
A t h i r d example concerns the analysis of a k i n d of
stage fright. B i l l , a healthy, strong, i n t e l l i g e n t , and successful lawyer, consulted me because of a fear of h i g h
places. H e had a r e c u r r i n g nightmare i n w h i c h he was
pushed f r o m a bridge o r tower. H e felt dizzy w h e n he
sat i n the first r o w of a theater balcony and w h e n he
looked d o w n f r o m h i g h windows. Also, he

sometimes

felt panicky before he had to appear i n court or before

he met i m p o r t a n t clients. H e had w o r k e d u p f r o m a poor
e n v i r o n m e n t and was afraid of n o t being able to maint a i n the good position he had attained. T h e feeling often
crept u p o n h i m that he was p u t t i n g o n a b l u f f and that
i t w o u l d be f o u n d o u t sooner or later. H e c o u l d n o t account for this fear because he believed himself as intelligent as his colleagues; he was a good speaker and
usually c o u l d convince others by his arguments.
Because he talked frankly about himself we managed
to see i n a few interviews the outlines of a conflict between, o n the one side, a m b i t i o n , assertiveness, a desire
to p u t something over o n others, and, o n the other side,
a need to m a i n t a i n the appearance of a j o l l y straight fell o w who d i d n o t w a n t a n y t h i n g for himself. N e i t h e r side
of the conflict was deeply repressed. H e had merely failed
to realize the strength a n d the contradictory nature of

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these strivings. Once they were b r o u g h t i n t o sharp focus

he recognized squarely that he actually d i d p u t u p a
bluff. H e t h e n spontaneously drew the connection him
self between this inadvertent swindle and the dizziness.
H e saw that he craved to a t t a i n a h i g h place i n life b u t
d i d n o t q u i t e dare a d m i t to himself how ambitious he
really was. H e was afraid that others w o u l d t u r n against
h i m a n d push h i m d o w n i f they realized this a m b i t i o n ,
and therefore he had to show a f r o n t of being a j o l l y good
fellow to w h o m money and prestige d i d n o t mean m u c h .
B e i n g nevertheless an essentially honest person, he was
d i m l y aware of some bluff, w h i c h i n t u r n had made h i m
apprehensive of being " f o u n d o u t . " T h i s clarification
sufficed to remove the dizziness, w h i c h was a translation
of his fears i n t o physical terms.
H e then had to leave t o w n . W e had n o t touched u p o n
his fear of p u b l i c performances a n d of meeting certain
clients. I advised h i m to observe the conditions under
w h i c h his "stage fright" was increased or decreased.
Some t i m e later I received this report. H e had first
t h o u g h t that the fear appeared w h e n the case he presented or the argument he used was debatable.

But

search i n this d i r e c t i o n d i d n o t lead very far, t h o u g h he

felt d i s t i n c t l y that he was n o t w h o l l y wrong. T h e n he
had a bad break w h i c h , however, proved to be a good
break for his o w n efforts at understanding. H e had prepared a difficult b r i e f n o t too carefully, b u t was only
moderately apprehensive about presenting i t i n court,
for he k n e w that the judge was n o t too demanding. T h e n
he learned t h a t this judge h a d fallen i l l , and that the one

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who w o u l d substitute was strict and u n b e n d i n g . H e t r i e d

to console himself w i t h the r e m i n d e r that after a l l the
second judge was far f r o m vicious or t r i c k y , b u t this d i d
n o t d i m i n i s h his r i s i n g anxiety. T h e n he t h o u g h t of m y
advice and t r i e d to let his m i n d r u n freely.
First an image appeared of himself as a small boy
smeared f r o m head to toe w i t h chocolate cake. H e was
at first baffled by this picture, b u t then recalled that he
was going t o be punished b u t got away with it because
he was so "cute" and his mother had to laugh about h i m .
T h e theme of " g e t t i n g b y " persisted. Several memories
emerged of times w h e n he was n o t prepared at school,
b u t got by. T h e n he thought of a teacher of history
w h o m he hated. H e could s t i l l feel die hatred. T h e class
had to w r i t e a theme about the French R e v o l u t i o n ,
W h e n r e t u r n i n g the papers the teacher criticized his
for being replete w i t h high-sounding phrases b u t devoid
of solid knowledge; he cited one of those phrases and
the others roared w i t h laughter. B i l l had felt acutely
h u m i l i a t e d . T h e English teacher had always a d m i r e d
his style b u t the history teacher seemed impervious to
his charm. T h e phrase "impervious to his c h a r m " took
h i m by surprise, because he had meant "impervious to
his style." H e c o u l d n o t help feeling amused because the
word " c h a r m " expressed his true meaning. Sure enough,
the judge was l i k e the history teacher, impervious to
his charm or his power of speech. T h a t was i t . H e was
accustomed to rely on his charm and his facility w i t h
words to "get by" instead of being thoroughly prepared.
As a result he became panicky whenever he visualized

i6

S E L F

A N A L Y S I S

a s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h this tool w o u l d be ineffective. Since

B i l l was n o t deeply entangled i n his neurotic trends he
was able to draw the practical consequence of this i n sight: to sit d o w n and w o r k more carefully on the brief.
H e even went a step farther. H e realized to what extent he used his charm also i n relationships w i t h friends
and w o m e n . Briefly, he felt that they should be under
the spell of his charm and therefore overlook the fact
that he d i d n o t give m u c h of himself i n any relationship,
l i e l i n k e d this f i n d i n g w i t h o u r discussion by realizing
that lie had discovered another bluff, and he finished
w i t h the realization that he must "go straight."
A p p a r e n t l y he was able to do so to a considerable extent, because since that episode, which is now six years
ago, his fears have practically disappeared. T h i s result
resembles the one attained by J o h n when he overcame
his headaches, b u t i t must be evaluated differently. T h e
headaches, as indicated before, were a peripheral sympt o m . T h e y can be so designated by v i r t u e of two facts:
since they were i n f r e q u e n t and n o t severe they d i d not
essentially d i s t u r b h i m ; and they had not assumed any
secondary f u n c t i o n . John's real disturbances, as revealed
i n a subsequent analysis, lay i n a different direction.
Bill's fears, o n the other hand, were die result of a crucial conflict. T h e y d i d n o t handicap h i m b u t they interfered w i t h significant activities i n vital areas of his l i f e
John's headaches disappeared w i t h o u t any concomitant
change i n his personality, the o n l y change being a slight! v
greater awareness of anger. B i l l ' s fears vanished because
he recognized t h e i r source i n certain contradictory trends

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nalysis

i n his personality and, more i m p o r t a n t , because he was

able to change these trends.
Here again, as i n John's case, the results seem greater
than the efforts that produced them. B u t again on closer
examination the disparity is n o t so great. I t is true that
w i t h comparatively l i t t l e w o r k B i l l managed n o t o n l y to
get r i d of disturbances serious enough to jeopardize his
career i n the long r u n , b u t also to recognize a few i m p o r t a n t facts about himself. H e saw that he had presented
a somewhat deceptive f r o n t to himself and to others, that
he was much more ambitious than he had a d m i t t e d to
himself, that he tended to attain his ambitious goals
through his wits and his charm rather than t h r o u g h solid
work. B u t i n evaluating this success we must n o t forget
that B i l l , i n contrast to J o h n and H a r r y , was essentially
a psychically healthy person w i t h onlv m i l d neurotic
trends. H i s a m b i t i o n and his need to "get b y " were n o t
deeply repressed and d i d n o t have a r i g i d compulsive
character. His personality was so organized that he could
modify t h e m considerably as soon as he recognized them.
D r o p p i n g for a m o m e n t the effort to attain a scientific
understanding of B i l l ' s predicaments, one m i g h t regard
h i m simply as a person w h o had t r i e d 10 make life too
easy for himself and who c o u l d do better w h e n he realized that his way d i d not w o r k .
Bill's insights were sufficient to remove certain gross
fears. B u t even i n this most successful short cut many
questions are left open. W h a t exactly is the meaning of
the nightmare about being pushed d o w n f r o m a bridge?
Was i t necessary for B i l l that he alone should be o n top?

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S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

D i d he w a n t to push others d o w n because he c o u l d n o t

tolerate any competition? A n d was he therefore afraid
others m i g h t do the same to him? Was his fear of h i g h
places o n l y a fear of losing the position he had gained,
or was i t also a fear of f a l l i n g d o w n f r o m a height of fictitious superiorityas i t usually is i n phobias of this
kind? F u r t h e r m o r e , why d i d he n o t p u t i n an a m o u n t
of w o r k commensurate w i t h his faculties and his ambition? D i d this laziness result only f r o m the repression
of his a m b i t i o n , or d i d he feel that i t w o u l d detract f r o m
his s u p e r i o r i t y i f he made adequate effortsthat only
mediocre people have to work? A n d why d i d he give so
l i t t l e of himself i n his relations w i t h otheis? Was he too
engrossed i n h i m s e l f o r perhaps too contemptuous of
o t h e r s t o be able to experience m u c h spontaneous emotion?
W h e t h e r i t w o u l d be necessary, f r o m the p o i n t of view
of therapy, to pursue all such supplementary questions
is another matter. I n Bill's case i t is possible that the l i t t l e
analysis done had farther reaching effects than the removal of conspicuous fears. I t is possible that i t set going
something that m i g h t be called a beneficent circle. By
recognizing his a m b i t i o n and by p u t t i n g i n more w o r k
he w o u l d actually anchor his ambitions on a more realistic and more solid basis. T h e r e b y he w o u l d feel

rnoie

secure and less vulnerable and less i n need of his bluff.

By r e l i n q u i s h i n g the false f r o n t he w o u l d feel less constrained a n d less afraid of beins: f o u n d out. A l l of these
factors m i g h t considerably deepen his relationships w i t h
others, a n d this i m p r o v e m e n t w o u l d also add to his feel-

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nalysis

i n g of security. Such a beneficent circle may have been

set i n m o t i o n even t h o u g h the analysis was n o t complete.
I f the analysis had searched o u t all the u n t o u c h e d im*
plications i t w o u l d almost certainly have had this effect.
A last example leads us still farther away f r o m a real
neurosis. I t concerns the analysis of a disturbance that
was provoked m a i n l y by the real difficulties i n an actual
situation. T o m was a medical assistant to a great clinician. H e was deeply interested i n his w o r k and was
favored by his chief. A genuine friendship had developed
between them, and they often l u n c h e d together. Once
after such a luncheon T o m had a m i l d stomach upset
w h i c h he ascribed to the food, w i t h o u t g i v i n g i t further
attention. After the next luncheon w i t h the chief he felt
nauseous and faint, considerably worse t h a n the

first

t i m e . H e had his stomach examined b u t there was n o

pathological finding whatever. T h e n the disturbance occurred a t h i r d time, n o w w i t h a p a i n f u l sensitivity to
smells. O n l y after the t h i r d luncheon d i d i t strike h i m
that a l l these upsets h a d occurred w h e n he was eating
w i t h the director.
As a matter of fact he had felt constrained w i t h the
director recently, sometimes n o t k n o w i n g what to talk
about. A n d he knew the reason. H i s research w o r k had
l e d h i m i n a d i r e c t i o n w h i c h was opposite to the director's convictions. I n recent weeks he had become more
firmly

convinced of his o w n findings. H e had wanted to

talk w i t h the chief b u t somehow never got a r o u n d to

d o i n g i t . H e was aware of procrastinating b u t the o l d

l6p

A N A L Y S I S

m a n was rather r i g i d i n scientific matters and d i d not

easily tolerate dissension. T o m had shoved aside his concern by t e l l i n g himself that a good talk w o u l d solve
everything. I f the stomach upset had to do w i t h fears,
he reasoned, then his fears must be m u c h greater than
he had a d m i t t e d to himself.
H e sensed that this was so and simultaneously had t w o
proofs of i t . One was that w h i l e having these thoughts he
suddenly started to feel i l l , just as he had felt after the
luncheons. T h e other was that he realized just as suddenly what had started his reaction. D u r i n g the luncheon
i n w h i c h the illness had first developed the director had
made derogatory remarks about the ingratitude of T o m ' s
predecessor. H e had expressed his resentment against
these y o u n g fellows, w h o learned m u c h from h i m and
then left and d i d n o t even bother to keep i n touch w i t h
h i m o n scientific matters. A l l that T o m felt consciously
at that m o m e n t was sympathy for the chief. l i e had repressed his knowledge that actually what the director
c o u l d n o t tolerate was that the predecessor had gone his
o w n independent way.
T h u s T o m became aware that he had closed his eyes
to an existing danger, and he also recognized the extent
of his fears. H i s w o r k was creating a real dansrer to his
good relationship w i t h the director, and thereby a danger to his career. T h e o l d man m i g h t really t u r n against
h i m . H e felt somewhat panicky at this thought and wondered i f i t m i g h t be better for h i m to check his

findings

once m o r e o r even forget about them. I t was only a

b r i e f t h o u g h t , b u t i t showed h i m i n a flash that this was

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Self

Analysis

a conflict between his scientific honesty a n d the immediate exigencies of his career. By repressing his fears he
had pursued an ostrich policy, the purpose of w h i c h was
to avoid having to make a decision. W i t h that insight he
felt free and relieved. H e knew i t was a h a r d decision b u t
d i d n o t d o u b t that i t w o u l d be i n favor of his conviction.
T h i s story was t o l d to me n o t as an example of selfanalysis b u t merely as an example of how great the tempt a t i o n sometimes is n o t to be straight w i t h oneself. T o m
was a f r i e n d of m i n e , an unusually well-balanced fellow.
Even though i t is possible that he had certain hidden
neurotic tendencies, such as a need to deny any fears,
these d i d n o t make h i m a neurotic person. I t m i g h t be
objected that the very fact of his unconsciously s h i r k i n g
a decision was an expression of a deeper neurotic disturbance. B u t there is certainly n o sharp b o r d e r l i n e between
healthy and neurotic, a n d therefore i t seems preferable
to leave i t as a matter of emphasis and regard T o m for
a l l practical purposes as a healthy person. T h i s episode
w o u l d then represent a situational neurosis, that is, a
neurotic upset caused p r i m a r i l y by the difficulties i n a
particular situation and lasting only so l o n g as the conflict is n o t consciously faced and solved.
Despite the fact that a critical estimate has been given
of the results attained i n each of these examples, they
m i g h t , when regarded together, elicit an overoptimistic
impression about the potentialities of occasional selfanalysis, an impression that one can easily stumble over
I

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

an insight a n d pick u p something precious. I n order to

convey a m o r e adequate p i c t u r e these four more or less
successful attempts should be complemented by a review
of twenty o r more abortive efforts to grasp q u i c k l y the
meaning o f some psychic disturbance. I t seems necessary
to express e x p l i c i t l y such a cautious reserve because a
person w h o feels helplessly caught i n his neurotic entanglements tends to hope against hope for a miracle. I t
should be understood clearly that i t is impossible to cure
a severe neurosis, or any essential part of i t , by occasional
self-analysis. T h e reason is that the neurotic personality
is n o t a piecemeal c o n g l o m e r a t i o n t o use the expression o f Gestalt psychologistsof d i s t u r b i n g factors, b u t
has a structure i n w h i c h each p a r t is intricately interrelated to each other part. I t is possible through occasional
w o r k at oneself to grasp a n isolated connection here o r
there, to understand the factors immediately involved i n
an upheaval a n d t o remove a peripheral symptom. B u t
to b r i n g about essential changes i t is necessary to w o r k
t h r o u g h the whole structure, that is, it requires a more
systematic analysis.
T h u s occasional analysis, by its very nature, c o n t r i b utes b u t l i t t l e to comprehensive

self-recognition.

As

shown i n the first three examples, the reason is that i n sights are n o t followed u p . A c t u a l l y each p r o b l e m that
is clarified automatically introduces a new one. I f these
leads that offer themselves are n o t picked u p the insights
necessarily r e m a i n isolated.

As a therapeutic method occasional self-analysis is

entirely adequate for the situational neurosis. Also in
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Occasional

Self-Analysis

m i l d neuroses i t can y i e l d very satisfactory results. B u t

i n more intricate neuroses i t is l i t t l e more t h a n a leap i n
the dark. A t the very best i t can do n o m o r e than release
a tension here or there, or i l l u m i n a t e at r a n d o m the
meaning of one or another disturbance.

C H A P T E R

Systematic Self-Analysis:

S E V E N

Preliminaries

Systematic self-analysis might be superficially distinguished from occasional analysis of oneself by the mere
fact that it involves more frequent work: it, too, has its
starting point i n a particular difficulty which one wants
to remove, but unlike occasional self-analysis it goes
through the process over and over again, rather than
resting content with an isolated solution. T h i s description, however, while correct in a formalistic way, would
miss the essential differences. One might recurrently
analyze oneself and it would still remain occasional analysis if certain conditions were not fulfilled.
T h e greater frequency is one distinguishing factor in
systematic self-analysis, but only one. M o r e important
is the attribute of continuity, the following up of problems; the lack of this in the examples of occasional work
was emphasized i n the previous chapter. T h i s requires,
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lysis

however, more than a mere conscientious p i c k i n g up and

elaboration of the leads that offer themselves. I t is by no
means f r o m sheer superficiality or negligence that the
persons i n the examples cited were satisfied w i t h the
results attained. T o proceed beyond insights that are
w i t h i n easy reach inevitably means to encounter "resistances," to expose oneself to all kinds of p a i n f u l uncertainties and hurts and to take u p the battle w i t h these
opposing forces. A n d this requires a different spirit f r o m
that which serves i n occasional w o r k . T h e r e the incentive is the pressure of some gross disturbance and the
wish to resolve i t . Here, t h o u g h the w o r k starts under
a similar pressure, the u l t i m a t e d r i v i n g force is the person's u n r e l e n t i n g w i l l to come to grips w i t h himself, a
wish to grow and to leave n o t h i n g untouched that prevents g r o w t h . I t is a spirit of ruthless honesty toward
himself, and he can succeed i n finding himself only to
the extent that i t prevails.
T h e r e is, of course, a difference between the w i l l to
be honest and the capacity to be so. A n y n u m b e r of times
he w i l l be unable to measure u p to this ideal. T h e r e may
be some consolation, however, i n the fact that no analysis w o u l d be necessary i f he were always transparent
to himself. F u r t h e r m o r e , the capacity for honesty w i l l
gradually increase i f he carries o n w i t h a measure of constancy. Each obstacle s u r m o u n t e d means gaining t e r r i tory w i t h i n himself and therefore makes i t possible to
approach the next w i t h greater i n n e r strength.
Feeling at a loss as to h o w to go about i t , the person
w h o is analyzing himself, however conscientious,

ij5

may

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

undertake the w o r k w i t h a k i n d of artificial zest. H e may

resolve, for instance, to analyze a l l his dreams f r o m n o w
o n . Dreams, according to F r e u d , are the royal road to the
unconscious. T h a t remains true. B u t unfortunately i t is
a road that is easily lost i f there is n o t f u l l knowledge of
a l l the t e r r i t o r y a r o u n d i t . For anyone to try his s k i l l at
i n t e r p r e t i n g dreams w i t h o u t some understanding of the
factors operating w i t h i n himself at the time is a haphazard, hit-or-miss play. I n t e r p r e t a t i o n may then degenerate i n t o intellectual guesswork, even i f the dream itself
is seemingly transparent.
Even a simple dream may p e r m i t of various interpretations. For instance, i f a husband dreams of his wife's
death the dream may express a deep unconscious host i l i t y . O n the other hand, i t may mean that he wants to
separate f r o m her and, since he feels incapable of t a k i n g
this step, her death appears as the only possible s o l u t i o n ;
i n this case the dream is n o t p r i m a r i l y an expression of
hatred. O r , finally, i t may be a death wish provoked by
a merely transitory rage w h i c h had been repressed and
f o u n d its expression i n the dream. T h e problems opened
u p are different i n the three interpretations, i n the first
one the question w o u l d be the reason for the haired and
for its repression. I n the second i t w o u l d be why the
dreamer does n o t find a more adequate solution. I n the
t h i r d i t w o u l d be the circumstances of the actual provocation.
A n o t h e r example is a dream o f Clares d u r i n g the
p e r i o d i n w h i c h she t r i e d to solve her dependence o n
her f r i e n d Peter. She dreamed that another m a n p u t his
Ij6

Systematic

Self -A

nalysis

a r m a r o u n d her a n d said he loved her. H e was attractive

to her, and she elt happy. Peter was i n the r o o m , looki n g o u t of a w i n d o w . T h e dream m i g h t suggest offhand
that Clare was t u r n i n g f r o m Peter to another man, and
thus be an expression of conflicting feelings. O r i t m i g h t
express a wish that Peter w o u l d be as demonstrative as
this other m a n . O r i t m i g h t represent a belief that t u r n i n g to another attachment w o u l d solve the p r o b l e m of
her m o r b i d dependency; i n this case i t w o u l d constitute
an attempt to evade a real solution of the p r o b l e m . O r
i t m i g h t express a wish to have a choice about t e m a i n i n g
w i t h Peter, a choice that she actually d i d n o t have because of her ties to h i m .
I f some progress has been made toward understanding,
then a dream may provide confirmation for an assumpt i o n ; i t may f i l l a gap i n one's knowledge; or i t may open
u p a new and unexpected lead. B u t i f the p i c t u r e is befogged by a resistance a dream is n o t l i k e l y to clarify
matters. I t may do so, b u t also i t may be so i n t r i c a t e l y
interwoven w i t h unrecognized attitudes that i t defies i n terpretation and merely adds to the confusion.
These warnings should certainly not deter

anyone

f r o m attempts to analyze his dreams. John's dream about

the bedbugs, for instance, was a definite help to h i m i n
understanding his feelings. T h e p i t f a l l to be avoided is
merely a one-sided concentration on dieams to the ex
elusion of other observations equally valuable. A n d a
w a r n i n g of an opposite character is equally i m p o r t a n t :
we frequently have a c o m p e l l i n g interest n o t to take a
dream seriously, and by its very grotesqueness or exag-

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A N A L Y S I S

geration a d i e a m may l e n d itself to such an i g n o r i n g of

its message. T h u s the first dream that w i l l be presented
i n the n e x t chapter, i n reference to Glare's self-analysis,
actually spoke a distinct enough language as to a serious
t u r m o i l i n her relationship w i t h her lover, yet she managed to take i t l i g h t l y . T h e reason was that she had stringent reasons for n o t l e t t i n g herself be moved by its i m plications. A n d this is n o t an exceptional situation.
T h u s dreams are an i m p o r t a n t source of i n f o r m a t i o n ,
b u t o n l y one among several. Since I shall n o t r e t u r n to
the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of dreams, except i n examples, I shall
make a l i t t l e detour here to m e n t i o n two principles that
are useful to keep i n m i n d . O n e is that dreams do not
give a photographic, static p i c t u r e of feelings o r o p i n ions b u t arc p r i m a r i l y an expression of tendencies. I t
is true that a dream may reveal to us more clearly than
o u r waking l i i e what o u r true ieelings are: love, hatred,
suspicion, or sadness otherwise repressed may be felt i n
dreams w i t h o u t constraint. B u t the more i m p o r t a n t characteristic of dreams is, as Freud expressed i t , that they are
governed by wishful t h i n k i n g . T h i s does n o t necessarily
mean that they represent a conscious wish, or that they
directly symbolize something we regard as desirable.
T h e " w i s h f u l t h i n k i n g " is l i k e l y to lie i n the p u r p o r t
rather than i n the e x p l i c i t content. Dreams, i n other
words, give voice t o o u r strivings, o u r needs, and often
represent attempts at a solution of conflicts b o t h e r i n g
us at the time. T h e y are a play of e m o t i o n a l forces rather
than a statement of facts. I f t w o p o w e r f u l contradictory
strivings clash, an anxiety dream may result.

iy8

Systematic

Self-Analysis

T h u s i f we dream of a person w h o m we

consciously

l i k e or respect as a r e v o l t i n g or ridiculous creature we

should look for a need that compels us to deflate that
person rather than j u m p i n g to the conclusion that the
dream reveals o u r h i d d e n o p i n i o n of h i m . I f a patient
dreams of himself as a dilapidated house that is beyond
repair, this may, to be sure, be an expression of his hopelessness, b u t the m a i n question is what interest he has
i n presenting himself i n this way. Is this defeatist attitude desirable for h i m as the lesser evil? Is i t the expression of a vindictive reproach, at his o w n expense, reveali n g his feeling that something should have been done for
h i m earlier b u t that n o w i t is too late?
T h e second p r i n c i p l e to be m e n t i o n e d here is that a
dream is not understood u n t i l we can connect i t w i t h
the actual provocation

that stimulated i t . I t is n o t

enough, for instance, to recognize i n a dream derogatory

tendencies or v i n d i c t i v e impulses i n general. T h e quest i o n must always be raised as to the provocation to w h i c h
this dream was a response. I f this connection can be discovered we can learn a good deal as to the exact type of
experience that represents to us a threat or an offense,
and the unconscious reactions i t elicits.
A n o t h e r way of u n d e r t a k i n g self-analysis is less artificial than a one-sided concentration o n dreams b u t is,
as i t were, too presumptuous. A person's incentive to
face himself squarely usually comes f r o m a realization
that his happiness or efficiency is being hampered by a
certain outstanding disturbance, such as a r e c u r r i n g depression, chronic fatigue, chronic constipation of a func-

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tional character, general shyness, insomnia, a l i f e l o n g

i n h i b i t i o n t o w a r d concentrating o n w o r k . A n d he is
likely to attempt a frontal attack o n the disturbance as
such a n d set o u t o n something of a blitzkrieg. I n other
words, he may t r y to get at the unconscious determinants
of his predicament w i t h o u t k n o w i n g m u c h of a n y t h i n g
about his personality structure. T h e result, at best, w i l l
be that some sensible questions w i l l occur to his m m d .
I f his p a r t i c u l a r disturbance is an i n h i b i t i o n toward
w o r k , for example, he may ask himself whether he is too
ambitious, whether he is really interested i n the w o r k he
does, whether he regards the w o r k as a d u t y and secretly
rebels against i t . H e w i l l soon get stuck and resolve that
analysis does n o t help at a l l . B u t here the fault is his and
cannot be p u t at the doorstep of psychoanalysis. A blitzk r i e g is never a good m e t h o d i n psychological matters,
b u t a b l i t z k r i e g that is entirely unprepared is bad for
any purpose. T h i s w o u l d be one that has neglected any
previous r e c o n n o i t e r i n g of the t e r r i t o r y to be attacked.
I t is p a r t l y because ignoiance i n psychological matters
is s t i l l so great a n d so widespread that anyone could even
attempt such a dead-end short cut. H e r e is a human bei n g w i t h i n f i n i t e l y complex crosscurrents of strivings,
fears, defenses, illusions; his incapacity to concentrate
o n w o r k is one end result of the entirety of these factors.
A n d he believes he can eradicate i t by direct action, as
simply as he switches off an electric l i g h t l T o some extent
this expectation is based o n w i s h f u l t h i n k i n g : he w o u l d
l i k e to remove q u i c k l y the disability that disturbs h i m ;
and he likes to t h i n k that apart f r o m this outstanding

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Self-Analysis

disturbance everything is a l l r i g h t . H e does n o t l i k e t o

face the fact that an overt difficulty is merely an indicat i o n that something is basically w r o n g w i t h his r e l a t i o n
to himself and to others.
I t is i m p o r t a n t for h i m , certainly, to remove his m a n i fest disturbance, and certainly he should n o t p r e t e n d t o
be disinterested i n i t a n d artificially exclude i t f r o m his
t h i n k i n g . B u t he should keep i t i n the background of
his m i n d as an area to be explored eventually. H e must
k n o w himself very w e l l before he can glimpse the nature
of his concrete handicap. As he proceeds i n the accumul a t i o n of this knowledge he w i l l gradually assemble the
elements i n v o l v e d i n the disturbance, i f he is alert to the
implications of his

findings.

I n one way, however, the disturbances can be directly

studied, for m u c h can be learned by observing t h e i r vacillations. N o n e of these chronic difficulties is equally
strong all the time. T h e h o l d they have w i l l t i g h t e n
and lessen. A t the b e g i n n i n g the person w i l l be ignor a n t as to the conditions that account for these ups a n d
downs. Fie may even be convinced that there are n o
u n d e r l y i n g causes a n d believe t h a t such vacillations are
i n the " n a t u r e " of the disturbance. As a r u l e this belief
is a fallacy. I f he observes carefully he w i l l recognize a
factor here and a factor there that contributes to m a k i n g
the c o n d i t i o n better or worse. W h e n he has once gained
an i n k l i n g as to the nature of these c o n t r i b u t i n g factors
his capacity for f u r t h e r observation w i l l be sharpened
and thus he w i l l gradually o b t a i n a general p i c t u r e of
the relevant conditions.

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T h e upshot o f these considerations is the banal t r u t h

that i f you w a n t to analyze yourself you must n o t study
o n l y the highlights. You must take every o p p o r t u n i t y t o
become f a m i l i a r w i t h this stranger or acquaintance that
is yourself. T h i s , by the way, is n o t a figurative way of
speaking, for most people k n o w very l i t t l e about themselves, a n d o n l y gradually learn to what extent they have
l i v e d i n ignorance. I f y o u w a n t to k n o w N e w York you
do n o t merely look at i t f r o m the E m p i r e State B u i l d i n g . Y o u go t o the lower East Side; you stroll t h r o u g h
C e n t r a l Park; y o u take a boat around M a n h a t t a n ; you
r i d e o n a F i f t h Avenue bus; and a great deal more. Opp o r t u n i t i e s to become f a m i l i a r w i t h yourself w i l l offer
themselves, a n d you w i l l see t h e m , provided you really
w a n t to k n o w this queer fellow w h o lives your life. Y o u
w i l l t h e n be astonished to see that here you are i r r i t a t e d
for n o apparent reason, there y o u cannot make u p your
m i n d , here y o u were offensive w i t h o u t meaning to be,
here you mysteriously lost your appetite, there you had
an eating spell, here y o u c o u l d n o t b r i n g yourself to answer a letter, there you were suddenly afraid of noises
a r o u n d you w h e n alone, here you had a nightmare, there
you felt h u r t o r h u m i l i a t e d , here y o u c o u l d not ask for a
raise i n salary or express a c r i t i c a l o p i n i o n . A l l these infin i t e observations represent that many entrances to the u n f a m i l i a r g r o u n d that is yourself. Y o u start to w o n d e r
w h i c h here, too, is the b e g i n n i n g of a l l w i s d o m a n d by
means of free association you try to understand the meani n g of these emotional upsets.

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Observations, and the associations and questions they

arouse, are the raw material. B u t w o r k on them takes
time, as does every analysis. I n a professional analysis a
definite h o u r is set apart every day o r every other day.
T h i s arrangement is expedient b u t i t also has certain i n trinsic values. Patients w i t h m i l d neurotic trends can,
w i t h o u t disadvantage, see the analyst merely w h e n they
are i n trouble and w a n t to discuss their difficulties. B u t
i f a patient i n the clutches of a severe neurosis were advised to come o n l y when he really wanted to, he w o u l d
probably play hooky whenever he had strong subjective
reasons for n o t going o n , that is, whenever he developed
a "resistance." T h i s means that he w o u l d stay away when
actually he needed the most help and when the most constructive w o r k could be done. A n o t h e r reason for regu
iarity is the necessity to preserve some measure of cont i n u i t y , w h i c h is the very essence of any systematic w o r k .
B o t h reasons for r e g u l a r i t y t h e trickiness of resistances a n d the necessity t o m a i n t a i n c o n t i n u i t y a p p l y ,
of course, to self-analysis as well. B u t here I d o u b t
whether the observance of a regular h o u r w o u l d serve
these purposes. T h e differences between professional
analysis and self-analysis should n o t be m i n i m i z e d . I t is
m u c h easier for anyone to keep an a p p o i n t m e n t w i t h
an analyst than w i t h himself, because i n the former i n stance he has a greater interest i n keeping i t : he does not
w a n t to be i m p o l i t e ; he does n o t want to expose himself
to the reproach that he stayed away because of a "resistance"; he does n o t w a n t to lose the value that the h o u r

183

m i g h t have for h i m ; he does n o t want to pay for the t i m e

reserved f o i h i m w i t h o u t having utilized i t . These pressures are l a c k i n g i n self-analysis. A n y n u m b e r of things
that apparently or actually p e r m i t of n o delay w o u l d
interfere w i t h the time set apait for analysis.
A regular, predetermined t i m e f o r self-analysis is u n feasible also because of i n n e r reasonsand these q u i t e
apart from the subject of resistances. A person m i g h t
feel like t h i n k i n g about himself d u r i n g a spare half h o u r
before d i n n e r b u t resent i t as a nuisance at a prearranged
t i m e before he leaves for his office. O r he may n o t find
any t i m e d u r i n g the day b u t have the most i l l u m i n a t i n g
associations w h i l e t a k i n g a w a l k at n i g h t o r w h i l e falli n g asleep. I n this respect even the regular a p p o i n t m e n t
w i t h the analyst has certain drawbacks. T h e patient cann o t see the analyst whenever he feels a particular urge
or willingness to talk w i t h h i m , b u t must appear at the
analyst's office at the arranged t i m e even i f his zest to
express himself is d i m i n i s h e d . Because of external circumstances

this disadvantage can scarcely be

elimi-

nated, b u t there is n o good reason why i t should be projected i n t o self-analysis, where these ciicumstances are
n o t present.
S t i l l another objection to r i g i d regularity i n selfanalysis lies i n the fact that this process should n o t become a " d u t y . " T h e connotation of "have t o " w o u l d r o b
i t of its spontaneity, its most precious and most indispensable element. T h e r e is n o great h a r m done i f a
person forces himself to his daily exercises when he does
n o t feel l i k e t a k i n g them, b u t i n analysis listlessness

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w o u l d make h i m lame and u n p r o d u c t i v e . A g a i n , this

danger may exist also i n professional analysis, b u t there
i t can be overcome by the analyst's interest i n the patient
and by the very fact of the c o m m o n w o r k . I n self-analysis
a listlessness produced by overstressed regularity is n o t
so easily dealt w i t h , and i t may w e l l cause the whole u n dertaking to peter o u t .
T h u s i n analysis regularity of w o r k is n o t an end i n
itself b u t is rather a means that serves the two purposes
of preserving c o n t i n u i t y and combating resistances. T h e
p a t i e n t s resistances are n o t removed because he always
appears for his a p p o i n t m e n t at the analyst's office; his
c o m i n g merely enables the analyst to help h i m understand the factors at play. N o r is consistent p u n c t u a l i t y
any guarantee that he w i l l n o t j u m p f r o m one p r o b l e m
to another and gain only disconnected insights; i t is an
assurance of c o n t i n u i t y only for the w o r k i n general. I n
self-analysis, too, these requirements are essential, and
I shall discuss i n a later chapter how they can be fulfilled
i n a meaningful way. A l l that is i m p o r t a n t here is that
they do n o t demand a r i g i d schedule of appointments
w i t h oneself. I f a certain i r r e g u l a r i t y i n w o r k should
make a person shirk a p r o b l e m , i t w i l l catch u p w i t h
h i m . A n d even at the expense of t i m e i t is wiser to let i t
slide u n t i l he himself feels that he had better go after i t .
Self-analysis should r e m a i n a good f r i e n d to fall back
u p o n rather than a schoolmaster pushing us to make o u r
daily good marks. Needless to say, this w a r n i n g against
compulsive regularity docs n o t i m p l y t a k i n g things easy.
Just as a friendship must be cultivated i f we w a n t i t to

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be a m e a n i n g f u l factor i n o u r life, analytical w o r k at

ourselves can y i e l d its benefits only i f we take i t seriously.
F i n a l l y , n o matter how genuinely a person regards
self-analysis as a help toward self-development

rathei

than as a q u i c k panacea, there is no use i n his detei m i n i n g to pursue this w o r k consistently f r o m now u n t i l the
day lie dies. T h e r e vnU be periods i n w h i c h he works i n
tensely at a p r o b l e m , such as the one described i n the
n e x t chapter. B u t there w i l l be other periods i n which
the analytical w o r k at himself recedes i n t o the back
g r o u n d . Fie w i l l still observe one or another s t r i k i n g
reaction and t r y to understand i t , thus c o n t i n u i n g the
process of self-recognition, b u t i n distinctly diminished
intensity. H e may be absorbed i n personal w o r k or in
g r o u p activities; he may be engaged i n a battle w i t h external hardships; he may be concentrated on establishi n g one or another relationship; he may simply feel less
harassed by his psychic troubles. A t these times the mere
process of l i v i n g is more i m p o r t a n t than analysis, and
i t contributes i n its own way to his development.
T h e m e t h o d i n self-analysis is no different from that
i n w o r k w i t h an analyst, the technique being iree associations. T h i s procedure was f u l l y discussed i n Chapter
Four, and certain aspects p a r t i c u l a r l y relevant to selfanalysis w i l l be added i n Chapter N i n e . Whereas i n
w o r k i n g w i t h an analyst the patient reports

whatever

comes i n t o his m i n d , i n w o r k i n g alone he begins by

merely t a k i n g note of his associations. Whether he only
notes them m e n t a l l y or writes t h e m d o w n is a matter of

186

Systematic

individual

Self-Analysis

preference.

Some people

can

concentrate

better when they w r i t e ; others find t h e i r a t t e n t i o n distracted by w r i t i n g . I n the extensive example cited i n
Chapter E i g h t some chains of associations were w r i t t e n ,
some were merely noticed and p u t d o w n o n paper afterward.
T h e r e are u n d o u b t e d l y certain advantages i n w r i t i n g d o w n one's associations. For one t h i n g , almost everyone w i l l find that his thoughts do n o t wander off o n a
tangent so easily i f he makes i t a r u l e to p u t d o w n a short
note, a catchword, of every association. A t any rate he
w i l l notice the w a n d e r i n g more q u i c k l y . I t may be, too,
that the temptation to skip a t h o u g h t or feeling as i r relevant is lessened w h e n i t is all d o w n o n paper. B u t the
greatest advantage of w r i t i n g is that i t affords the possib i l i t y of going over the notes afterward. Frequently a
person w i l l miss the significance of a connection at first
sight, b u t w i l l notice i t later w h e n he lets his m i n d dwell
o n his notes. Findings or unanswered questions that are
n o t w e l l entrenched are often forgotten, and a r e t u r n to
them may revive them. O r he may see the o l d

findings

i n a different l i g h t . O r he may discover that he has made

no noticeable headway, b u t is essentially still at the same
p o i n t where he was several months ago. These two latter reasons make i t advisable to j o t d o w n findings, and
the m a i n paths leading u p to them, even though they
may have been arrived at w i t h o u t t a k i n g notes.

The

m a i n difficulty i n w r i t i n g , the fact that thoughts are

quicker than the pen, can be remedied by p u t t i n g d o w n
o n l y catchwords.

i8y

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

I f most of the w o r k is done i n w r i t i n g a comparison

w i t h diary-keeping is almost unavoidable, and an elabo r a t i o n of this comparison may serve also to h i g h l i g h t
certain characteristics of analytical w o r k . T h e similari t y w i t h a d i a r y suggests itself particularly i f the latter
is n o t a simple r e p o r t of factual occurrences b u t is w r i t ten w i t h the f u r t h e r i n t e n t i o n of t r u t h f u l l y recording
one's emotional experiences and motivations. B u t there
are significant differences. A diary, at its very best, is an
honest recording of conscious feelings, thoughts, and
motivations. T h e revealing character i t may have concerns e m o t i o n a l experiences u n k n o w n to the outside
w o r l d rather t h a n experiences u n k n o w n to the w r i t e r
himself. W h e n Rousseau, i n his Confessions,

boasted of

his honesty i n exposing his masochistic experiences, he

d i d n o t uncover any fact of w h i c h he himself was u n aware; he merely reported something that is usually kept
secret. F u r t h e r m o r e , i n a diary, i f there is any search for
motivations, this does n o t reach beyond one or anothei
loose surmise that carries l i t t l e i f any weight. Usually n o
attempt is made to penetrate beneath the conscious level.
Culbertson, for instance, i n The Strange
Man,

Lives

f r a n k l y reported his i r r i t a t i o n a n d

of

One

moodiness

toward his w i f e b u t gave n o h i n t as to possible reasons.

These remarks do n o t i m p l y a criticism of diaries or
autobiographies. T h e y have their value, b u t they are i n trinsically different f r o m an e x p l o r a t i o n of self. N o one
can produce a narrative about himself and at the same
t i m e let his m i n d r u n i n free associations.
T h e r e is s t i l l another difference w h i c h i t is of practical

188

Systematic

Self-Analysis

importance to m e n t i o n : a diary often glances w i t h one

eye toward a f u t u r e reader, whether that reader be the
w r i t e r at a f u t u r e t i m e o r a wider audience. A n y such
side glance at posterity, however, inevitably

detracts

f r o m pristine honesty. Deliberately or inadvertently the

w r i t e r is b o u n d , then, to do some retouching. H e w i l l
o m i t certain factors entirely, m i n i m i z e his shortcomings
o r blame t h e m o n others, protect other people f r o m exposure. T h e same w i l l happen w h e n he writes d o w n his
associations i f he takes the least s q u i n t at an a d m i r i n g
audience or at the idea of creating a masterpiece of
u n i q u e value. H e w i l l then c o m m i t a l l those sins that
u n d e r m i n e the value of free associations. Whatever

he

sets d o w n o n paper should serve one purpose only, that

of recognizing himself.

189

C H A P T E R

E I C H T

Systematic Self-Analysis of a
Morbid Dependency

N o a m o u n t of description, regardless of h o w carefully

i t is presented, can convey an adequate impression of exactly what is i n v o l v e d i n the process of reaching an u n derstanding of oneself. Therefore instead of discussing
this process i n detail I shall present an extensive example
of self-analysis. I t deals w i t h a woman's m o r b i d dependency on a m a n , a p r o b l e m w h i c h for many reasons is frequent i n our civilization.
T h e situation described w o u l d be interesting enough
i f i t were regarded merely as a c o m m o n f e m i n i n e problem. B u t its importance extends beyond the f e m i n i n e
sphere. A n i n v o l u n t a r y and i n a deeper sense unwarranted dependency u p o n another person is a p r o b l e m
k n o w n to nearly everyone. M o s t of us deal w i t h one o r
another aspect of i t at one or another p e r i o d of o u r lives,
IpO

A Morbid

Dependency

often recognizing its existence as l i t t l e as Clare d i d w h e n

she started her analysis, and screening i t instead b e h i n d
such exquisite terms as " l o v e " or " l o y a l t y . " T h i s dependency is so frequent because i t seems to be a convenient and p r o m i s i n g s o l u t i o n for many troubles we a l l
have. I t puts grave obstacles, however, i n the way of o u r
becoming mature, strong, independent people; and its
promise of happiness is mostly

fictitious.

Therefore a

d e l v i n g i n t o some of its unconscious implications may

be interesting and h e l p f u l , even apart f r o m the question
of self-analysis, to anyone w h o regards self-reliance and
good relationships w i t h others as desirable goals.
T h e woman w h o tackled this p r o b l e m by herself is
Clare, who has k i n d l y allowed me to p u b l i s h the story
of her progress. H e r background and analytical developm e n t have already been o u t l i n e d , and thus I can dispense w i t h many explanatory remarks that w o u l d otherwise be necessary.
B u t the m a i n reason for selecting this report is neither
the intrinsic interest of the p r o b l e m i t presents n o r o u r
knowledge of the person i n v o l v e d . N o r does this piece o i
analysis excel i n b r i l l i a n c e or completeness. T h e reason
is rather that w i t h all its blunders and deficiencies the
report shows clearly how a p r o b l e m was gradually recognized and solved; even the blunders a n d deficiencies are
sufficiently clear for discussion and sufficiently typical to
make i t possible to learn f r o m them. I t need hardly be
emphasized that the process illustrated by this example
is essentially the same i n the analysis of any other neurotic t r e n d .
igi

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

The report could not well be published i n its original

form. On the one hand i t has had to be elaborated, because i t consists mostly of catchwords. On the other hand
it has been abbreviated. For the sake of conciseness I
have omitted those parts that are merely repetitious.
Also, I have selected only that part of the report which
is best rounded and which has a direct bearing on the
problem of dependency, and have left out the earlier
analytical endeavors to tackle the difficulties i n the relationship, because they all ended i n blind alleys. I t
would have been interesting to follow these futile attempts too, but it would not have added enough addi
tional factors to justify the increased space required
Moreover, I have made only brief notes about the peri
ods of resistance. I n other words, the presentation on the
whole deals only with the highlights of this particular
analytical development.
Each aspect of the analysis, after a summary description, w i l l be discussed. In these discussions several questions will be borne particularly i n mind. What is the
meaning of the findings? Which factors did Clare fail to
see at the time? What are the reasons for her failure to
see them?
After several months of not very productive efforts at
self-analysis Clare awoke one Sunday morning with an
intense irritation at an author who had failed to keep his
promise to send an article for the magazine she edited.
This was the second time he had left her i n the lurch. J*
was intolerable that people should be so unreliable.

192

A Morbid

Dependency

Soon after i t struck her that her anger was o u t of prop o r t i o n . T h e whole matter was scarcely of sufficient i m portance to wake her u p at five i n the m o r n i n g . T h e
mere recognition of a discrepancy between anger and alleged provocation made her see the real reason for the
anger. T h e real reason also concerned u n r e l i a b i l i t y , b u t
i n a matter more close to her heart. H e r f r i e n d Peter,
w h o had been out of t o w n on business, had n o t r e t u r n e d
for the week end as he had promised. T o be exact, he
had n o t given a definite promise, b u t he had said that he
w o u l d probably be back by Saturday, H e was never defin i t e i n anything, she t o l d herself; he always aroused her
hopes and then disappointed her. T h e fatigue she had
felt the n i g h t before, w h i c h she had a t t r i b u t e d to havi n g w o r k e d too hard, must have been a reaction to her
disappointment. She had canceled a d i n n e r i n v i t a t i o n
because she had hoped for an evening w i t h Peter, and
then, when he d i d n o t show u p , she had gone to a movie
instead. She could never make any engagements because
Peter hated to make definite dates i n advance. T h e result was that she left as many evenings free as she possibly
could, always h a r b o r i n g the disquieting thought, w o u l d
he or w o u l d n ' t he be w i t h her?
W h i l e t h i n k i n g of this situation t w o memories

oc-

c u r r e d to her simultaneously. One was an i n c i d e n t that

her f r i e n d Eileen had t o l d her years before. Eileen, duri n g a passionate b u t rather unhappy relationship w i t h a
man, had fallen seriously i l l w i t h pneumonia.

When

she recovered f r o m the fever she f o u n d to her surprise

that her feelings for the m a n had died. H e t r i e d to con-

193

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

t i n u e the relationship, b u t he n o longer meant anything

to her. Clare's other m e m o r y concerned a particular
scene i n a novel, a scene that had deeply impressed her
w h e n she was adolescent. T h e first husband of the novel's
heroine r e t u r n e d f r o m war, expecting to find his wife
overjoyed at his r e t u r n . A c t u a l l y the marriage had been
t o r n by conflicts. D u r i n g the husband's absence the wife's
feelings had changed. She d i d n o t look forward to his
coming. H e had become a stranger to her. A l l she felt
was i n d i g n a t i o n that he c o u l d be so presumptuous as to
expect love just because he chose to want heras i f she
and her feelings d i d n o t count at a l l . Clare co uld n o t
help realizing that these two associations pointed to a
wish to be able to break away f r o m Peter, a wish that she
referred to the momentary anger. B u t , she argued, 1
w o u l d never do i t because I love h i m too m u c h . W i t h
that t h o u g h t she fell asleep again.
Clare made a correct i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of her anger when
she saw i t as caused by Peter rather than by the author,
and her i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the t w o associations was also
r i g h t . B u t despite this correctness the interpretations, as
i t were, lacked depth. T h e r e was n o feeling whatever for
the force of the resentment she harbored against Peter.
Consequently she regarded the whole outburst as only
a transient grievance, and thus discarded m u c h too
l i g h t l y the wish to tear loose f r o m h i m . Retrospectively
i t is clear that at that t i m e she was far too dependent on
Peter to dare to recognize either the resentment or the
wish for separation. B u t she had n o t the slightest aware
ness of any dependency. She ascribed the apparent ease

194

A Morbid

Dependency

w i t h w h i c h she overcame the anger to her " l o v e " f o r her

f r i e n d . T h i s is a good example of the fact that one w i l l
get no more o u t of associations than one can stand at
the time, even though, as i n this instance, they speak an
almost unmistakable language.
Clare's basic resistance against the i m p o r t of her asso
ciations explains why she d i d n o t raise certain questions
that they suggested. I t is significant, for example, that
both of them, w h i l e c o n n o t i n g i n a general way a wish
to break off, indicated a very special f o r m of breaking
off: i n both instances the woman's feelings faded o u t
w h i l e the m a n s t i l l wanted her. As we shall see later o n ,
this was the only e n d i n g of a p a i n f u l relationship that
Clare c o u l d visualize. T o break away f r o m Peter o n her
o w n i n i t i a t i v e was u n t h i n k a b l e because of her dependency u p o n h i m . T h e idea that he c o u l d break away f r o m
her w o u l d have aroused sheer panic, though there are
good reasons to infer that she felt deep d o w n that he d i d
n o t really w a n t her w h i l e she h u n g o n to h i m . H e r anxiety o n this score was so deep that i t took her considerable t i m e to realize the mere fact that she was afraid. I t
was so great that even w h e n she discovered her fear of
desertion she s t i l l closed her eyes to the rather obvious
fact that Peter wanted a separation. I n t h i n k i n g of incidents i n w h i c h the w o m a n herself was i n a position to
reject the man Clare revealed n o t o n l y a w i s h to be free
b u t also a desire f o r revenge, b o t h deeply b u r i e d and
b o t h referring to a bondage w h i c h was itself unrecognized.
A n o t h e r question that she d i d n o t raise was w h y the

*95

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

anger at Peter took a whole n i g h t to penetrate to awareness, and why, even then, i t first concealed its true mean
i n g by transferring itself to the author. T h e repression
of her resentment is a l l the more s t r i k i n g as she was f u l l y
aware of her disappointment at Peters staying away.
Moreover, o n such an occasion resentment w o u l d cert a i n l y have been a natural reaction, a n d i t was n o t i n her
character never to allow herself to be angry at anyone;
she often was angry at people, though i t was characteristic of her to shift anger f r o m its real source to t r i v i a l
matters. B u t to raise this question, w h i l e apparently only
a r o u t i n e matter, w o u l d have meant to broach the subject of why the relationship w i t h Peter was so precarious
that any disturbance of i t had to be shut o u t of awareness.
A f t e r Clare had thus managed to shake off the whole
p r o b l e m f r o m her conscious m i n d she fell asleep again
a n d had a dream. She was i n a foreign city; the people
spoke a language that she d i d n o t understand; she lost
her way, this feeling of b e i n g lost emerging very dist i n c t l y ; she had left all her money i n the luggage deposited at the station. T h e n she was at a fair; there was
something u n r e a l about i t b u t she recognized g a m b l i n g
stands and a freak show; she was r i d i n g o n a merry-gor o u n d w h i c h t u r n e d a r o u n d m o r e and more q u i c k l y so
that she became afraid, b u t she c o u l d n o t j u m p off. T h e n
she was d r i f t i n g o n waves, a n d she woke up w i t h a m i x e d
feeling of abandon a n d anxiety.
T h e first p a r t of the dream r e m i n d e d her of an experi-

ip6

A Morbid

Dependency

ence she had had i n adolescence. She had been i n a

strange city; had forgotten the name of her hotel a n d
had felt lost, as i n the dream. Also i t came back to her
that the n i g h t before, w h e n r e t u r n i n g home f r o m the
movie, she had felt similarly lost.
T h e g a m b l i n g stands and the freak show she associated w i t h her earlier t h o u g h t about Peter m a k i n g promises and n o t keeping t h e m . Such places, too, make fantastic promises and there, too, one is usually cheated. I n
a d d i t i o n , she regarded the freak show as an expression
of her anger at Peter: he was a freak.
W h a t really startled her i n the dream was the depth
of the feeling of b e i n g lost. She immediately explained
away her impressions, however, by t e l l i n g herself that
these expressions of anger and of feeling lost were b u t
exaggerated reactions to her disappointment, and that
dreams express feelings i n a grotesque way anyhow.
I t is true that the dream translated Clare's problems
i n t o grotesque terms, b u t i t d i d n o t exaggerate the i n tensity of her feeling. A n d even i f i t had constituted a
gross exaggeration i t w o u l d n o t have been sufficient
merely to dismiss i t o n that score. I f there is an exaggerat i o n i t has to be examined. W h a t is the tendency that
prompts it? Is i t i n reality n o t an exaggeration b u t an
adequate response to an emotional experience, the meani n g and intensity of w h i c h are beyond awareness? D i d
the experience mean something q u i t e different o n the
conscious and unconscious levels?
J u d g i n g f r o m Clare's subsequent development, the
latter question was the p e r t i n e n t one i n this instance.

zp7

S E L F

A N A L Y S I S

Clare actually felt just as miserable, as lost, as resentful

as the dream and the earlier associations indicated. B u t
since she still c l u n g to the idea of a close love relationship this realization was unacceptable

to her. For the

same reason she i g n o i e d that part of the dream about

having left a l l her money i n the luggage at the station.
T h i s was probably a condensed expression of a feeling
that she had invested a l l she had i n Peter, the station
symbolizing Peter and also c o n n o t i n g something transitory and indifferent as opposed to the permanence and
security of home. A n d Clare disregarded another striki n g emotional factor i n the dream when she d i d n o t
bother to account for its ending w i t h anxiety. N o r d i d
she make any attempts to understand the dream as a
whole. She contented herself w i t h superficial explanations of this and that element, and thus learned from i t
n o more than she knew anyhow. I f she had probed more
deeply she m i g h t have seen the m a i n theme of the dream
as this: I feel helpless and lost; Peter is a great disapp o i n t m e n t ; m y life is like a merry-go-round and I can't
j u m p off; there is no solution b u t d r i f t i n g ; b u t d r i f t i n g
is dangerous.
W e cannot discard emotional experiences, however, as
easily as we can discard thoughts unconnected w i t h o u r
feelings. A n d i t is q u i t e possible that Clare's emotional
experiences of anger and particularly of feeling lost,
despite her blatant failure to understand them, lingered
o n i n her m i n d and were instrumental i n her pursuing
the path of analysis she subsequently embarked upon.

ip8

A Morbid

Dependency

T h e next piece of analysis still remains under the headi n g of resistance. W h i l e Clare was oroinsr over her asso
ciations the next day another memory occurred to her i n
connection w i t h the " f o r e i g n c i t y " of the dream. Once
when she was i n a foreign city she had lost her way to
the station; since she d i d n o t k n o w the language she
could not ask directions and thus she missed her t r a i n .
As she thought of this incident i t occurred to her that
she had behaved i n a silly manner. She m i g h t have
bought a dictionary, or she m i g h t have gone i n t o any
great hotel and asked the porter. B u t apparently

she

had been too t i m i d and too helpless to ask. T h e n i t suddenly struck her that this very t i m i d i t y had played a part
also i n the disappointment w i t h Peter. Instead of expressing her wish to have h i m back for the week end she
had actually encouraged h i m to see a f r i e n d i n the country so that he could have some rest.
A n early memory emerged of her d o l l E m i l y , w h o m
she loved most tenderly. E m i l y had o n l y one flaw: she
had o n l y a cheap w i g . Clare deeply wanted for her a w i g
of real hair, w h i c h c o u l d be combed and braided. She
often stood beiore a toy shop and looked at dolls w i t h
real hair. One day she was w i t h her mother i n the toyshop, and the mother, who was generous i n g i v i n g presents, asked her whether she w o u l d like to have a w i g
w i t h real hair. B u t Clare declined. T h e w i g was expensive and she knew that the mother was short of money.
A n d she never got i t , a memory w h i c h even n o w moved
her almost to tears.

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

She was disappointed to realize that she had still n o t

overcome her reluctance i n expressing her wishes, despite the w o r k o n this p r o b l e m d u r i n g the course of her
analytical treatment, b u t at the same time she felt tremendously relieved. T h i s r e m a i n i n g t i m i d i t y appeared
to be the s o l u t i o n to her distress of the previous days.
She merely had to be more frank w i t h Peter and let h i m
know her wishes.
Clare's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n illustrates how an only partially
accurate analysis can miss the essential p o i n t and b l u r
the issue involved. I t also demonstrates that a feeling of
relief does n o t i n itself prove that the solution f o u n d is
the real one. H e r e the relief resulted f r o m the fact that
by h i t t i n g u p o n a pseudo solution Clare succeeded, temporarily, i n c i r c u m v e n t i n g the crucial problem. I f she
had n o t been unconsciously determined to find an easy
way o u t of her disturbance she w o u l d probably have
paid more a t t e n t i o n to the association.
T h e memory was n o t just one more example of her
lack of assertiveness. I t clearly indicated a compulsion
to give first importance to her mother's needs i n order
to avoid becoming the object of even a vague resentment. T h e same tendency applied to the present situa
t i o n . T o be sure, she had been too t i m i d i n expressing
her wish, b u t this i n h i b i t i o n arose less from t i m i d i t y
than f r o m unconscious design. T h e f r i e n d , f r o m all I
gather, was an aloof person, hypersensitive to any demands u p o n h i m . A t that time Clare was not f u l l y aware
of this fact, b u t she sensed i t sufficiently to h o l d back any
direct wishes concerning his t i m e , just as she refrained
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A Morbid

Dependency

f r o m ever m e n t i o n i n g the possibility of marriage, though

she often thought of i t . I f she had asked h i m to be back
for the week end he w o u l d have complied, b u t w i t h resentment. Clare c o u l d n o t have recognized this fact, however, w i t h o u t a d a w n i n g realization of the l i m i t a t i o n s
w i t h i n Peter, and this was s t i l l impossible f o r her. She
preferred to see p r i m a r i l y her o w n share i n the matter,
and to see that part of i t which she felt confident of overcoming. I t should be remembered, too, that i t was an o l d
pattern of Clare's to preserve a difficult relationship by
taking a l l blame o n herself. T h i s was essentially the way
i n w h i c h she had dealt w i t h her mother.
T h e result of Clare's a t t r i b u t i n g the whole distress to
her o w n t i m i d i t y was that she l o s t a t least consciously
h e r resentment toward Peter, and looked f o r w a r d to
seeing h i m again. T h i s happened the next evening. B u t
a new disappointment was i n store for her. Peter not
only was late for the appointment b u t looked t i r e d and
d i d not express any spontaneous j o y at seeing her. As a
result she became self-conscious. l i e was q u i c k to notice
her freezing u p and, as was apparently his habit, he took
the offensive, asking her whether she had been angry at
his n o t c o m i n g home for the week end. She answered
w i t h a weak denial b u t o n f u r t h e r pressure a d m i t t e d
that she had resented i t . She could n o t tell h i m of the
pathetic effort she had made n o t to resent i t . H e scolded
her for being childish and for considering only her o w n
wishes. Clare was miserable.
I n the m o r n i n g paper a notice about a shipwreck
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S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

b r o u g h t back to her that part of her dream i n w h i c h

she had d r i f t e d on waves. W h e n she had time to t h i n k
about this dream fragment four associations occurred to
her. One was a fantasy of a shipwreck i n which she was
d r i f t i n g on the water. She was i n danger of d r o w n i n g
when a strong man p u t his arms a r o u n d her and saved
her. W i t h h i m she had a feeling of belonging, and of
never-ending protection. H e w o u l d always hold her i n
his arms and never, nevei leave her. T h e second associa
t i o n concerned a novel which ended on a similar toue.
A g i r l w h o had gone t h r o u g h disastrous experiences w i t h
a n u m b e r of men finally met the man she could love and
upon whose devotion she c o u l d rely.
T h e n she remembered a fragment of a dream that she
had had at the t i m e she became familiar w i t h Bruce, the
older w r i t e r who had encouraged her and irnplicitlv
promised to be her mentor. I n that dream she and Bruce
walked together, hand i n hand. H e was like a hero or a
demigod, and she was overwhelmed by happiness. T o be
singled o u t by this man was l i k e an indescribable grace
and blessing. W h e n recalling this dream Clare smiled
for she had b l i n d l y overrated Bruce's brilliance and only
later had seen his narrow and r i g i d i n h i b i t i o n s .
T h i s memory made her recall another fantasy, or
rather a frequent daydream, w h i c h she had almost forgotten though it had played q u i t e a role at college, before the t i m e of her crush on Bruce. I t circled around
the figure of a great man, endowed w i t h superior i n t e l l i gence, wisdom, prominence, and wealth. A n d this great
m a n made advances to her because beneath her incon202

A Morbid

Dependency

spicuous exterior he had sensed her great potentialities.

H e knew that i f given a good break she c o u l d be beauti
f u l a n d achieve great things. H e devoted a l l his t i m e and
energy to her development. H e d i d n o t merely spoil her
by g i v i n g her b e a u t i f u l garments and an attractive home.
She had to w o r k hard under his guidance, n o t only at
becoming a great w r i t e r b u t also at c u l t i v a t i n g m i n d and
body. T h u s he made a b e a u t i f u l swan o u t of an ugly
d u c k l i n g . I t was a k i n d of Pygmalion fantasy, created
from the p o i n t of view of the g i r l to be developed. Besides having to w o r k at herself she had to be devoted to
her master exclusively.
Clare's first i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of this series of associations
was that they expressed a wish for an everlasting love.
H e r comment was that this is what every w o m a n wants.
She recognized, however, that this wish was enhanced at
the present time because Peter d i d n o t give her a feeling
of security and permanent love.
W i t h these associations Clare actually touched rock
b o t t o m , b u t w i t h o u t becoming aware of i t . T h e special
characteristics of the " l o v e " that she craved she saw only
later o n . Otherwise the most significant part of the interpretation is the statement that Peter d i d n o t give her what
she wanted. I t is made casually, as i f she had k n o w n i t a l l
the time, b u t actually i t was her first conscious realizat i o n of any deep dissatisfaction w i t h the relationship.
I t seems reasonable to speculate whether this apparently sudden realization was a result of the analytical
w o r k o n the previous days. O f course the t w o recent disappointments had t h e i r share i n i t . B u t similar disap-

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pointments had occurred previously w i t h o u t Clare's arr i v i n g at such an insight. T h e fact that i n the w o r k done
u p to this p o i n t she had consciously missed all the essent i a l factors w o u l d n o t invalidate such an assumption, because despite these failures t w o things d i d happen. I n
the first place, she had a strong emotional experience i n
the lost feeling that occurred i n conjunction w i t h the
dream of the foreign city. I n the second place, her associations, w h i l e at no p o i n t leading to a conscious clarification,

nevertheless moved w i t h i n an incieasingly nar-

r o w circle a r o u n d the crucial p r o b l e m , and showed a

degree of transparency that is usually present only when
a person is close to an insight. W e may wonder whether
the mere fact of having such thoughts and feelings as
emerged i n Clare d u r i n g this p e r i o d helped to b r i n g cert a i n factors i n t o sharper focus, even though they still
remained beneath the conscious level. T h e premise und e r l y i n g this speculation w o u l d be that n o t only the conscious facing of problems counts, b u t also every step
taken f o r w a r d toward this goal.
O n the f o l l o w i n g days, however, i n going over the last
associations mentioned, Clare noticed more details. I t
struck her that i n the first two associations of this series
the man appeared as a savior. One m a n rescued her f r o m
d r o w n i n g ; the m a n i n the novel offered the g i r l a refuge
f r o m abuse a n d b r u t a l i t y . Bruce and the great m a n of
her daydream, w h i l e n o t saving her f r o m any danger,
also played a protective role. As she observed this repetitious m o t i f of saving, shielding, sheltering, she realized
that she craved n o t only " l o v e " b u t also protection. She

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also saw that one of the values Peter had for her was his
willingness and a b i l i t y to give advice and to console her
when she was i n distress, A fact occurred to her i n this
context that she had k n o w n for q u i t e a w h i l e h e r defenselessness when under attack or pressure. W e had discussed i t together as one part of her having to take second
place. She saw now that i t produced, i n t u r n , a need for
somebody to protect her. Finally, she realized that her
l o n g i n g for love or marriage had always increased rather
acutely whenever life became difficult.
I n thus recognizing that a need for protection was an
essential element i n her love life Clare took a great step
ahead. T h e range of demands that this apparently harmless need embraced, and the role i t played, became clear
only m u c h later. I t may be interesting to compare this
first insight i n t o a p r o b l e m w i t h the last one reported
i n regard to the same p r o b l e m , the insight concerning
her "private r e l i g i o n . " T h e comparison reveals a happening frequent i n psychoanalytical w o r k . A p r o b l e m is
first seen i n its barest o u t l i n e . One does n o t recognize
m u c h beyond the fact that i t exists. Later one returns to
the same p r o b l e m w i t h a m u c h deeper understanding
of its meaning. T h e feeling w o u l d be unwarranted i n
such a case that the later finding is n o t new, that one
has k n o w n i t a l l along. One has n o t k n o w n i t , at least
n o t consciously, b u t the way for its emergence has been
prepared.
Despite a certain superficiality this first insight struck
the i n i t i a l blow at Clare's dependency. B u t w h i l e she
glimpsed her need for protection she d i d n o t yet realize

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Y S I

its nature, and thus she could not draw the conclusion
that this was one of the essential factors i n her problem.
She also ignored all the material i n the daydream of the
great man. material i n d i c a t i n g that the man she loved
was expected to f u l f i l l many more functions than mere
protection.
T h e next report to be discussed is dated six weeks
later. T h e notes Clare made w i t h i n those weeks do not
c o n t r i b u t e any new analytical material b u t they contain
certain p e r t i n e n t self-observations.

These concern

her

i n a b i l i t y to be alone. She had n o t been aware of this i n h i b i t i o n before, because she had arranged her life i n such
a way as to avoid any periods of solitude. She observed
n o w that when she was by herself she became restless or
fatigued. T h i n g s she was capable of enjoying otherwise
lost t h e i r meaning when she t r i e d to enjoy them alone.
She could w o r k m u c h better i n the office, when others
were a r o u n d , than at home, though the w o r k was of the
same k i n d .
D u r i n o r this t i m e she neither t r i e d to understand these
o

observations n o r made any effort to follow up her latest

finding. I n view of the incisive importance of that finding her failure to pursue i t any further is certainly striking. I f we consider i t i n connection w i t h the reluctance
she had previously shown to scrutinize her relationship
w i t h Peter, we are justified i n assuming that w i t h her
latest discovery Clare came closer to realizing her dependency than she c o u l d stand at the t i m e and therefore stopped her analytical endeavors.

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T h e provocation to resume her w o r k was a sudden

sharp swing of m o o d that occurred one evening w i t h
Peter. H e had given her an unexpected present, a pretty
scarf, and she was overjoyed. B u t later she felt suddenly
t i l e d and became f r i g i d . T h e depressed feeling occurred
after she had embarked o n the question of summer
plans. She was enthusiastic about the plans, b u t Peter
was listless. H e explained his reaction by saying that he
d i d n ' t l i k e to make plans anyhow.
T h e next m o r n i n g she remembered a dream fragment.
She saw a large b i r d flying away, a b i r d of most glorious
colors and most b e a u t i f u l movements. I t became smaller
and smaller u n t i l i t vanished. T h e n she awoke w i t h
anxiety and a sensation of falling. W h i l e she was still
waking u p a phrase occurred to h e r " t h e b i r d has
flown"which

she knew at once expressed a fear of los-

i n g Peter. Certain later associations confirmed this i n t u i tive interpretation: someone had once called Peter a b i r d
that never settled d o w n ; Peter was good l o o k i n g and a
good dancer; the beauty of the b i r d had something unreal; a memory of Bruce, w h o m she had endowed w i t h
qualities he d i d n o t possess; a wonder whether she glori
fled Peter, too; a song f r o m Sunday school, i n w h i c h
Jesus is asked to take H i s c h i l d r e n under H i s w i n g .
T h u s the fear of losing Peter was expressed i n t w o
ways: by the b i r d flying away, and by the idea of a b i r d
that had taken her under its wings and d i o p p e d her. T h e
latter thought was suggested not only by the song b u t also
by the sensation of f a l l i n g that she had o n awakening. I n
the symbol of Jesus t a k i n g H i s c h i l d r e n under H i s w i n g
20J

S E L F

A N A L Y S I S

the theme of the need for protection is resumed. I n view

of later developments i t appears by n o means accidental
that the symbol is a religious one.
Clare d i d n o t delve i n t o the suggestion that she glorified Peter. B u t the very fact that she saw this possibility
is noteworthy. I t may have paved die way for her d a r i n g
to take a good look at h i m some t i m e later.
T h e m a i n theme of her interpretations, however
the fear of losing Peternot o n l y was recognized as an
inevitable conclusion to be d r a w n f r o m the dream b u t
was deeply felt as true and i m p o r t a n t . T h a t i t was an
emotional experience as w e l l as an intellectual recognit i o n of a crucial factor was evident i n the fact that a n u m ber of reactions h i t h e r t o n o t understood became suddenly transparent. First she saw that on the previous
n i g h t she had not merely been disappointed i n Peter's
reluctance to talk about a common vacation. H i s lack
of zest had aroused a dread that he w o u l d desert her,
and this dread had caused her fatigue and f r i g i d i t y and
had been the provocation for the dream. A n d many other
comparable situations became s i m i l a r l y i l l u m i n a t e d . A l l
kinds of instances emerged i n w h i c h she had felt h u r t ,
disappointed, i r r i t a t e d , o r i n w h i c h , as o n the preceding
day, she had become t i r e d or depressed apparently for
no <xood reason. She realized that all these reactions
sprang f r o m the same source, regardless of what other
factors m i g h t have been involved. I f Peter was late, i f he
d i d not telephone, i f he was preoccupied w i t h other matters than herself, i f he was w i t h d r a w n , i f he was tense or
i r r i t a t e d , i f he was n o t sexually interested i n heralways

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the same dread of desertion was touched off. Furthermore, she understood that the explosions of i r r i t a t i o n
that sometimes occurred w h e n she was w i t h Peter re
suited n o t f r o m t r i v i a l dissensions or, as he usually accused her, f r o m her desire to have her o w n way, b u t f r o m
this same dread. T h e anger was attached to such t r i v i a l
matters as different opinions about a movie, i r r i t a t i o n at
having to w a i t for h i m , and the like, b u t actually i t was
produced by her fear of losing h i m . A n d , conversely, she
was overjoyed when she received an unexpected present
f r o m h i m because to a large extent i t meant a sudden
relief f r o m this fear.
Finally, she l i n k e d u p the fear of desertion w i t h the
empty feeling that she had when she was alone, b u t w i t h o u t a r r i v i n g at any conclusive understanding of the connection. Was the fear of desertion so great because she
dreaded to be alone? O r d i d solitude, for her, i m p l i c i t l y
mean desertion?
T h i s part of the analysis strikingly illustrates the
astonishing fact that a person can be entirely unaware of
a fear that actually is all consuming. T h a t Clare now
recognized her fear, and saw the disturbances i t created
i n her relationship w i t h Peter, meant a definite step
ahead. T h e r e are t w o connections between this insight
and her preceding one concerning her need for protect i o n . Both findings show to what extent the whole rela
tionship was pervaded w i t h fears. A n d , more specifically,
the fear of desertion was i n part a consequence of the
need for protection: i f Peter was expected to protect her
f r o m life and its dangers she c o u l d n o t afford to lose h i m .

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Clare was s t i l l far f r o m understanding the nature of

the fear of desertion. She was still unaware that what
she regarded as deep love was l i t t l e , i f anything, more
than a n e u r o t i c dependency and therefore she c o u l d not
possibly recognize that the fear was based o n this dependency. T h e loose questions that occurred to her i n
this context, regarding her incapacity to be alone, were
more p e r t i n e n t than she realized, as w i l l be seen later.
B u t since this whole p r o b l e m was hazy, because there
were still too many u n k n o w n factors involved, she was
not even capable of m a k i n g accurate observations o n
this score.
Clare's analysis of her elation at receiving the scarf
was accurate as far as i t went. U n d o u b t e d l y one important element i n her feeling overjoyed was that the act of
friendliness allayed her fear for the t i m e being. T h a t
she d i d n o t consider the other elements involved can
scarcely be a t t r i b u t e d to a resistance. She saw only the
particular aspect that was related to the p r o b l e m o n
w h i c h she was then w o r k i n g , her fear of desertion.
I t was about a week later that Clare perceived the
other elements i n v o l v e d i n her elation at the gift. She
was n o t usually given to c r y i n g i n movies b u t o n this
particular evening tears came to her eyes when a g i r l
who was i n a wretched c o n d i t i o n met w i t h

unexpected

help and friendliness. She r i d i c u l e d herself for being

sentimental b u t this d i d n o t stop the tears, and afterw a r d she felt a need to account for her behavior. She
first t h o u g h t of the possibility that an unconscious u n 2IO

A Morbid

Dependency

happiness of her o w n m i g h t have expressed itself i n cryi n g about the movie. A n d , of course, she d i d find reasons
for unhappiness. Yet her associations along this l i n e of
thought led nowhere. I t was only the n e x t m o r n i n g that
she suddenly saw the issue: the c r y i n g had occurred n o t
when the g i r l i n the movie was badly off b u t w h e n her
situation took an unexpected t u r n for the better. She
realized then what she had overlooked the previous day
t h a t she always c r i e d at such occasions.
H e r associations then fell i n line. She remembered
that i n her c h i l d h o o d she always cried when she reached
the p o i n t where the fairy godmother heaps unexpected
presents o n Cinderella. T h e n her joy at receiving the
scarf came back to her. T h e n e x t memory concerned an
i n c i d e n t that had occurred d u r i n g her marriage. H e r
husband usually gave her only the presents due at Christmas or on birthdays, b u t once an i m p o r t a n t business
f r i e n d of his was i n towm and the two men w e n t w i t h her
to a dressmaker to help her select a dress. She c o u l d n o t
make u p her m i n d w h i c h of two dresses to choose. T h e
husband then made a generous gesture a n d suggested
that she take b o t h garments. T h o u g h she knew that this
gesture was made n o t altogether for her sake, b u t also
i n order to impress the business f r i e n d , she nevertheless was i n o r d i n a t e l y happy about i t a n d cherished these
particular dresses m o r e t h a n others. F i n a l l y , two aspects
of the daydream of the great m a n occurred to her. One
was the scene i n w h i c h , to her complete surprise, he
singled her o u t for his favors. T h e other concerned a l l
the presents he gave her, incidents that she had t o l d her211

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

self i n great detail: the trips he suggested, the hotels he

chose, the gowns he b r o u g h t home, the invitations to
l u x u r i o u s restaurants. She never had to ask for anything.
She felt q u i t e taken aback, almost l i k e a c r i m i n a l who
is confronted w i t h o v e r w h e l m i n g evidence. T h i s was
her " l o v e " ! She remembered a f r i e n d , a sworn bachelor,
saying that woman's love is merely a screen for exploiti n g men. She also recalled her f r i e n d Susan who had
greatly astonished her by saying that she thought the
usual flood of talk about love was disgusting. Love, said
Susan, was o n l y an honest deal i n which each partner
d i d his share to create a good companionship. Clare had
been shocked at what she regarded as cynicism: Susan
was too h a r d boiled i n denying the existence and the
value of feelings. B u t she herself, she now realized, had
naively mistaken for love something that largely consisted of expectations that tangible and intangible gifts
w o u l d be presented to her o n a silver platter. H e r love
was at b o t t o m n o more than a sponging on somebody
else!
T h i s was certainly an entirely unexpected insight, b u t
despite the p a i n f u l surprise at herself she soon felt
greatly relieved. She felt, and r i g h t l y , that she had really
uncovered her share i n what made her love relationships
difficult.
Clare was so overwhelmed by the discovery she had
made that she q u i t e forgot the i n c i d e n t f r o m w h i c h she
had started, the c r y i n g i n the movie. B u t she r e t u r n e d
to i t the n e x t day. T h e tears expressed an overwhelming
b e w i l d e r m e n t at the t h o u g h t of a sudden f u l f i l l m e n t of
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most secret a n d most ardent wishes, a f u l f i l l m e n t of

something one has w a i t e d for a l l one's life, something
rhat one has never dared to believe w o u l d come true.
W i t h i n the next couple of weeks Clare f o l l o w e d u p
her insight i n several directions. I n glancing over her
latest series of associations i t struck her that i n almost all
the incidents the emphasis was o n help or gifts that came
unexpectedly. She felt that at least one clue for this lay
i n the last r e m a r k she had w r i t t e n about the daydream,
w h i c h was that she never had to ask for a n y t h i n g . H e r e
she came i n t o t e r r i t o r y that was f a m i l i a r to her t h r o u g h
the previous analytic w o r k . Since she had f o r m e r l y
tended to repress her o w n wishes, a n d was s t i l l i n h i b i t e d
to some extent f r o m expressing t h e m , she needed somebody w h o wished for her, or w h o guessed her secret
wishes arid f u l f i l l e d t h e m w i t h o u t her h a v i n g to do anyt h i n g about them herself.
A n o t h e r tack she pursued concerned the reverse side
of the receptive, sponging a t t i t u d e . She realized that she
herself gave very l i t t l e . T h u s she expected Peter to be
always interested i n her troubles or interests b u t d i d
n o t actively participate i n his. She expected h i m to be
tender and affectionate b u t was n o t very demonstrative
herself. She responded b u t left the i n i t i a t i v e to h i m .
O n another day she r e t u r n e d once more to her notes
concerning the evening i n w h i c h her mood had swung
f r o m elation to depression, a n d she saw the possibility
of another factor that m i g h t have been i n v o l v e d i n that
fatigue. She wondered whether the latter m i g h t have
resulted n o t o n l y f r o m the anxiety that had been aroused
2I

b u t also f r o m a repressed anger for the frustration of

her wishes. I f that were so her wishes could not be q u i t e
so harmless as she had assumed, for they must then contain some a d m i x t u r e of an insistence that they be comp l i e d w i t h . She left this an open question.
T h i s piece of analysis had an immediately favorable i n fluence

u p o n the relationship w i t h Peter. She became

more active i n sharing his interests and i n considering

his wishes, and ceased being merely receptive. Also, the
sudden eruptions of i r r i t a t i o n stopped entirely. I t is
hard to say whether her demands upon h i m relented,
t h o u g h i t w o u l d be reasonable to assume that they d i d
to a moderate degree.
T h i s t i m e Glare faced her

finding

so squarely that

there is almost n o t h i n g to add. I t is noteworthy, though,

that the same material had presented itself six weeks before, when the daydream of the great m a n first emerged.
A t that t i m e the need to h o l d o n to the fiction of " l o v e "
was s t i l l so stringent that she c o u l d do no more t h a n
a d m i t that her love was tinged w i t h a need for protect i o n . Even i n that admission she c o u l d conceive of the
need for p r o t e c t i o n only as a factor reinforcing her
"love." Nevertheless, as m e n t i o n e d before, that early i n sight constituted the first attack o n her dependency. T h e
discovery of the degree of fear i n her love was the second
step. A f u r t h e r step was the question she raised as to
whether she overrated Peter, even though the question
remained unanswered. A n d o n l y after she had w o r k e d
that far t h r o u g h the fog c o u l d she finally see that her
love was by n o means unadulterated. O n l y n o w c o u l d

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she stand the d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t of recognizing that she

had mistaken for love her a b u n d a n t expectations a n d
demands. She d i d n o t yet take the last step of realizing
the dependency that resulted f r o m her expectations.
Otherwise, however, this fragment of analysis is a good
example of what i t means to follow up an insight. Clare
saw that her expectations of others were largely engendered by her o w n i n h i b i t i o n s t o w a r d w i s h i n g or d o i n g
a n y t h i n g for herself. She saw that her sponging a t t i t u d e
i m p a i r e d her capacity to give a n y t h i n g i n r e t u r n . A n d
she recognized her tendency to feel offended i f her expectations were rejected or frustrated.
Actually Clare's expectations were m a i n l y i n reference
to i n t a n g i b l e things. Despite apparent evidence to the
contrary, she was n o t essentially a greedy person. 1 w o u l d
even say that the receiving of presents was o n l y a symbol
for less concrete b u t more i m p o r t a n t expectations. She
demanded to be cared for i n such a way that she should
not have to make u p her m i n d as to what is r i g h t or
w r o n g , should n o t have to take the i n i t i a t i v e , should
not have to be responsible for herself, should n o t have
to solve external difficulties.
Some weeks passed i n w h i c h , o n the whole, her relationship w i t h Peter was smoother. T h e y had

finally

planned a t r i p together. T h r o u g h his l o n g indecision

he had spoiled for her most of the joy of a n t i c i p a t i o n ,
though when everything was settled she d i d lo o k forward
to the holiday. B u t a few days before they were to leave
he t o l d her that business was too precarious just t h e n to

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allow h i m to leave t o w n for any length of time. Clare

was first enraged and then desperate, and Peter scolded
her for b e i n g unreasonable. She tended to accept the reproach and t r i e d to convince herself that he was r i g h t .
W h e n she calmed d o w n she suggested that she go alone
to a resort that w as only a three-hour drive from the city;
T

Peter c o u l d then j o i n her whenever his time allowed.

Peter d i d n o t openly refuse this arrangement, b u t after
some h e m m i n g a n d h a w i n g he said that he w o u l d have
been very glad t o agree to i t i f she were able to take
things more reasonably, b u t since she reacted so violently
to every disappointment, and since he was n o t master of
his t i m e , he ioresaw only frictions f o r t h c o m i n g and felt
i t better for her to make her plans w i t h o u t h i m . T h i s
again threw her i n t o despair. T h e evening ended w i t h
Peter consoling her and p r o m i s i n g to go away w i t h her
for ten days at the end of the vacation. Clare felt reassurred. I n w a r d l y agreeing w i t h Peter, she decided to
take things m o r e easily and t o be content w i t h what he
c o u l d give her.
T h e next day, w h i l e t r y i n g to analyze her first reaction
of rage, she had three associations. T h e first was a memory of b e i n g teased, w h e n she was a c h i l d , for p l a y i n g
the m a r t y r role. B u t this memory, which had often recurred to her, appeared n o w i n a new light. She had
never before examined whether the others were wronsr
o

i n teasing her i n this way. She h a d taken i t merely as a

fact. N o w f o r the first t i m e i t dawned o n her that they
were n o t r i g h t , that she actually h a d been discriminated

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Dependency

against, that by teasing her they had added i n s u l t t o i n jury.

T h e n another memory occurred to her f r o m the t i m e
w h e n she was five or six. She used to play w i t h her
brother a n d his playmates, a n d one day they t o l d her
that i n a certain meadow, near where they played, robbers l i v e d i n a h i d d e n cave. She believed i t completely
a n d always t r e m b l e d w h e n she went near that meadow.
T h e n one day they had r i d i c u l e d her for having fallen
for their story.
F i n a l l y she t h o u g h t of her dream of the foreign city,
the part i n w h i c h she had seen the freak show a n d the
g a m b l i n g stands. A n d now she realized that these symbols expressed more t h a n a transient anger. She saw for
the first t i m e that there was something phony, something
fraudulent i n Peter. N o t i n the sense of any deliberate
swindle. B u t he c o u l d n o t help playing the role of one
w h o was always r i g h t , always superior, always generous
a n d he had feet of clay. H e was wrapped u p i n h i m self, and w h e n he yielded to her wishes i t was n o t because of love and generosity b u t because of his o w n weakness. Finally, i n his dealing w i t h her there was m u c h
subtle cruelty.
O n l y now d i d she recognize that her reaction the
previous n i g h t was p r i m a r i l y due n o t to the disappointm e n t b u t to the callousness w i t h w h i c h he had disregarded her feelings. T h e r e had been no tenderness, n o
regret, no sympathy w h e n he broke to her the news of
having to stay i n t o w n . I t was only toward the end of the
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evening, w h e n she cried b i t t e r l y , that he t u r n e d affectionate. I n the meantime he had made her bear the
b r u n t of the distress. H e had impressed o n her that
everything was her fault. H e had acted i n exactly the
same w ay as her mother and b r o t h e i had acted i n her
r

c h i l d h o o d , first stepping o n her feelings and then maki n g her feel g u i l t y . I n c i d e n t a l l y , i t is interesting to see
here how the meaning of a fragment became clearer because she had picked u p her courage to rebel, and how
this elucidation of the past i n t u r n helped her to become
more straight i n the present.
Clare then recalled any n u m b e r of incidents i n which
Peter had made i m p l i c i t or e x p l i c i t promises and had
n o t kept them. Moreover, she realized that this behavior
showed itself also i n more i m p o r t a n t and more intangible ways. She saw that Peter had created i n her the i l l u sion of a deep a n d everlasting love, and yet was anxious
to keep himself apart. I t was as i f he had intoxicated
himself and h e w i t h the idea of love. A n d she had fallen
r

for i t , as she had fallen for the story of the robbers.

F i n a l l y Clare recalled the associations she had had
beiore that early dream: thoughts of her friend Eileen,
whose love faded o u t d u r i n g the illness, and the novel i n
w h i c h the heroine felt estranged from her husband.
These thoughts too, she realized now, had a much more
serious connotation than she had assumed. Something
w i t h i n her seriously wanted to break away horn Peter.
T h o u g h she was n o t happy about this insight she nevertheless felt relieved. She felt as i f a spell had been broken.
I n f o l l o w i n g u p her insight Clare began to wonder

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A Morbid

Dependency

w h y i t had taken her such a l o n g t i m e to obtain a clear

p i c t u r e of Peter. Once these traits i n h i m were recognized they appeared so conspicuous to her t h a t i t was
h a r d to overlook t h e m . She saw t h e n that she had a
strong interest i n n o t seeing t h e m : n o t h i n g should prevent her f r o m seeing i n Peter the realization of the great
m a n of her daydream. Also she saw for the first t i m e the
whole parade of figures w h o m she had hero-worshiped
i n a similar way. T h e parade started w i t h her mother,
w h o m she had idolized. T h e n Bruce had followed, a type
i n many ways s i m i l a r to Peter. A n d the daydream man,
and many others. T h e dream of the glorious b i r d n o w
definitely crystallized as a symbol for her glorification
of Peter. Always, because of her expectations, she had
hitched her wagon to a star. A n d a l l the stars had proved
to be candles.
T h e impression m i g h t prevail here that this discovery
of Clare's was no discovery at a l l . H a d she not realized
l o n g ago that Peter promised more t h a n he kept? Yes,
she had seen i t some months before, b u t she had neither
taken i t seriously n o r appreciated the whole extent of
Peter's u n r e l i a b i l i t y . A t that t i m e her t h o u g h t had been
p r e d o m i n a n t l y an expression of her o w n anger at h i m ;
now i t had crystallized to an o p i n i o n , a j u d g m e n t . Moreover, she d i d n o t then see the a d m i x t u r e of sadism beh i n d his faade of righteousness

and generosity.

She

c o u l d not possibly have arrived at this clear vision as

l o n g as she b l i n d l y expected h i m to f u l f i l l a l l her needs.
H e r realization that she had fantastic expectations, a n d
her willingness to p u t the relationship o n a give-and2Ip

S F, L

- A

N A J L Y S I S

take basis, had made her so m u c h stronger that she c o u l d

n o w daie to face his weakness a n d thus shake the pillars
o n w h i c h the relationship rested.
A good characteristic of the course that Clare had
adopted i n her analysis was the fact that she first searched
w i t h i n herself for the sources of her troubles, and only
after that w o r k had proceeded looked i n t o Peter's share
i n them. O r i g i n a l l y her self-examination was an attempt
to find an easy clue w i t h w h i c h to solve the difficulties
of the relationship, b u t i t led her eventually to some i m portant insights i n t o herself. Anyone i n analysis must
learn to understand n o t only himself b u t also the others
who are a part of his life, b u t i t is safer to start w i t h h i m self. As l o n g as he is entangled i n his conflicts the picture
he w i l l gain of the others w i l l usually be a distorted one.
F r o m the data about Peter that Clare assembled i n
the course of her entire analytical w o r k I gather that her
analysis of his personality was essentially correct. Nevertheless she still missed the one i m p o r t a n t p o i n t : that
Peter, for whatever reasons of his o w n , was determined
to break away f r o m her. O f course, the assurances of
love w h i c h he apparently never failed to give her must
have befogged her j u d g m e n t . O n the other hand, this
explanation is n o t q u i t e sufficient, because i t leaves open
two questions: w h y her effort to reach a clear picture o i
h i m stopped where i t d i d ; and w h y she c o u l d visualize
-though n o t p u t i n t o effectthe

desirability of her

breaking away f r o m Peter, b u t closed her eyes to the

possibility of his breaking away f r o m her.
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Dependency

As a result of this r e m a i n i n g tie Clare's wish to break

off remained short l i v e d . She was unhappy w h i l e she was
away f r o m h i m and as soon as he j o i n e d her she succumbed to his charm. Also, she s t i l l c o u l d n o t stand the
prospect of being alone. T h u s the relationship w e n t o n .
She expected less of h i m and was more resigned. B u t her
life s t i l l centered a r o u n d h i m .
T h i e e weeks later she woke u p w i t h the name Margaret Brooks o n her lips. She d i d n o t k n o w whether she
had dreamed of her b u t she knew the meaning i m m e d i ately. Margaret was a m a r r i e d f r i e n d w h o m she had n o t
seen for years. She had been p i t i f u l l y dependent o n her
husband despite the fact that he ruthlessly t r a m p l e d o n
her d i g n i t y . H e neglected her and made sarcastic remarks about her i n f r o n t of others; he had mistresses
a n d brought one of t h e m i n t o t h e i r home. Margaret had
often complained to Clare i n her spells of despair. B u t
she always became reconciled and believed that hers
w o u l d still t u r n o u t to be the best of husbands. Clare
had been staggered at such a dependency and had felt
contemptuous of Margaret's lack of pride. Nevertheless,
her advice to Margaret dealt exclusively w i t h means of
keeping the husband or of w i n n i n g h i m back. She had
j o i n e d her f r i e n d i n the hope that a l l w o u l d be fine i n
the end. Clare knew that the man was n o t w o r t h i t , b u t
since Margaret loved h i m so m u c h this seemed the best
attitude to adopt. N o w Clare t h o u g h t h o w stun i d she
had been. She should have encouraged Margaret to leave
him.
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S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

B u t i t was n o t this former a t t i t u d e toward her f r i e n d s

situation that upset her now. W h a t startled her was the
s i m i l a r i t y between herself and Margaret, which

had

struck her immediately u p o n awakening. She had never

t h o u g h t of herself as dependent. A n d w i t h f r i g h t e n i n g
clarity she realized that she was i n the same boat. She,
too, had lost her d i g n i t y i n c l i n g i n g to a m a n w h o d i d
not really want her and whose value she doubted. She
saw that she was b o u n d to Peter w i t h ties of overwhelmi n g strength, that life w i t h o u t h i m was meaningless,
beyond i m a g i n a t i o n . Social life, music, w o r k , career, nat u r e n o t h i n g mattered w i t h o u t h i m . H e r m o o d depended o n h i m ; t h i n k i n g about h i m absorbed her time
and energies. N o matter h o w he behaved she s t i l l ret u r n e d to h i m , as the cat is said to r e t u r n to the house i t
l i v e d i n . D u r i n g the next days she lived i n a daze. T h e
insight had n o r e l i e v i n g effect. I t merely made her feel
the chains a l l the more p a i n f u l l y .
W h e n she had recovered some degr ee of poise she
w o r k e d t h r o u g h certain implications of her finding. She
grasped more deeply the meaning of her fear of desert i o n : i t was because her ties were essential to her that
she had such a deep fear of t h e i r dissolution, and this
fear was b o u n d to persist as l o n g as the dependency persisted. She saw that she had n o t only hero-worshiped her
mother, Bruce, and her husband, b u t had been dependent u p o n t h e m , just as she was u p o n Peter. She realized
that she c o u l d never hope to achieve any decent selfesteem as l o n g as injuries to her d i g n i t y meant n o t h i n g
compared w i t h the fear of losing Peter. Finally, she
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Dependency

understood that this dependency of hers must be a threat

and a b u r d e n to Peter, too; this latter insight made for
a sharp d r o p i n her hostility toward h i m .
H e r recognition of the extent to w h i c h this dependency had spoiled her relations w i t h people made her take
a definite stand against i t . T h i s t i m e she d i d n o t even
resolve to cut the k n o t by separation. She knew, i n the
first place, that she c o u l d n o t do i t , b u t also she felt that
having seen the p r o b l e m she c o u l d w o r k i t o u t w i t h i n
the relationship w i t h Peter. She convinced herself that
after a l l there were values i n the relationship w h i c h
should be preserved and cultivated. She felt q u i t e capable of p u t t i n g i t o n a sounder basis. T h u s i n the following m o n t h , i n a d d i t i o n to her analytical w o r k , she made
real efforts to respect Peter's need for distance and to
cope w i t h her own affairs i n a more independent fashion.
T h e r e is no d o u b t that i n this piece of analysis Clare
made an i m p o r t a n t advance. Indeed, she had discovered,
q u i t e by herself, a second neurotic t r e n d t h e first bei n g her compulsive modestyand a t r e n d that she d i d
n o t i n the least suspect of existing. She recognized its
compulsive character and the h a r m i t d i d to her love life.
She d i d not yet see, however, how i t cramped her life i n
general, and she was far f r o m recognizing its formidable strength. T h u s she overrated the freedom she had
gained. I n this she succumbed

to the c o m m o n self-

deception that to recognize a p r o b l e m is to solve i t . T h e

solution of carrying o n w i t h Peter was actually o n l y a
compromise. She was w i l l i n g to m o d i f y the t r e n d to some
extent b u t n o t yet w i l l i n g to r e l i n q u i s h i t . T h i s was also
22J

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

the reason why, despite her clearer picture of Peter, she

still underrated his l i m i t a t i o n s , w h i c h , as w i l l be seen
presently, were m u c h greater a n d m u c h more r i g i d than
she believed. She also underrated his s t r i v i n g away f r o m
her. She saw i t , b u t hoped that by a change i n her att i t u d e toward h i m she c o u l d w i n h i m back.
Some weeks later she heard that someone had spread
slanderous remarks about her. I t d i d n o t upset her consciously b u t led to a dream i n w h i c h she saw a tower
standing i n an immense desert; the tower ended i n a
simple p l a t f o r m , w i t h o u t any r a i l i n g a r o u n d i t , a n d a
figure stood at the edge. She awoke w i t h a m i l d anxiety
T h e desert left her w i t h an impression of something
desolate a n d dangeious.

A n d i t r e m i n d e d her of an

anxiety dream i n w h i c h she had walked o n a bridge that

was broken o i l i n the m i d d l e . T h e figure o n the tower
meant to her merely a symbol of loneliness, w h i c h she
actually felt, since Peter was away for some weeks. T h e n
the phrase " t w o o n an i s l a n d " occurred to her. I t brought
back fantasies she occasionally had of being alone w i t h
a beloved man i n a rustic cabin i n the mountains or at
the seashore. T h u s at first the dream meant to her merely
an expression of her l o n g i n g for Peter a n d of her feeling
alone w i t h o u t h i m . She also saw that this feeling had
been increased by the r e p o r t she had heard o n the previous day, that is, she recognized that the slanderous remarks must have made her apprehensive and enhanced
her need for p r o t e c t i o n .

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Dependency

I n going over her associations she wondered w h y she

had n o t p a i d any a t t e n t i o n to the tower i n the dream.
A n image occurred to her, w h i c h came to her m i n d occasionally, of herself standing o n a c o l u m n i n the midst
of a swampland; arras a n d tentacles arising f r o m the
swamp reached o u t for her as i f they wanted to drag her
d o w n . N o t h i n g m o r e happened i n this fantasy; there
was o n l y this picture. She had never p a i d m u c h a t t e n t i o n
to i t , and had seen o n l y its most obvious c o n n o t a t i o n : a
fear of being dragged d o w n i n t o something d i r t y and
nasty. T h e slanderous remarks must have revived this
fear. B u t she saw suddenly another aspect of the p i c t u r e ,
that of p u t t i n g herself above others. T h e dream of the
tower had this aspect, too. T h e w o r l d was a r i d a n d desolate, b u t she towered above i t . T h e dangers of the w o r l d
c o u l d n o t reach her.
T h u s she i n t e r p r e t e d the dream as m e a n i n g that she
had felt h u m i l i a t e d by the slanderous remarks a n d had
taken refuge i n a rather arrogant a t t i t u d e ; that the isolated height u p o n w h i c h she thus placed herself was
f r i g h t e n i n g because she was m u c h too insecure to stand
i t ; that she had to have somebody to support her o n this
height and became panicky because there was nobody
o n w h o m she c o u l d lean. She recognized almost instantaneously the broader i m p l i c a t i o n of this finding. W h a t
she had seen h i t h e r t o was that she needed somebody to
support a n d protect her because she herself was defenseless and unassertive. N o w she realized that she w o u l d occasionally swing t o the other extreme, haughtiness, a n d
22$

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

that i n such situations she had to have a protector just

as m u c h as she d i d w h e n she effaced herself. She was
greatly relieved because she felt that she had glimpsed
a new vista of ties fastening her to Peter, and thereby
new possibilities of dissolving t h e m .
I n this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n Clare d i d i n fact recognize another reason w h y she needed emotional support. T h e r e
are good reasons w h y she had never seen this aspect of
the p r o b l e m . T h e whole area i n her personality that
consisted of arrogance, contempt for people, need to excel, need to t r i u m p h , was s t i l l so deeply repressed that
as yet i t had been i l l u m i n a t e d o n l y by flashes of insight.
Even before she h a d star ted her analysis she had had occasional realizations of her need to despise people, of
her great elation at any success, of the role a m b i t i o n
played i n her daydreams, a n d i t was a fleeting insight of
this k i n d that she had now. B u t this whole problem was
s t i l l so deeply b u r i e d that its manifestations could
scarcely be understood. I t was as i f a shaft leading i n t o
the depths was suddenly l i t u p , a n d soon after obliterated by darkness. T h u s another i m p l i c a t i o n of this series
of associations remained inaccessible. T h e picture of extreme solitude as presented i n the tower i n the desert
referred n o t o n l y to her feeling alone w i t h o u t Peter, b u t
to her isolation i n general. T h e subversive arrogance was
one of the factors responsible for i t , as w e l l as r e s u l t i n g
f r o m i t . A n d fastening herself to one p e r s o n " t w o o n
an island"was a way of escaping f r o m such isolation
w i t h o u t h a v i n g to straighten o u t her relations w i t h
people i n general.

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Dependency

Clare believed that she c o u l d n o w cope w i t h Peter i n

a better way, b u t soon afterward a double b l o w came
w h i c h b r o u g h t her problems

to a climax. First she

learned i n d i r e c t l y that he was h a v i n g or h a d h a d an affair w i t h another w o m a n . She had barely received that
shock when Peter wrote to her that i t w o u l d be better for
both of t h e m i f they separated. Clare's first reaction was
t o thank heaven that this had n o t occurred earlier. N o w ,
she thought, she c o u l d stand i t
T h e first reaction was a m i x t u r e of t r u t h a n d selfdeception. T h e t r u t h i n i t was that a few months before
she probably c o u l d n o t have endured the stress w i t h o u t
grave i n j u r y to herself; i n the months to come she n o t
o n l y proved that she c o u l d stand i t , b u t came closer to
a solution of the whole p r o b l e m . B u t this first matterof-fact reaction apparently resulted also f r o m the fact
that she d i d n o t let the b l o w penetrate beneath a defensive armor. W h e n i t d i d penetrate, w i t h i n the n e x t
few days, she was t h r o w n i n t o a t u r m o i l of w i l d despair.
She was too deeply

upset to analyze her reaction,

w h i c h is understandable. W h e n a house is o n fire one

does n o t reflect o n causes and effects b u t tries to get o u t
Clare recorded t w o weeks later that for a few days the
idea of suicide kept r e c u r r i n g to her, t h o u g h i t never
assumed the character of a serious i n t e n t i o n . She q u i c k l y
became aware of the fact that she was merely p l a y i n g
a r o u n d w i t h the idea, and she then faced herself squarely
w i t h the question whether she wanted to die or t o l i v e .
She definitely d i d w a n t to live. B u t i f she d i d n o t w a n t
t o live as a w i l t i n g flower she n o t o n l y had to r i d herself
22J

of her l o n g i n g for Peter, and the feeling that her life

was smashed to pieces by losing h i m , b u t also to overcome radically her whole p r o b l e m of compulsive dependency.
As soon as the issue was thus clear i n her m i n d a
struggle set i n of unexpected intensity. I t was only n o w
that she felt the u n m i t i g a t e d power of her need to merge
w i t h another person. T h e r e was n o more f o o l i n g a r o u n d
w i t h the persuasion that i t was " l o v e " : she realized i t
was l i k e a d r u g addiction. She saw w i t h perfect clarity
that she had o n l y the t w o alternatives of succumbing to
the dependency, and finding another " p a r t n e r , " or overc o m i n g i t altogether. B u t c o u l d she overcome it? A n d
was life w o r t h l i v i n g w i t h o u t it? She tried frantically
and pathetically to persuade herself that after a l l life
offered her many good things. D i d she n o t have a nice
home? C o u l d she n o t find satisfaction i n work? D i d she
n o t have friends? C o u l d she n o t enjoy music a n d nature?
I t d i d n o t w o r k . I t a l l seemed as unappealing and i r relevant as the intermission i n a concert. A n intermission was a l l r i g h t o n e m a r k e d t i m e as pleasantly as possible u n t i l the music started a g a i n b u t no one w o u l d
w a n t t o go merely to the intermission. I t struck her o n l y
fleetingly

that this reasoning was thoroughly inapplica-

ble. T h e feeling prevailed that any real change was bey o n d her strength.
F i n a l l y a t h o u g h t occurred t o her w h i c h despite its
p r o f o u n d s i m p l i c i t y b r o u g h t a t u r n for the better. I t was
the o l d w i s d o m that often an " I can't" is an " I w o n ' t . "
Perhaps she simply d i d n o t w a n t t o p u t her life o n a differ-

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Dependency

ent basis? Perhaps she actively refused to t u r n to anyt h i n g else i n life, l i k e a c h i l d w h o refuses to eat a n y t h i n g
i f he does n o t get apple pie? Since she had recognized
her dependency

she had merely seen t h a t her b e i n g

caught hand and foot i n the one relationship had so

sapped her energies that n o t h i n g was left for anybody
else. N o w she realized that i t was more t h a n a mere
drainage of interests. She herself rejected a n d devaluated everything she d i d on her o w n , or w i t h anybody
b u t the "beloved." T h u s i t dawned o n her, for the first
t i m e , how deeply she was caught i n a circle: her devaluat i o n of everything outside the one relationship necessarily made the partner i n that relationship a l l i m p o r tant; and this u n i q u e importance i n t u r n alienated her
more widely f r o m herself a n d others. T h i s d a w n i n g i n sight, w h i c h later proved to be r i g h t , startled her and encouraged her. I f forces were operating wdthin herself
w h i c h prevented her f r o m becoming free f r o m captivity,
then perhaps she c o u l d do something about her bondage.
T h i s p e r i o d of i n n e r t u r m o i l thus ended w i t h Clare's
o b t a i n i n g a new lease o n life a n d a renewed incentive
to w o r k at the p r o b l e m . B u t here a n u m b e r of questions
arise. W h a t about the value of the foregoing analytical
w o r k i f the loss of Peter c o u l d still upset her as deeply as
i t did? T w o considerations have a bearing o n this question.
One is the insufficiency of the previous w o r k . Clare
had recognized the fact that she was compulsively dependent, a n d had seen certain implications of this condi-

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t i o n . B a t she was far f r o m reaching a real grasp o n the

p r o b l e m . I f one doubts the value of the w o r k accomplished one makes m u c h the same mistake that Clare
herself made d u r i n g the whole period before the climax,
u n d e r r a t i n g the i m p o r t of the particular neurotic trend
and therefore expecting too q u i c k and too easy results.
T h e other consideration is that o n the whole the final
upheaval was itself of a constructive nature. I t represented the c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t of a line of development
that runs f r o m a complete ignorance of the problem i n volved, a n d the most vigorous unconscious attempts to
deny its existence, to a final f u l l realization of its severity.
T h e c l i m a x b r o u g h t i t home to her that her dependency
was l i k e a cancerous g r o w t h w h i c h cannot be kept w i t h i n
safe boundaries (compromises) b u t must be eradicated
lest one's l i f e be gravely jeopardized. U n d e r the pressure
of the acute distress Clare succeeded, too, i n b r i n g i n g
i n t o sharp conscious focus a conflict w h i c h had h i t h e r t o
been unconscious. She had been entirely unaware of bei n g t o r n between w a n t i n g to r e l i n q u i s h her dependency
o n another person and w a n t i n g to continue i t . T h i s conflict had been camouflaged by her compromise solutions
w i t h Peter. N o w she had faced i t , and was able to take a
clear stand as to the d i r e c t i o n i n w h i c h she wanted to go.
I n this regard the phase she was n o w going t h r o u g h i l lustrates a fact m e n t i o n e d i n a previous chapter, that at
certain periods i n analysis i t is necessary to take a stand,
to make a decision. A n d i t must be reckoned as an
achievement i f t h r o u g h the analytical w o r k a conflict ha<*
sufficiently crystallized for the patient to be able to do

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Dependency

this. I n Clare's case the issue, of course, was whether or

n o t she w o u l d immediately t r y to replace the lost p i l l a r
w i t h a new one.
N a t u r a l l y i t is upsetting to face a p r o b l e m i n that u n compromising way. A n d here a second question comes
i n . D i d Clares experience produce a greater danger of
suicide than i t w o u l d have w i t h o u t analysis? For a consideration of this question i t is relevant that she had i n dulged i n suicidal notions at previous times. She had
never, however, been able to terminate t h e m so decisively as she d i d this t i m e . Formerly they had simply
faded o u t of the picture because something " n i c e " happened. N o w she refuted t h e m actively, consciously, and
w i t h a constructive spirit. Also, as m e n t i o n e d above, her
first reaction of gratefulness that Peter h a d n o t w i t h d r a w n earlier was i n part a genuine feeling that she was
now more capable of coping w i t h his desertion. I t seems
safe to assume, therefore, that the suicidal

tendencies

w o u l d have been stronger and more persistent w i t h o u t

the analytical w ork that was done.
r

A final question is whether Clare w o u l d have recognized the f u l l severity of her entanglement w i t h o u t the
external pressure exerted by Peters breaking away f i o m
her. I t m i g h t be t h o u g h t that Clare, having passed
t h r o u g h the development that occurred before the separ a t i o n , could n o t possibly have stopped permanently at
an essentially untenable compromise s o l u t i o n , b u t w o u l d
have gone on sooner or later. O n the other hand, the
forces opposing her final l i b e r a t i o n had great strength,
and she m i g h t s t i l l have gone to considerable lengths to

31

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

make f u r t h e r compromises. T h i s w o u l d be an idle specul a t i o n n o t w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g i f i t d i d n o t touch u p o n an

a t t i t u d e t o w a r d analysis n o t i n f r e q u e n t among analysts
as w e l l as patients. T h i s a t t i t u d e is an assumption that
analysis alone is able to solve everything. B u t w h e n treatm e n t is endowed w i t h such omnipotence i t is forgotten
that life itself is the best therapist. W h a t analysis can do
is to make one able to accept the help that life offers,
and to profit f r o m i t . A n d i t had done exactly this j o b
i n C l a r e s case. I t is probable that w i t h o u t the analytical
w o r k that she accomplished she w o u l d have reached o u t
for a new partner as soon as possible, and thus perpetuated the same pattern of experience. T h e i m p o r t a n t
p o i n t is n o t whether she c o u l d have freed herself w i t h o u t outside h e l p b u t whether, when that help came, she
was able to t u r n i t i n t o a constructive experience. A n d
this she d i d .
As to the content of Clare's findings i n this period,
the most i m p o r t a n t one was the discovery of an active
defiance against l i v i n g her o w n life, feeling her o w n feelings, t h i n k i n g her own thoughts, having her own i n terests and plans, i n short against being herself and findi n g the center of gravity w i t h i n herself. I n contrast to
her other findings, this one was merely an emotional i n sight. She d i d n o t arrive at i t by wav of free association,
and there were no facts to substantiate i t . N o r d i d she
have any i n k l i n g of the nature of the opposing forces;
she merely felt t h e i r existence. Retrospectively we can
understand w h y she c o u l d hardly have gone any further
at that p o i n t . H e r s i t u a t i o n was comparable to that of a

232

A Morbid

Dependency

person w h o is d r i v e n f r o m his h o m e l a n d a n d confronted

w i t h the task of p u t t i n g his whole life on a new basis.
Clare had to make a fundamental change i n her a t t i t u d e
toward herself a n d i n her relations w i t h others. Natu r a l l y she was bewildered by the c o m p l e x i t y of this
prospect. B u t the m a i n reason for the blockage was that,
despite her d e t e r m i n a t i o n to solve the p r o b l e m of dependency, there were s t i l l powerful unconscious forces
preventing a final s o l u t i o n . She was, as i t were, hanging
i n mid-air between two ways of dealing w i t h life, not
ready to leave the o l d a n d n o t ready to reach o u t for the
new.
I n consequence the f o l l o w i n g weeks were character
ized by ups and downs i n q u i c k succession. She wavered
between times i n w h i c h the experience w i t h Peter and
all that i t entailed appeared as part of a far-distant past,
and others i n w h i c h she desperately longed to w i n h i m
back. Solitude, t h e n , was felt as an unfathomable cruelty
peipetraied o n her.
I n one of these latter days, going home alone from a
concert, she f o u n d herself t h i n k i n g that everyone was
better off t h a n she. B u t , she argued, other people are
alone, too. Yes, b u t they l i k e i t . B u t people w h o have accidents are worse off. Yes, b u t they are taken care of i n
hospitals. A n d what about the unemployed? Yes, they
are badly off, b u t they are m a r r i e d . A t this p o i n t she
suddenly saw the grotesqueness of her way of arguing.
After a l l , n o t all the unemployed were h a p p i l y m a r r i e d ;
and, even i f they were, marriage was n o t a s o l u t i o n for

*33

S E L F

A N A

S 1 J

everything. She recognized that a tendency must be at

w o r k w h i c h made her talk herself i n t o an exaggerated
misery. T h e c l o u d of unhappiness was dispel]ed and she
felt relieved.
W h e n she began to analyze this incident the melody of
a song f r o m Sunday school occurred to her. w i t h o u t her
being able to recall the text. T h e n an emergency operat i o n she had h a d to have for appendicitis. T h e n the
"neediest cases" published at Christmas. T h e n a picture
of a huge crevice i n a glacier. T h e n a movie i n which she
had seen that glacier; somebody

had fallen i n t o the

crevice and was p u l l e d o u t at the last moment. T h e n a

memory f r o m the t i m e w h e n she was about eight years
o l d . She was c r y i n g i n bed and felt i t was u n t h i n k a b l e
that her m o t h e r w o u l d n o t come and console her. She
d i d not k n o w whether a q u a r r e l w i t h her mother had
gone before. A l l she recalled was the unshakable conviction that her mother w o u l d be moved by her distress. T h e m o t h e r actually d i d n o t come, and she fell
asleep.
Presently she recalled the t e x t of the melody from
Sunday school. I t declared that n o matter how great o u r
sorrow, G o d w i l l help us i f we pray to H i m . She suddenly
saw the clue to her other associations and to the exaggerated misery that had preceded them: she had an expectation that great distress w o u l d b r i n g about help.
A n d for the sake of this unconscious belief she made herself more miserable than she was. I t was shockingly silly,
yet she had done i t , and had done it frequently. I n the
crying spells, w h i c h had incidentally vanished
2

com-

A Morbid

Dependency

pletely, she had done exactly that. A n d she remembered

any n u m b e r of occasions when she had felt herself the
most abused of a l l mortals, only to realize some t i m e
later that she had made matters m u c h worse t h a n they
actually were. W h e n she had been i n the spell of such
unhappiness, however, the reasons for i t looked, a n d
even felt, real. A t such times she had often telephoned
Peter, and he was usually sympathetic and h e l p f u l . I n
this regard she c o u l d almost count o n h i m ; here he had
failed her less t h a n anybody else. Perhaps this was a more
i m p o r t a n t tie than she had realized? B u t

sometimes

Peter had n o t taken her unhappiness at its face value a n d

had teased her about i t , as her m o t h e r a n d b r o t h e r had
teased her i n c h i l d h o o d . T h e n she had felt deeply offended and was furious w i t h h i m .
Yes, there was a clear p a t t e r n that repeated i t s e l f
exaggerated misery a n d at the same t i m e an expectation
of help, consolation, encouragement, f r o m her mother,
f r o m God, f r o m Bruce, f r o m her husband, f r o m Peter.
H e r playing the m a r t y r role, apart f r o m everything else,
must have been also an unconscious plea for help.
Glare was thus o n the verge of recognizing another
i m p c i tant clue to her dependency. B u t a day or so later
she started to argue against her f i n d i n g o n two grounds.
One was that i t was n o t h i n g unusual, after a l l , to expect
friendliness f r o m a f r i e n d i n bad times. W h a t else was
the value of friendship! Everybody is good to y o u i f y o u
are gay a n d contented. B u t w i t h y o u r sorrows you can go
only to a f r i e n d . T h e other g r o u n d for disproving her
f i n d i n g was a d o u b t that i t was applicable to the misery
2

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

of the evening o n w h i c h i t h a d emerged. She h a d exaggerated her unhappiness, to be sure, b u t no one had been
there t o impress, n o Peter c o u l d be telephoned. She
c o u l d n o t possibly be so i r r a t i o n a l as to believe that help
w o u l d come merely because she made herself feel the
most miserable of h u m a n beings. Yet sometimes w h e n
she felt b a d something good d i d happen. Somebody
w o u l d call her u p or i n v i t e her o u t . She w o u l d receive a
letter, her w o r k w o u l d be praised, music o n the r a d i o
w o u l d cheer her u p .
She d i d n o t immediately notice that she argued for t w o
contradictory points: that i t was i r r a t i o n a l to expect help
as a d i r e c t result of feeling distressed; and that i t was
r a t i o n a l . B u t she saw the c o n t r a d i c t i o n when she reread
her notes some days later, a n d t h e n she drew the o n l y
sensible conclusion, w h i c h was that she must have attempted to argue herself o u t of something.
She t r i e d first to e x p l a i n her equivocal reasoning o n
the basis that she felt a general distaste at finding i n herself a n y t h i n g so i r r a t i o n a l as an expectation of magic
h e l p b u t this d i d n o t satisfy her. T h i s , by the way, was
an i m p o r t a n t clue. I f we find an i r r a t i o n a l area i n an
otherwise r a t i o n a l person we can be sure that i t hides
something i m p o r t a n t . T h e fight that is often p u t u p
against the q u a l i t y of i r r a t i o n a l i t y is usually i n reality a
fight

against h a v i n g its background uncovered. T h i s

h e l d t r u e here, too. B u t even w i t h o u t such reasoning

Clare realized soon after that the real s t u m b l i n g block
was n o t the i r r a t i o n a l i t y per se, b u t her resistance against
facing her finding. She recognized that a belief that she

2$6

A Morbid

Dependency

could command help t h r o u g h misery actually had a

strong h o l d u p o n her.
W i t h i n the next months she saw w i t h a gradually i n creasing measure of l u c i d i t y and i n great d e t a i l what this
belief d i d to her. She saw that she unconsciously tended
to make a major catastrophe o u t of every difficulty that
arose i n her life, collapsing i n t o a state of complete helplessness, w i t h the result that despite a certain f r o n t of
bravery and independence her p r e v a i l i n g feeling t o w a r d
life was one of helplessness i n the face of o v e r w h e l m i n g
odds. She recognized that this firm belief i n f o r t h c o m i n g
help had a m o u n t e d to a k i n d of private r e l i g i o n , a n d
that n o t u n l i k e a t r u e r e l i g i o n i t had been a p o w e r f u l
source of reassurance.
Clare also acquired a deepened insight as to the extent
to w h i c h her reliance o n someone else had taken the
place of reliance o n herself. I f she always had someone
w h o taught her, stimulated her, advised her, helped her,
defended her, gave her affirmation of her value, there
was no reason w h y she should make any effort to overcome the anxiety i n v o l v e d i n t a k i n g her l i f e i n t o her
o w n hands. T h u s the dependent relationship had so
completely fulfilled its f u n c t i o n of a l l o w i n g her to cope
w i t h life w i t h o u t h a v i n g to rely o n herself that i t had
robbed her of any real incentive to abandon the small girlish a t t i t u d e entailed i n her compulsive modesty. I n
fact, the dependency had n o t only perpetuated her weakness by stifling her incentive to become more self-reliant
b u t i t had actually created an interest i n r e m a i n i n g helpless. I f she remained h u m b l e a n d self-effacing a l l hap-

37

piness, a l l t r i u m p h w o u l d be hers. A n y attempt at greater

self-reliance

and greater self-assertion

was b o u n d to

jeopardize these expectations of a heaven o n earth. T h i s

finding,

incidentally, sheds l i g h t o n the panic she felt

at her first steps t o w a r d asserting her opinions and

wishes. T h e compulsive modesty had n o t only given her
the sheltering cloak of inconspicuousness, b u t i t had also
been the indispensable basis for her expectations of
"love."
She realized i t was merely a logical consequence, then,
that the partner to w h o m she ascribed the godlike role
of magic h e l p e r t o use a p e r t i n e n t term of E r i c h
Fromm'sbecame a l l i m p o r t a n t , and that to be wanted
and loved by h i m became the o n l y t h i n g that mattered.
Peter, t h r o u g h his peculiar qualitiesapparently he was
the savior typewas p a r t i c u l a r l y fitted to play this role.
H i s importance to her was n o t merely the importance of
a f r i e n d w h o can be called u p o n i n any time of real distress. Flis importance lay i n the fact that he was an i n s t r u m e n t whose services she c o u l d demand by m a k i n g
her need for them sufficiently great.
As a result of these insights she felt m u c h more free
t h a n ever before. T h e l o n g i n g for Peter, w h i c h at times
had been excruciatingly strong, started to recede. M o r e
i m p o r t a n t , the insight b r o u g h t about a real change i n
her objectives i n life. She had always consciously wanted
to be independent, b u t i n her actual life had given this
wish mere l i p service a n d h a d reached o u t for help i n
any difficulty that arose. N o w to become able to cope
w i t h her o w n life became an active, alive goal.

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Dependency

T h e only critical comment to be made o n this piece of

analysis is that i t neglected the specific issue i n v o l v e d at
that particular t i m e : Clare's incapacity to be alone. Since
I do n o t w a n t to miss any o p p o r t u n i t y to show how to go
after a p r o b l e m I shall m e n t i o n t w o slightly different
ways i n w h i c h this one m i g h t have been approached.
Clare could have started f r o m the consideration that
her spells of misery had already decreased markedly
w i t h i n the last year. T h e y had decreased to such an extent that she herself dealt m o r e actively w i t h external
and i n t e r n a l difficulties. T h i s consideration w o u l d have
led to the question of w h y she had to resort to the o l d
technique at just this p o i n t . G r a n t e d that she was u n happy alone, w h y d i d solitude present such an intolerable distress as to call for an instantaneous remedy? A n d
i f being alone was thus distressing w h y c o u l d she not do
something actively about i t herself?
Clare c o u l d also have started f r o m an observation of
her actual behavior. She felt miserable w h e n alone, b u t
she made hardly any effort to m i x w i t h friends or to
make new contacts; instead she w i t h d r e w i n t o a shell and
expected magic help. Despite her otherwise astute selfobservation Clare overlooked completely how odd her
actual behavior was o n this score. Such a blatant b l i n d
spot usually points to a repressed factor of great potency.
But, as 1 said i n the previous chapter, i f we miss a
p r o b l e m i t catches u p w i t h us. T h i s problem caught u p
w i t h Clare some weeks later. She then arrived at a solut i o n by a somewhat different r o u t e f r o m either of those I
2

39

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

have suggestedan i l l u s t r a t i o n of the fact that also i n

psychological matters there are several roads to Rome.
Since there is n o w r i t t e n report on this part of her analysis I shall merely indicate the steps that led up to the
new insight.
T h e first was a recognition that she could see herself
o n l y i n the reflected l i g h t of others. T h e way in w h i c h
she sensed that others evaluated her entirely determined
the way she evaluated herself. Clare d i d not recall how she
a r r i v e d at that insight. She remembered only t h a i i t
suddenly struck her so forcibly that she almost fainted.
T h e meaning of this insight is so well elucidated by a
nursery r h y m e that I cannot resist the t e m p t a t i o n to
quote i t :
T h e r e was an o l d woman
As I have heard t e l l
She w e n t to market
H e r eggs for to sell.
She went to market
A l l on a maiket-day
A n d fell asleep
O n the king's highway.
By came a peddler
H i s name was Stout
H e cut off her petticoat
A l l r o u n d about.
H e cut off her petticoat
U p to her knees

240

A Morbid

Dependency

W h i c h made die o l d w o m a n
Shiver a n d freeze.
W h e n the o l d w o m a n
First d i d awake
She began to shiver
A n d t h e n to shake.
She began to wonder
A n d then to cry,
" M e r c y o n me
T h i s is n o t 1.
" B u t i f i t be I
As 1 hope i t be
I have a l i t t l e dog at home
A n d he w i l l k n o w me.
I f i t be I
H e ' l l wag his l i t t l e t a i l
I I i t be n o t I
H e ' l l bark and he'll w a i l / '
H o m e went the l i t t l e w o m a n
A l l i n the dark
U p j u m p e d the l i t t l e dog
A n d began to bark.
H e began to bark
A n d she began to cry,
" M e r c y o n me
T h i s is n o t I . "

24S

S E L F

A N A L Y S I S

T h e second step, w h i c h followed two weeks later, concerned more directly her revolt against being alone. H e r
a t t i t u d e about this p r o b l e m had changed since her analysis of the " p r i v a t e r e l i g i o n . " She s t i l l felt the sting of bei n g alone as keenly as before, b u t instead of succumbing
to a helpless misery she had taken active steps to avoid
solitude. She sought the company of others and enjoyed
i t . B u t for about a week she was entirely obsessed by the
idea that she must have a close friend. She felt l i k e aski n g a l l the people she met, hairdresser, dressmaker, secretary, m a r r i e d friends, whether they d i d not k n o w a man
w h o w o u l d be suitable for her. Everybody who was marr i e d or w h o had a close f r i e n d she regarded w i t h the
most intense envy. These thoughts assumed such proportions that i t finally struck her that all of this was n o t
only pathetic b u t definitely compulsive.
O n l y n o w was she able to see that her incapacity to be
alone had greatly increased d u r i n g the lelationship w i t h
Peter, a n d had leached a c l i m a x after the separation.
She realized, too, that she c o u l d endure solitude i f i t
was of her o w n choosing, i t t u r n e d p a i n f u l only i f i t
was not voluntary; then she felt disgraced, unwanted,
excluded, ostracized. T h u s she realized that the p r o b l e m
was not a general incapacity to be alone, b u t a hypersensitivity to being rejected.
I i n k i n g this f i n d i n g w i t h her recognition that her selfevaluation was entirely d e t e r m i n e d by the evaluation of
others, she understood that for her the mere absence of
attention meant that she was t h r o w n to the dos. T h a t
this sensitivity to rejection had n o t h i n g whatever to do

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A Morbid

Dependency

w i t h whether she l i k e d those w h o rejected her, b u t concerned solely her self-esteem, was b r o u g h t home to her
by a memory f r o m college. T h e r e had been i n college a
g r o u p of snobbish girls w h o had f o r m e d a close c l i q u e
f r o m w h i c h they had excluded her. She had n o respect or
l i k i n g for these girls b u t there had been moments w h e n
she w o u l d have given everything to belong to t h e m . I n
this context Clare also thought of the close c o m m u n i t y
between her mother and brother, f r o m w h i c h she had
been excluded. Incidents emerged i n w h i c h she had been
made to feel that i n their eyes she was only a nuisance.
She realized that the reaction she discovered n o w had
actually started at the t i m e w h e n she had stopped rebell i n g against discriminatory treatment. U p to that p o i n t
she had had a native assurance that she was as good as
the others, and had spontaneously reacted against being
treated l i k e an i n f e r i o r being. B u t i n the l o n g r u n the
isolation inevitably engendered by her opposition was
more than she c o u l d stand, as was shown i n the second
chapter. I n order to be accepted by the others she had
k n u c k l e d under, had accepted the i m p l i c i t verdict that
she was i n f e r i o r , a n d had begun to admire the others as
superior beings. U n d e r the stress of o v e r w h e l m i n g odds
she had dealt the first b l o w to her h u m a n d i g n i t y .
She understood then that Peter's b r e a k i n g away from
her had n o t only p u t her o n her o w n , at a t i m e when she
was still rather dependent, b u t i n a d d i t i o n had left hei
w i t h a feeling of u t t e r worthlessness. T h e c o m b i n a t i o n
of the two factors was responsible for the deep shock
effect of the break. I t was the feeling of

worthlessness

H3

S E L F

A N A L Y S I S

that had rendered i t intolerable to be alone. T h i s feeling

had first called for a magic remedy a n d had then

pro-

duced an obsessive desire for a close f r i e n d as a means

of r e h a b i l i t a t i o n . T h i s insight b r o u g h t about an i m mediate change. T h e wish for a m a n f r i e n d lost its compulsive character a n d she c o u l d be alone w i t h o u t feeling
uneasy; she c o u l d even enjoy i t at times.
She saw, too, how her reaction to being rejected had
operated
Peter.

d u r i n g the

u n f o r t u n a t e relationship

Retrospectively she recognized

that Peter

with
had

started to reject her i n subtle ways soon after the first

excitement of a love affair was gone. T h r o u g h his w i t h d r a w i n g techniques a n d the i r r i t a b i l i t y he showed i n her
presence he h a d indicated i n ever-increasing degree that
he d i d n o t w a n t her. T o be sure, this retreat had been
disguised by the assurances of love he had given her
simultaneously, b u t i t c o u l d be effectively disguised only
because she had b l i n d e d herself to the evidence that he
wanted to get away f r o m her. Instead of recognizing
what she must have k n o w n she had made ever-increasing
efforts to keep h i r n , efforts that were determined by a
desperate need to restore her o w n self-regard. N o w i t was
clear to her that these very efforts to escape h u m i l i a t i o n
had i n j u r e d her d i g n i t y more than a n y t h i n g else.
These efforts had been p a r t i c u l a r l y pernicious since
they i n v o l v e d n o t only an u n c r i t i c a l bending to Peter's
wishes b u t also an unconscious inflation of her feeling
for h i m . She realized that the m o r e her actual feeling
for h i m d i m i n i s h e d the more she had w o r k e d i t u p to a
pitch of false e m o t i o n , thus ensnaring herself s t i l l more

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A Morbid

Dependency

deeply i n her bondage. H e r insights i n t o the needs that

constituted this " l o v e " had lessened the tendency toward
an inflation of feelings, b u t i t was only now that her
feelings dropped sharply to t h e i r actual level; i n a l l simp l i c i t y she discovered that she felt very l i t t l e for h i m .
T h i s recognition gave her a feeling of serenity that she
h a d n o t had for a l o n g t i m e , instead of wavering between l o n g i n g for Peter and w a n t i n g to take revenge
she took a calm stand toward h i m . She s t i l l appreciated
his good qualities b u t she knew that i t w o u l d be impossible for her ever to be closely associated w i t h h i m again.
W i t h this last finding to be reported here Clare tackled
the dependency f r o m a new angle. T h e w o r k done u p
to this p o i n t can be summarized as a gradual recognit i o n that she was dependent because of her huge expectations of the partner. She had realized step by step the
nature of these expectations, this w o r k c u l m i n a t i n g i n
the analysis of the " p r i v a t e r e l i g i o n . " N o w she saw i n
a d d i t i o n how the loss of spontaneous self-confidence had
c o n t r i b u t e d to the dependency i n a more direct way. T h e
crucial finding i n this regard was the recognition that
her picture of herself was entirely d e t e r m i n e d by the
evaluation of others. I t is i n accord w i t h the significance
of this insight that i t struck her so deeply t h a t she almost
fainted; the e m o t i o n a l recognition of this tendency constituted an experience so deep that for a short m o m e n t
i t almost overwhelmed her. T h e insight d i d n o t i n itself
solve the p r o b l e m b u t i t was the basis for recognizing
the inflation of her feelings a n d the far-reaching significance that " r e j e c t i o n " had for her.

H5

S E L F -

A N A L Y S I S

T h i s piece of analysis also paved the way for a later

understanding of her repressed a m b i t i o n . I t enabled her
to see that to be accepted by others was one way of lifti n g her crushed self-regard, a purpose that was served
f r o m another d i r e c t i o n by an a m b i t i o n to excel others.
Clare r e t u r n e d to analytical treatment some months
after she accomplished the w o r k reported here, partly
because she wanted to talk matters over w i t h me, partly
because of r e m a i n i n g i n h i b i t i o n s i n creative w r i t i n g . As
m e n t i o n e d i n Chapter T h r e e , we used that p e r i o d to
w o r k t h r o u g h her need to excel, or, more generally
speaking, her repressed aggressive a n d v i n d i c t i v e trends.
I feel confident that she c o u l d have done this w o r k by
herself, t h o u g h perhaps i t w o u l d have taken a longer
t i m e . T h e analysis of the repressed aggressive trends cont r i b u t e d i n t u r n to a s t i l l better understanding of the
dependency. Also, by r e n d e r i n g her more assertive, i t
removed any danger that m i g h t s t i l l have existed that
she w o u l d ever relapse i n t o another m o r b i d l y dependent
relationship. B u t the power exercised o n her by her need
to merge w i t h a partner was essentially broken by the
analytical w o r k that she h a d done alone.

246

C H A P T E R

N I N E

Spirit and Rules

of Systematic Self-Analysis

Since we have already discussed psychoanalytic work

t r o m several points of view, and have seen f r o m an extensive example the general procedure i n psychoanalyzing oneself, i t is scarcely necessaryand w o u l d indeed
be r e p e t i t i o u s t o discuss systematically the technique
of self-analysis. T h e f o l l o w i n g remarks w i l l therefore
merely emphasize certain considerations, many of them
already m e n t i o n e d i n other contexts, w h i c h deserve
special attention when proceeding o n one's o w n .
As we have seen, the process of free association, of
frank and unreserved self-expression, is the starting p o i n t
and continuous basis of a l l analytic workself-analysis
as w e l l as professional analysisbut i t is not at a l l easy
of achievement. I t m i g h t be t h o u g h t that this process is

47

S E L F - A N A L Y M 8

easier when w o r k i n g alone, for then there is no one w h o

may appear to misunderstand, criticize, i n t r u d e , or re
taliate; besides, i t is n o t so h u m i l i a t i n g to express to one
self those things of w h i c h one may be ashamed. T o some
extent this is true, a l t h o u g h i t is also true that an outsider, by the very fact of his listening, provides stimulat i o n and encouragement. B u t there is no d o u b t whatever
that whether one is w o r k i n g alone or w i t h an analyst the
greatest obstacles to free expression are always w i t h i n
oneself. One is so anxious to ignore certain factors, and
to m a i n t a i n one's image of oneself, that alone o r not
alone one can hope only to approximate the ideal of free
associations. I n view of these difficulties the person w h o
is w o r k i n g alone should r e m i n d himself f r o m t i m e to
time that he acts against his true self-interest i f he skips
or obliterates any t h o u g h t or feeling that arises. Also, he
should remember that the responsibility is entirely his
o w n : there is n o one b u t himself to guess a missing l i n k
or i n q u i r e a b o u t a gap left open.
T h i s conscientiousness is p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t i n regard to the expression of feelings. H e i e there are two
precepts that should be remembered. One is that the person should t r y to express what he really feels and n o t
what he is supposed to feel according to tradition or his
o w n standards. H e should at least be aware that there
may be a w i d e and significant chasm between genuine
feelings a n d feelings artificially adopted, and should
sometimes ask h i m s e l i n o t w h i l e associating, b u t afterw a r d w h a t he really feels about the matter. T h e other
r u l e is that he should give as free range to his feelings as

248

Spirit

and

Rules

he possibly can. T h i s , too, is more easily said t h a n done.

I t may appear r i d i c u l o u s to feel deeply h u r t at a seemi n g l y t r i v i a l offense. I t may be b e w i l d e r i n g and distastef u l to mistrust or hate somebody he is close t o . H e may be
w i l l i n g to a d m i t a r i p p l e of i r r i t a t i o n , b u t find i t frightening to let himself feel the rage that is actually there.
H e must remember, however, that as far as outside consequences are concerned n o s i t u a t i o n is less dangerous
than analysis for a t r u e expression of feelings. I n analysis
only the i n n e r consequence matters, and this is to recognize the f u l l intensity of a feeling. T h i s is i m p o r t a n t because i n psychological matters, too, we cannot hang
anybody w h o m we have n o t first caught.
O f course, no one can f o r c i b l y b r i n g f o r t h

feelings

that are repressed. A l l anyone can do is not to check those

that are w i t h i n reach. W i t h a l l the good w i l l i n the
w o r l d Clare, at the b e g i n n i n g of her analysis, could n o t
have felt or expressed more resentment t o w a r d Peter
t h a n she d i d . B u t as her analysis progressed she gradually
became more capable of appreciating the existing i n tensity of her feelings. F r o m one p o i n t of view the whole
development she w e n t t h r o u g h could be described as a
growing freedom to feel what she really felt.
One more w o r d as t o the technique of free association:
i t is essential to abstain f r o m reasoning w h i l e associating.
Reason has its place i n analysis, and there is ample opp o r t u n i t y to use i t a f t e r w a r d . B u t , as already stressed,
the very essence of free association is spontaneity. Flence
the person w h o is a t t e m p t i n g i t should n o t t r y to arrive
at a s o l u t i o n by figuring o u t . Assume, for instance, that
2

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

y o u feel so fatigued and so l i m p that you w o u l d l i k e to

crawl i n t o bed and pronounce yourself i l k Y o u look o u t
of a second-story w i n d o w and detect yourself t h i n k i n g
miserably that i f you fell d o w n you w o u l d at most break
an a r m . T h i s startles you. Y o u had n o t k n o w n that y o u
were desperate, even so desperate as to w a n t to die. T h e n
you hear a r a d i o t u r n e d o n above you, and y o u t h i n k
w i t h moderate i r r i t a t i o n that y o u w o u l d l i k e to shoot the
fellow operating i t . Y o u conclude r i g h t l y that there must
be rage as w e l l as despair b e h i n d your feeling i l l . So far
you have done a good j o b . Y o u already feel less paralyzed,
because i f y o u are furious at something you may be able
to f i n d the reasons for i t . B u t n o w y o u start a frantic conscious search for what m i g h t have i n f u r i a t e d you. You
go over a l l the incidents that occurred before you felt so
t i r e d . I t is possible that you w i l l h i t u p o n the provocation,
b u t the p r o b a b i l i t y is that a l l your conscious d i g g i n g
comes to n o u g h t a n d that the real source w i l l

occur

to you half an h o u r later, after you have become discouraged by the f u t i l i t y of your attempts and have given u p
the conscious search.
As u n p r o d u c t i v e as such attempts to force a solution is
the procedure of a person who, even w h i l e he lets his
m i n d r u n freely, tries to get at the meaning o l his associations by p u t t i n g two and two together. Whatever
prompts h i m to do so, whether i t is impatience or a need
to be b r i l l i a n t or a fear of g i v i n g way to u n c o n t r o l l e d
thoughts and feelings, this i n t r u s i o n of reason is b o u n d
to d i s t u r b the relaxed c o n d i t i o n necessary for free association. I t is t r u e that the meaning of an association

250

Spirit

and

Rules

may dawn u p o n h i m spontaneously. Clare's series of associations e n d i n g w i t h the text of the religious song is a
good example of this: here her associations showed an
increasing degree of l u c i d i t y a l t h o u g h n o conscious effort had been made to understand t h e m . I n other words,
the t w o processesself-expression a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g
may sometimes coincide. B u t as far as conscious efforts
are concerned they should be kept strictly separate.
I f a definite d i s t i n c t i o n is thus established

between

freely associating and understanding, w h e n does one stop

associating and t r y to understand? Fortunately there are
n o rules whatever. As l o n g as thoughts flow freely there
is n o sense i n arresting t h e m artificially. Sooner or later
they w i l l be stopped by something stronger t h a n themselves. Perhaps the person arrives at a p o i n t where he
feels curious about what i t a l l may mean. O r he may suddenly strike an emotional c h o r d that promises to shed
l i g h t o n something that is t r o u b l i n g h i m . O r he may
simply r u n o u t of thoughts, w h i c h may be a sign of resistance b u t also may indicate that he has exhausted the
subject for the t i m e being. O r he may have only a
l i m i t e d t i m e at his disposal and s t i l l w a n t to t r y himself
at i n t e r p r e t i n g his notes.
As for the understanding of associations, the range of
themes and combinations of themes that they may present is so i n f i n i t e that there cannot possibly be any fixed
rules regarding the m e a n i n g of i n d i v i d u a l elements i n
individual

contexts,

Certain

fundamental

principles

have been discussed i n the chapter o n the share of the

25/

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

analyst i n the analytical process. B u t by necessity m u c h is

left to personal ingenuity, alertness, and concentration.
I shall therefore merely a m p l i f y what has already been
said b y a d d i n g a few remarks o n the spirit i n w h i c h i n terpretation should be undertaken.
W h e n a person stops associating and begins to go over
his notes i n order to understand t h e m , his m e t h o d of
w o r k must change. Rather than being entirely passive
and receptive to whatever emerges, he becomes active.
N o w his reason comes i n t o play. B u t I should prefer to
express i t negatively: he n o longer excludes reason. Even
n o w he does n o t use i t exclusively. I t is difficult to describe wdth any accuracy the a t t i t u d e he should adopt
w h e n he tries to grasp the m e a n i n g of a series of associations. T h e process should certainly not degenerate i n t o
a mere intellectual exercise. I f he wants that he w i l l do
better to play chess or predict the course of w o r l d p o l i tics o r take to crossword puzzles. A n effort to figure o u t
completely r o u n d e d interpretations, n o t missing any possible connotation, may gratify his vanity by p r o v i n g the
superiority of his brains b u t w i l l scarcely take h i m m u c h
closer to a real understanding of himself. Such an effort
even entails a certain danger, for i t may hamper progress
by engendering

a smug know-it-all feeling w h i l e i n

reality he has only catalogued

items w i t h o u t being

touched by a n y t h i n g .
T h e other extreme, a merely emotional insight, is far
more valuable. I f i t is n o t f u r t h e r elaborated this is n o t
ideal either, because i t allows many significant leads, n o t
yet altogether l u c i d , to d r o p o u t of sight. But. as we have

252

Spirit

and

Rules

seen f r o m Clare's analysis, an insight of this k i n d may

set something going. Early i n her w o r k she experienced
an intense lost feeling i n connection w i t h her dream of
the foreign city; i t was m e n t i o n e d t h e n that a l t h o u g h i t
is impossible to prove whether this emotional experience
had any effect u p o n the f u r t h e r analysis, t h r o u g h its disq u i e t i n g nature i t may w e l l have loosened her r i g i d t a b u
against t o u c h i n g any of the complex ties that fastened
her to Peter. A n o t h e r instance occurred d u r i n g Clare's
final battle w i t h her dependency, w h e n she felt her defiance

against t a k i n g her l i f e i n t o her o w n hands; she

had then no intellectual grasp of the meaning of this

emotional insight, yet i t helped her to get o u t o f a state
of lethargic helplessness.
Instead of w a n t i n g to produce a scientific masterpiece,
the person w h o is w o r k i n g alone should let his interpret a t i o n be directed by his interest. H e should simply go
after what arrests his a t t e n t i o n , what arouses his c u r i osity, what strikes an emotional chord w i t h i n h i m . I f he
is flexible enough to let himself be guided by his spontaneous interest he can be reasonably certain that he w i l l
i n t u i t i v e l y select those subjects w h i c h at the t i m e are
most accessible to his understanding, or w h i c h M l i n
l i n e w i t h the p r o b l e m o n w hich he is w o r k i n g .
r

I suppose this advice w i l l arouse certain doubts. D o I

n o t advocate too great a leniency? W i l l the person's i n terest n o t lead h i m to pick o u t subjects that are f a m i l i a r
to him? W o u l d this course n o t mean g i v i n g i n to his resistances? I shall discuss i n a separate chapter the quest i o n o f dealing w i t h resistances. O n l y this m u c h here. I t
a

53

is t r u e that to be guided by one's interest means to take

the way of least resistance. B u t the least resistance is n o t
the same as no resistance. T h e p r i n c i p l e means essentially a p u r s u i t of those subjects w h i c h at the t i m e being
are least repressed. A n d this is exactly the p r i n c i p l e that
the analyst applies w h e n he metes o u t interpretations.
As already emphasized, he w i l l choose those factors for
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h i c h he believes the patient can f u l l y
grasp at the t i m e , and he w i l l r e f r a i n f r o m embarking
u p o n problems that are still deeply repressed.
Clare's whole self-analysis illustrates the v a l i d i t y of
this procedure. W i t h apparent insouciance she never
bothered to tackle any p r o b l e m that d i d n o t elicit a response i n her, t h o u g h i t m i g h t almost stare her i n the
face. W i t h o u t k n o w i n g a n y t h i n g about the p r i n c i p l e of
guidance t h r o u g h interest she i n t u i t i v e l y a p p l i e d i t
t h r o u g h o u t her w o r k , and i t served her w e l l . One example may stand for many. I n the series of associations
e n d i n g w i t h the first emergence of the daydream of the
great m a n Clare recognized merely the role that the need
for p r o t e c t i o n played i n her relationships. T h e suggestions concerning her other expectations of m e n she discarded entirely, t h o u g h they were an obvious and p r o m i n e n t p a r t of the daydream. T h i s i n t u i t i v e choice took
her o n the best course she c o u l d have followed. By n o
means d i d she merely move o n f a m i l i a r g r o u n d . T h e
f i n d i n g that a need for protection was an integral part
of her " l o v e " was a discovery of a factor h i t h e r t o u n k n o w n . F u r t h e r m o r e , as w i l l be remembered, this discovery constituted the first i n r o a d o n her cherished i l -

*54

Spirit

and

Rules

lusion of "love," i n itself a p a i n f u l and incisive step. T o

have taken u p at the same t i m e the aggravating p r o b l e m
of her sponging a t t i t u d e o n men w o u l d certainly have
been too hard, unless she had dealt w i t h i t i n a superficial
way. T h i s brings u p a last p o i n t : i t is not possible to absorb more than one i m p o r t a n t insight at a t i m e . A n attempt to do so w i l l be d e t r i m e n t a l to b o t h , or a l l , of
t h e m . A n y relevant insight needs t i m e a n d u n d i v i d e d
concentration i f i t is t o "sink i n " and take root.
T h e understanding of a series of associations demands
f l e x i b i l i t y n o t only i n the direction of w o r k , as just discussed, b u t also i n the m e t h o d of approach. I n other
words, i n the selection of problems one must be guided
by spontaneous emotional interests as w e l l as by intelligence; and also i n the study of the problems that arise
one must pass easily f r o m deliberate t h i n k i n g to i n t u i tive grasping of connections. T h i s laiter

requirement

m i g h t be compared to the a t t i t u d e required i n studying

a p a i n t i n g : we t h i n k about composition, color combinations, brush strokes, a n d the l i k e , b u t we also consider
the emotional responses that the p a i n t i n g elicits i n us.
T h i s corresponds, too, to the a t t i t u d e an analyst adopts
toward the patient's associations. W h i l e listening to a
patient I sometimes do hard t h i n k i n g about possible
meanings, and sometimes I arrive at a conjecture

merely

by l e t t i n g the patient's talk play o n my i n t u i t i v e faculties. T h e verification of any finding, however, no matter
how one has arrived at i t , always demands f u l l intellect u a l alertness.
A person may find, of course, that i n a series of as-

*55

sociations n o t h i n g commands his particular interest; he

merely sees one o r another possibility b u t n o t h i n g i l l u m i n a t i n g . O r , at the opposite extreme, he may

find

that even as he delves i n t o one connection certain other

elements also strike h i m as noteworthy. I n both instances
he w i l l do well to p u t d o w n i n the m a r g i n the questions
left open. Perhaps at a future time, i n going over his
notes, the mere theoretical possibilities w i l l mean somet h i n g more to h i m , or the shelved questions can be taken
u p i n m o r e detail.
T h e r e is s t i l l a last p i t f a l l to be mentioned: never accept more than y o u really believe. T h i s danger is greater
i n regular analysis, especially i f the patient is one w h o
tends to comply w i t h authoritative assertions. B u t i t may
play a p a r t also w h e n a person relies o n his o w n resources. H e may feel obliged, for instance, to accept
whatever " b a d " things emerge concerning himself, a n d
to suspect a "resistance" i f he hesitates to do so. B u t he
w i l l be o n m u c h safer g r o u n d i f he regards his interpretation as merely tentative, and does n o t t r y to convince
himself that i t is definite. T h e essence of analysis is
truthfulness, and this should extend also to acceptance
or nonacceptance of interpretations.
T h e danger of m a k i n g an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n that is misleading or at least unprofitable can never be excluded,
but one should n o t be overawed by i t . I f one does n o t
weaken, b u t carries o n i n the r i g h t spirit, a more profitable p a t h w i l l open u p sooner o r later, or one w i l l become
aware o f b e i n g i n a b l i n d alley a n d perhaps even learn
f r o m that experience. Clare, f o r instance, before em-

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and

Rules

b a r k i n g o n her analysis of the dependency, had spent a

couple of months d i g g i n g after an alleged need to have
her o w n way. F r o m the data that emerged later we can
understand how she was led i n that d i r e c t i o n . She t o l d
me, though, that d u r i n g these attempts she had never
had a feeling of conviction remotely similar to those she
experienced later, d u r i n g the period reported. Also, the
u l t i m a t e reason w h y she had taken that earlier course
was that Peter often reproached her for b e i n g dominati n g . T h i s illustrates t w o points made above: the i m p o r tance of f o l l o w i n g one's o w n interests; and the i m p o r tance of not accepting a n y t h i n g w i t h o u t f u l l conviction.
B u t w h i l e this early search of Clare's meant a waste of
t i m e i t petered o u t w i t h o u t h a r m and d i d n o t prevent
her f r o m d o i n g h i g h l y constructive w o r k afterward.
T h e constructive character of Clare's w o r k was due
not only to the essential correctness of her interpretations b u t also to the fact that her analysis i n this period
showed a remarkable degree of c o n t i n u i t y . W i t h o u t i n t e n d i n g to concentrate o n one p r o b l e m f o r a l o n g t i m e
she d i d n o t even k n o w what i t waseverything she embarked u p o n t u r n e d i n t o a c o n t r i b u t i o n to the p r o b l e m
of her dependency. T h i s unswerving unconscious concentration upon a single p r o b l e m , w h i c h made her approach i t relentlessly f r o m ever-new angles, is desirable
b u t rarely attained to the same degree. W e can account
for i t i n Clare's case, for at that p e r i o d she was l i v i n g
under a formidable pressurehow formidable she f u l l y
recognized o n l y l a t e r a n d hence she unconsciously bent

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a l l her energies i n t o solving the problems that c o n t r i b u t e d to i t

Such a c o m p e l l i n g situation cannot

be

created artificially. B u t , the more absorbing one's i n terest i n a p r o b l e m , the m o r e w i l l a similar concentrat i o n be approximated.
Clare's self-analysis illustrates very w e l l the three steps
discussed

i n Chapter T h r e e :

recognizing a neurotic

t r e n d ; understanding its implications; and discovering its

interrelations w i t h other n e u r o t i c trends. I n Clare's analysis, as is often the case, the steps overlapped to some extent: she recognized many of the implications before she
finally detected the t r e n d itself. N o r d i d she make any
effort to cover definite steps i n her analysis: she d i d n o t
deliberately set o u t to discover a neurotic trend, and she
d i d n o t deliberately examine the connections between
her dependency and her compulsive modesty. T h e recogn i t i o n of the trend came of itself; and, similarly, the
connecting l i n k s between the t w o trends almost automatically became more a n d more visible as the analytical
w o r k proceeded. I n other words, Clare d i d n o t select
the p r o b l e m s a t least n o t consciouslybut the problems came to her, and i n t h e i r u n f o l d i n g they displayed
an organic c o n t i n u i t y .
T h e r e was i n Clare's analysis a c o n t i n u i t y of s t i l l another k i n d , even more i m p o r t a n t , and more possible to
emulate: at n o t i m e was there any insight that remained
isolated or disconnected. W h a t we see develop is n o t an
accumulation of insights b u t a structural pattern. Even
i f every i n d i v i d u a l insight that a person gains i n an
analysis is correct, he may s t i l l d e p i i v e himself of the

2^8

Spirit

and

greatest

Rules

benefits of his w o r k i f the insights r e m a i n

scattered.
T h u s Clare, after recognizing that she let herself be
immersed i n misery because she secretly believed she
could thereby command help, m i g h t merely have traced
the o r i g i n of this t r a i t i n c h i l d h o o d a n d regarded i t as a
persistent i n f a n t i l e

beliei. T h a t

m i g h t have helped

some, because nobody really wants to be miserable for

n o good reason; the next t i m e she f o u n d herself succ u m b i n g to a spell of misery she m i g h t have caught herself u p short. B u t at best this h a n d l i n g of her insight
w o u l d have d i m i n i s h e d i n the course of time the gross
attacks of exaggerated unhappiness. A n d these attacks
were n o t the most i m p o r t a n t expression of the trait. O r
she m i g h t have gone n o f u r t h e r than the n e x t step, of
connecting her f i n d i n g w i t h her actual lack of selfassertion and recognizing that her belief i n magic help
substituted for an active dealing w i t h life's difficulties.
T h i s , although s t i l l inadequate, w o u l d have helped considerably more, because i t w o u l d have opened u p a new
incentive to do away w i t h the whole a t t i t u d e of helplessness l y i n g b e h i n d the belief. B u t i f she had n o t l i n k e d
u p the magic-help belief w i t h her dependency, and seen
the one as an integral part of the other, she c o u l d not
thoroughly have overcome the belief, because she w o u l d
always have made the unconscious reservation that i f she
could o n l y find the permanent "love," help w o u l d always be f o r t h c o m i n g . I t was only because she saw that
connection, and because she recognized the fallacy i n
such an expectation a n d the excruciating price she had

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to pay for i t , that the insight had the radically l i b e r a t i n g

effect i t d i d .
I t is thus by n o means a matter of purely theoretical
interest for a person to discover h o w a personality t r a i t
is embedded i n his structure, w i t h m a n i f o l d roots and
m a n i f o l d effects; i t is also of the greatest therapeutic i m portance. T h i s r e q u i r e m e n t c o u l d be expressed i n the
f a m i l i a r terms of dynamics: one must k n o w the dynamics
of a t r a i t before one can change i t . B u t this w o r d is l i k e
a c o i n that has become a b i t shabby and t h i n t h r o u g h
l o n g usage. Besides, i t usually suggests the idea of drivi n g forces, and m i g h t be interpreted here to mean that
one should merely seek such forces, whether i n early
c h i l d h o o d or i n the present. I n this case the n o t i o n of
dynamics w o u l d be misleading, for the influence that a
t r a i t exerts o n the entire personality is just as i m p o r t a n t
as the factors that determine its existence.
I t is by n o means only i n psychological matters that
this awareness of structural interrelations is essential.
T h e considerations I have emphasized apply w i t h equal
weight to questions of organic illness, for example. N o
good physician w i l l regard a heart disorder as an isolated
phenomenon. Fie w i l l consider also i n what way the
heart is influenced by other organs, such as the kidneys
and the lungs. A n d he must k n o w how the heart condit i o n i n t u r n affects other systems i n the body: how i t affects, for instance, the c i r c u l a t i o n of the blood or the
action of the liver. H i s knowledge of such

influences

w i l l help h i m to understand the intensity of the disorder.

I f i t is thus essential i n analytic w o r k n o t to become

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lost i n scattered details, h o w can the desirable c o n t i n u i t y

be b r o u g h t about? T h e o r e t i c a l l y the answer is i m p l i e d
i n the preceding paragraphs. I f a person has made a
p e r t i n e n t observation or gained an insight i n t o himself
he should examine h o w the peculiarity uncovered manifests itself i n various areas, what consequences i t has and
w h i c h factors i n his personality account for i t . B u t this
may be regarded as a rather abstract statement, a n d
therefore I shall t r y to illustrate i t w i t h a constructed example. I t must be borne i n m i n d , however, that any
b r i e f example necessarily gives an impression of a neatness and a simplicity that do n o t exist i n actuality. Also,
such an example, i n t e n d e d to show the variety of factors
to be recognized, cannot indicate the emotional experiences a person has when analyzing himself, a n d thereby
i t draws a one-sided a n d overrational p i c t u r e .
Bearing i n m i n d these reservations, let us imagine a
person w h o has observed that i n certain situations i n
w h i c h he w o u l d l i k e to participate i n discussions he is
tongue tied because he is afraid of possible criticism. I f
he allows this observation to take r o o t w i t h i n himself he
w i l l begin to wonder about the fear involved, since i t is
out of p r o p o r t i o n to any real danger. H e w i l l wonder
why the fear is so great that i t prevents h i m n o t o n l y
f r o m expressing his thoughts b u t also f r o m

thinking

clearly. H e w i l l wonder whether the fear is greater t h a n

his a m b i t i o n , a n d whether i t is greater t h a n any considerations of expediency, w h i c h , for the sake of his
career, w o u l d make i t desirable that he produce a good
impression.

261

H a v i n g thus gained an interest i n his p r o b l e m , he w i l l

t r y to find whether similar difficulties operate i n other
areas of his life, and, i f so, w h a t f o r m they take. H e w i l l
examine his relations w i t h w o m e n . Is he too t i m i d to
approach them because they m i g h t find fault w i t h him?
W h a t about his sexual life? Was he once i m p o t e n t for
a w h i l e because he c o u l d n o t get over a failure? Is he
reluctant to go to parties? W h a t about shopping? Does
he b u y an expensive whisky because otherwise the salesman m i g h t t h i n k he is too economical? Does he t i p too
generously because the waiter m i g h t look d o w n u p o n
him? F u r t h e r m o r e , exactly h o w vulnerable is he i n regard to criticism? W h a t is sufficient to touch off an embarrassment or to make h i m feel hurt? Is he h u r t o n l y
when his wife overtly criticizes his necktie or is he uneasy
when she merely praises J i m m y for always m a t c h i n g his
tie and his socks?
Such considerations w i l l give h i m an impression of the
extent and intensity of his difficulty and of its various
manifestations. H e w i l l then w a n t to k n o w how i t affects
his life. H e knows already that i t makes h i m i n h i b i t e d i n
many areas. H e cannot assert himself; he is too comp l i a n t w i t h what others expect of h i m , and therefore he
can never be himself b u t must automatically play a part.
T h i s makes h i m resentful against others, for they appear
to dominate h i m , b u t i t also lowers his own self-esteem.
F i n a l l y , he looks o u t for the factors that are responsible for the difficulty. W h a t made h i m so fearful of c r i t i cism? H e may remember that his parents h e l d h i m to
very r i g i d standards, and may recall any n u m b e r of i n -

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Rules

cidents i n w h i c h he was scolded or made to feel inadequate. B u t he w i l l also have to t h i n k of a l l the weak spots
i n his actual personality w h i c h , i n their totality, render
h i m dependent o n others a n d therefore make h i m regard
their o p i n i o n of h i m as of c o m p e l l i n g importance. I f
he can find the answers to a l l such questions his recogn i t i o n that he is a f r a i d of c r i t i c i s m w i l l n o longer be an
isolated insight b u t he w i l l see the relationship of this
t r a i t to the whole structure of his personality.
I t may w e l l be asked whether I mean by this example
that a person who has discovered a new factor should
deliberately ransack his experiences and feelings i n the
various ways indicated. Certainly not, because such a
procedure w o u l d involve the same danger of a merely
intellectual mastery that was discussed before. B u t he
should grant himself a p e r i o d of c o n t e m p l a t i o n . H e
should meditate o n his finding i n m u c h the same manner
as an archaeologist w h o has discovered a b u r i e d statue,
badly m u t i l a t e d , looks at his treasure f r o m a l l angles u n t i l the o r i g i n a l features reveal themselves to his m i n d .
A n y new factor that a person recognizes is l i k e a searchl i g h t t u r n e d o n certain domains of his life, l i g h t i n g u p
spots w h i c h have h i t h e r t o been dark. Fie is almost b o u n d
to see them i f only he is v i v i d l y interested i n recognizing
himself. These are points at w h i c h the guidance of an
expert w o u l d be p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l . A t such times an
analyst w o u l d actively help the patient to see the significance of the finding, raising one o r anodier question that
i t suggests and t y i n g i t u p w i t h previous findings. W h e n
n o such outside h e l p is available the best t h i n g t o do is

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to r e f r a i n f r o m r u s h i n g o n w i t h the analysis, to remember

that a new insight means a conquest of new territory, a n d
to t r y to benefit f r o m that conquest by consolidating its
gains. I n each of the examples i n the chapter o n occasional self-analysis I m e n t i o n e d questions that m i g h t
have been suggested by the insight gained. W e can be
f a i r l y certain that the reason w h y the people concerned
d i d n o t h i t u p o n these questions was solely that their i n terest ended w i t h the removal of their immediate difficulties.
I f Clare were asked h o w she achieved such a remarkable c o n t i n u i t y i n her analysis she w o u l d probably give
m u c h the same answer as that given by a good cook w h e n
asked for a recipe. H i s answer usually boils d o w n to the
fact that he goes by his feelings. B u t i n the case of analysis this answer is n o t so unsatisfactory as i n the case of an
omelette. N o one can b o r r o w Clare's feelings, b u t everyone has feelings of his o w n by w h i c h he can go. A n d this
brings us back to a p o i n t made above i n discussing the
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of associations: i t is h e l p f u l t o have some
knowledge of what to look o u t for, b u t the l o o k i n g
should be directed by one's o w n i n i t i a t i v e and interest.
O n e should accept the fact that one is a l i v i n g b e i n g
driven by needs a n d interests, and d r o p the i l l u s i o n that
one's m i n d operates w i t h a well-greased, machinelike
perfection. I n this process, as i n so many others, thoroughness i n penetrating t o one o r another i m p l i c a t i o n
counts m o r e t h a n completeness. T h e implications that
are missed w i l l t u r n u p at some later time w h e n one is
perhaps m o r e ready t o see t h e m .

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Rules

C o n t i n u i t y of w o r k is likely to be disturbed also by

causes outside a person's c o n t r o l . H e must expect interruptions, because he does not live i n an

experimental

vacuum. A n y n u m b e r of daily experiences w i l l encroach

u p o n his t h i n k i n g , some of them perhaps e l i c i t i n g emot i o n a l responses that call for immediate

clarification.

Suppose, for instance, that Clare had lost her j o b w h i l e

she was w o r k i n g at the p r o b l e m of her dependency, o r
that she had assumed a new position r e q u i r i n g more
i n i t i a t i v e , assertion, and leadership. I n either case other
problems than her dependency w o u l d have stepped i n t o
the foreground. A l l anyone can do i n such circumstances
is to take these i n t e r r u p t i o n s i n his stride and to deal
w i t h the problems arising as best he can. H e may just as
w e l l , however, have experiences that help h i m w i t h the
p r o b l e m at hand. T h u s Peter's breaking of the relationship certainly stimulated Clare to do f u r t h e r analytical
w o r k at her p r o b l e m .
O n the whole, there is no need to w o r r y too much
about outside interferences. I have f o u n d i n w o r k i n g
w i t h patients that even decisive outside events deflect the
course of analysis o n l y for a shoi t while. Rather swiftly,
and often w i t h o u t k n o w i n g i t , the patient swings back to
the problem o n w h i c h he was w o r k i n g , resuming i t sometimes at exactly the p o i n t where he had left i t . W e need
n o t resort to any mysterious explanation for this occurrence, such as an assumption that that p r o b l e m appeals
more to the patient than happenings i n the outside
w o r l d . I t is more l i k e l y that since most experiences can
elicit a n u m b e r of responses, that one w h i c h is closest

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A N A L Y S I S

to the p r o b l e m at hand w i l l touch h i m most deeply and

thereby lead h i m to retrieve the thread he was about to
abandon.
T h e fact that these remarks have emphasized subjective factors rather than presenting clear-cut directions
may recall the c r i t i c i s m raised against analysis that i t is
more a n artistic than a scientific procedure. A discussion
of this argument w o u l d lead us too far astray because i t
w o u l d i n v o l v e a philosophical clarification of terms.
W h a t counts here is a practical consideration. I f analysis
is called an artistic activity this w o u l d suggest to many
people t h a t one must be especially gifted to undertake
i t . N a t u r a l l y , o u r endowments differ. A n d just as some
people are p a r t i c u l a r l y s k i l l f u l i n mechanical matters or
have a p a r t i c u l a r l y clear vision for politics, others have
a special flair for psychological t h i n k i n g . Yet what really
matters is n o t an enigmatic artistic endowment b u t a
strictly definable f a c t o r w h i c h is one's interest or i n centive. T h i s remains a subjective factor, b u t is i t n o t the
decisive one for most of the things we do? W h a t matters
is the s p i r i t and n o t the rules.

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T E N

Dealing with Resistances

Analysis sets going or accentuates a play of forces w i t h i n

the self between two groups of factors w i t h contrasting
interests. T h e interest of the one g r o u p is to m a i n t a i n
unchanged the illusions and the safety afforded by the
neurotic structure; that of the other group is to gain a
measure of i n n e r freedom and strength t h r o u g h over
t h r o w i n g the neurotic structure. I t is tor this reason that
analysis, as has already been strongly emphasized, is n o t
p r i m a r i l y a process of detached intellectual research.
T h e intellect is an o p p o r t u n i s t , at the service of whatever
interest carries the greatest weight at the time.

The

forces that oppose l i b e r a t i o n and strive to m a i n t a i n the

status quo are challenged by every insight that is capable
of jeopardizing the neurotic structure, and when thus
challenged they attempt to block progress i n one way or
another. T h e y appear as "resistances" to the analytical

26 J

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

w o r k , a t e r m appropriately used by Freud to denote

everything that hampers this w o r k f r o m w i t h i n .
Resistance is by n o means produced only by
analytical situation. Unless we live under

the

exceptional

conditions l i f e itself is at least as great a challenge to the

neurotic structure as is the analyst. A person's secret
claims o n life are b o u n d to be frequently frustrated because of t h e i r absolute and r i g i d character. Others do
n o t share his illusions about himself, and w i l l h u r t h i m
by questioning or disregarding them. Inroads u p o n his
elaborate b u t precarious safety measures are unavoidable. These challenges may have a constructive influence,
b u t also he may react to themas he does i n analysis
first w i t h anxiety and anger, one or the other prevailing,
and then w i t h a reinforcement of the neurotic tendencies. Fie becomes s t i l l more w i t h d r a w n , more d o m i n a t i n g , more dependent, as the case may be.
I n part the relationship w i t h the analyst produces
much the same feelings a n d responses as the relationships w i t h others. B u t , since analysis is an explicit attack
o n die neurotic structure, the challenge i t presents is
greater.
I n the major part of analytical literature i t is an i m p l i c i t or e x p l i c i t a x i o m that we are helpless t o w a r d o u r
resistances, that is, that we cannot overcome them w i t h o u t expert help. T h i s conviction w i l l be held as the
strongest argument against the idea of self-analysis. A n d
i t is an argument that w i l l carry heavy weight, not only
w i t h analysts b u t also w i t h every patient who has been
analyzed, because b o t h analyst and patient k n o w the

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Resistances

tenacious and devious struggles that arise w h e n precarious territory is approached. B u t an appeal to experience
can never be a conclusive argument, because experience
itself is determined by the whole complex of r u l i n g concepts and customs, and by o u r m e n t a l i t y . M o r e specifically, analytical experience is determined by the fact
that the patient is n o t given a chance to cope alone w i t h
his resistances.
A stronger consideration is the theoretical

premise

that underlies the analyst's conviction, w h i c h is no more

and no less than Freud's whole philosophy of the nature
of man. T h i s subject is too i n t r i c a t e to delve i n t o here.
O n l y this m u c h ; i f m a n is d r i v e n by instincts and i f
among them a destruction instinct plays a p r o m i n e n t
roleas was the contention of F r e u d n o t m u c h , i f any,
space is left i n h u m a n nature for constructive forces that
m i g h t strive toward g r o w t h and development. A n d i t is
these constructive forces that constitute the dynamic
counterpole to the forces p r o d u c i n g the resistances. A
denial of them must by necessity lead to a defeatist attitude toward the possibility of overcoming o u r resistances
t h r o u g h o u r o w n efforts. I do n o t share this part of the
Freudian philosophy, b u t I do n o t deny that the question
of resistance remains a serious consideration. T h e outcome o f self-analysis, as of every analysis, depends by and
large on the strength of the resisting forces and the
strength of the self to deal w i t h t h e m .
T h e extent to w h i c h a person is factually helpless
toward resistances depends n o t o n l y on t h e i r overt b u t
also o n t h e i r h i d d e n s t r e n g t h i n other words, the degree

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to w h i c h they are discernible. T o be sure, they may be

discovered and met i n open battle; a patient may be f u l l y
aware, f o r example, that he has a resistance against comi n g to analysis, or he may even realize that he is fighting
tooth a n d n a i l against r e l i n q u i s h i n g a neurotic trend, as
Clare d i d i n her eventual battle for and against her dependency. M o r e often resistances sneak u p o n h i m i n
disguised forms, w i t h o u t his recognizing them as such.
I n that case he does n o t k n o w that resisting forces are
operating; he is merely unproductive, or feels listless,
t i r e d , discouraged. A n d he is, of course, helpless w h e n
he is thus confronted w i t h an enemy w h i c h is n o t only
invisible b u t , as far as he knows, does n o t even exist.
One o f the most i m p o r t a n t reasons why he may not
recognize the presence of a resistance is the fact that defensive processes are set i n m o t i o n n o t only when he is
directly confronted w i t h the problems involved, that is,
when his secret claims o n life are l a i d bare, his illusions
questioned, his security measures jeopardized, b u t also
w h e n he remotely approaches these domains. T h e more
i n t e n t he is o n keeping them intact, the more sensitive he
is to an approach even f r o m the far distance. H e is l i k e
a person w h o is frightened by thunderstorms a n d w h o
is n o t o n l y terrified by t h u n d e r a n d l i g h t n i n g b u t reacts
w i t h apprehension even to a c l o u d that appears o n the
far h o r i z o n . These long-distance reactions escape attent i o n so easily because they arise w i t h the emergence of
a subject that is apparently innocuous, one that does not
seem l i k e l y to stir u p strong feelings of any k i n d .
A n a b i l i t y to recognize resistances demands some defi2JO

Dealing

with

Resistances

n i t e knowledge o f t h e i r sources a n d t h e i r expressions.

Hence i t appears appropriate to recapitulate a l l that has
been said about the subject i n scattered places througho u t the b o o k o f t e n w i t h o u t e x p l i c i t l y m e n t i o n i n g the
t e r m "resistance"and to add certain points that are of
special interest for self-analysis.
T h e sources of resistance are the sum total of a person's interests i n m a i n t a i n i n g the status quo. These i n terests are n o t a n d emphatically n o t i d e n t i c a l w i t h a
wish to r e m a i n i l l . Everyone wants t o get r i d of handicaps
and suffering, a n d i n that wish he is a l l for change, a n d
for a q u i c k change at that. W h a t he wants to m a i n t a i n is
n o t " t h e neurosis" b u t those aspects o f i t w h i c h have
proved to be of immense subjective value to h i m and
w h i c h i n his m i n d h o l d the promise o f f u t u r e security
and gratification. T h e basic factors that n o one wants t o
modify one iota are, briefly, those that concern his secret
claims o n life, his claims f o r "love," f o r power, f o r independence a n d the l i k e , his illusions about himself, the
safety zones w i t h i n w h i c h he moves w i t h comparative
ease. T h e exact nature o f these factors depends o n the
nature of his n e u r o t i c trends. Since the characteristics
and dynamics o f n e u r o t i c trends have already been described, I need n o t go i n t o f u r t h e r details here.
I n professional analysis the provocation for resistance
is, i n the great majority of cases, something that has occurred i n the analysis itself. I f strong secondary defenses
have developed, the first resistances arise as soon as the
analyst questions the v a l i d i t y o f these defenses, that is,
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S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

as soon as he casts any d o u b t o n the Tightness, goodness,

or u n a l t e r a b i l i t y of any factor i n the patients personality. T h u s a patient whose secondary defenses consist
i n regarding everything concerning himself, faults i n cluded, as excellent and u n i q u e w i l l develop a feeling of
hopelessness as soon as any m o t i v a t i o n of his is quest i o n e d . A n o t h e r patient w i l l react w i t h a m i x t u r e of i r r i t a b i l i t y a n d discouragement as soon as he encounters,
or the analyst points o u t to h i m , any trace of i t rationality w i t h i n himself. I t is i n accordance w i t h the function
of the secondary

defensesprotection of the whole

system developedthat these defensive reactions are

elicited n o t merely w h e n a special repressed factor is i n
danger of b e i n g uncovered b u t w h e n a n y t h i n g is quest i o n e d , regardless of content.
B u t i f the secondary defenses are not of such v i t a l
strength, o r i f they have been uncovered and faced, resistances are for the most part a response to attacks o n
specific repressed factors. As soon as any d o m a i n is approached, closely o r remotely, w h i c h is tabu for the part i c u l a r patient he w i l l react emotionally w i t h fear or
anger and w i l l automatically set going a defensive action
i n order to prevent f u r t h e r trespassing. T h i s encroachm e n t o n a t a b u need n o t be a specific attack b u t may result merely f r o m the analyst's general behavior. Anyt h i n g he does or fails to d o says or fails to say, may h u r t
one of the patient's vulnerable spots and create a conscious or unconscious resentment w m c h for the t i m e bei n g blocks the co-operative w o r k .
B u t resistances to analytical w o r k can be elicited also

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Resistances

b y factors outside the analytical situation. I f outside circumstances change d u r i n g analysis i n such a way as t o
favor a smooth f u n c t i o n i n g of the neurotic trends, o r
even to render t h e m positively useful, the provocation
for resistance is greatly increased; the reason is, of course,
that the forces opposing change have been strengthened.
B u t resistance can be provoked also by unfavorable developments i n d a i l y life. I f a p a t i e n t feels, for example,
that he has been u n f a i r l y dealt w i t h by someone i n his
circle his i n d i g n a t i o n may be so great that he refuses any
effort i n analysis to seek the real reason w h y he felt i n j u r e d or insulted, his entire energy being concentrated
o n revenge. I n other words, a resistance may be produced
by developments outside as well as w i t h i n the analytical
situation i f a repressed factor is touched u p o n , either
specifically or remotely.
I n p r i n c i p l e the provocations for resistance are the
same i n self-analysis. H e r e , however, i t is n o t the analyst's interpretations b u t the person's o w n encroachment
o n a p a i n f u l insight or i m p l i c a t i o n that provokes a resistance. F u r t h e r m o r e , the provocation that may lie i n
the analyst's behavior is lacking. T h i s is an advantage of
self-analysis to some extent, t h o u g h i t should n o t be forgotten that these provocations can prove to be most constructive i f the responses to t h e m are correctly analyzed.
Finally, i n self-analysis the experiences of daily l i f e seem
to have a greater power to produce a blockage. T h i s is
readily understandable: i n professional analysis the patient's emotions are largely concentrated o n the analyst,
because of the importance he has assumed for the t i m e

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being, b u t such a concentration is lacking w h e n analysis

is undertaken alone.
T h e ways i n w h i c h resistances express themselves i n
professional analysis may be r o u g h l y g r o u p e d u n d e r
three headings: first, an open fight against the p r o v o k i n g
p r o b l e m ; second, defensive emotional reactions; and
t h i r d , defensive i n h i b i t i o n s o r evasive maneuvers. Different t h o u g h they are i n f o r m , essentially these various
expressions merely represent different degrees o f direct
ness.
I n i l l u s t r a t i o n let us assume that w i t h a patient w h o
has a compulsive s t r i v i n g f o r absolute "independence"
the analyst starts to tackle his difficulties i n relationships
w i t h people. T h e patient feels this approach as an i n direct attack u p o n his aloofness a n d therefore o n his i n dependence. I n this he is r i g h t because any w o r k at the
difficulties he has w i t h people is meaningful o n l y i f the
u l t i m a t e goal is to i m p r o v e his h u m a n relationships, to
h e l p h i m t o w a r d a greater friendliness a n d a feeling of
solidarity w i t h others. T h e analyst may n o t even have
these goals consciously i n m i n d ; he may believe that he
merely wants to understand the patient's t i m i d i t y , his
provocative behavior, his predicaments w i t h w o m e n .
B u t the patient senses the approaching danger. H i s resistance may t h e n take the f o r m of an open refusal t o
tackle the difficulties m e n t i o n e d , a frank declaration that
he does n o t w a n t to be bothered w i t h people anyhow.
O r he may react w i t h distrust o f the analyst, suspecting
that the latter wants to impose his standards u p o n h i m ;
he may believe, for instance, that the analyst wants t o

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Resistances

impose o n h i m a distasteful gregariousness. O r he may

simply become listless t o w a r d the analytical w o r k : he is
late f o r his a p p o i n t m e n t , n o t h i n g m u c h occurs to h i m ,
he changes the subject, he has no m o r e dreams, he
swamps the analyst w i t h dreams so i n v o l v e d that their
meaning is u n i n t e l l i g i b l e .
T h e first type of resistance, the open fight, is sufficiently clear a n d f a m i l i a r to need no elaboration. T h e
t h i r d type, defensive i n h i b i t i o n s or tactics of evasion,
w i l l be discussed presently i n regard to its relevance for
self-analysis. B u t the second type, defensive emotional
reactions, is particularly significant i n professional analysis, for there such reactions can be concentrated o n the
analyst.
T h e r e are several ways i n w h i c h a resistance may express itself i n e m o t i o n a l reactions regarding the analyst.
I n the example just m e n t i o n e d the patient reacted w i t h
a suspicion that he was being misled. I n others the reaction may be an intense b u t vague fear o i b e i n g i n j u r e d
by analysis. O r i t may be o n l y a diffuse i r r i t a t i o n , or a
contempt for the analyst o n the grounds that he is too
s t u p i d to understand o r to help. O r i t may take the f o r m
of a diffuse anxiety w h i c h the patient tries to allay by
s t r i v i n g for the analyst's friendship or love.
T h e startling intensity that these reactions sometimes
assume is due i n part to the fact that the patient feels
threatened i n something essential to the structure he has
b u i l t , b u t i t is due also to the strategical value of the reactions themselves. Such reactions serve to shift the emphasis f r o m the essential j o b of f i n d i n g causes a n d effects

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to the m u c h safer business of an emotional situation w i t h

the analyst. Instead of going after his o w n p r o b l e m the
p a t i e n t concentrates his efforts o n convincing the analyst, w i n n i n g h i m over, p r o v i n g h i m w r o n g , t h w a r t i n g
his endeavors, p u n i s h i n g h i m for having i n t r u d e d i n t o
t e r r i t o r y that is tabu. A n d along w i t h this shift of emphasis the patient either blames the analyst for a l l his
difficulties, convincing himseli that he cannot progress
w i t h anyone w h o treats h i m w i t h so l i t t l e understanding
a n d fairness, or puts a l l responsibility for the w o r k o n
the analyst, becoming himself i n e r t and

unresponsive.

Needless to add, these emotional battles may go o n u n der cover, and i t may take a great deal of analytical w o r k
to b r i n g t h e m to the patient s awareness. W h e n they are
thus repressed only the resulting blockage makes itself
felt.
I n self-analysis resistances express themselves i n the
same three ways, b u t w i t h an inevitable

difference.

Clare's self-analysis produced o n l y once an open and

direct resistance, b u t i t produced a great deal of diversified i n h i b i t i o n t o w a r d the analytical w o r k and m u c h
evasive maneuvering. Occasionally Clare felt a conscious
e m o t i o n a l reaction to her analytical

findingssuch

as

her shock at discovering her sponging attitude toward

m e n b u t such reactions d i d n o t prevent her f u r t h e r
w o r k . A n d I believe that this is a fairly typical picture
of the way resistances operate i n self-analysis. A t any
rate, i t is a picture that we m i g h t reasonably expect. Emot i o n a l reactions to the findings are b o u n d to occur: the
person w i l l feel apprehensive, ashamed, g u i l t y , o r i r -

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Resistances

r i t a t e d about what he discovers i n himself. B u t these reactions do n o t assume the proportions they do i n professional analysis. One reason for this is t h a t there is n o
analyst w i t h w h o m he can engage i n a defensive fight, or
w h o m he can make responsible: he is t h r o w n back u p o n
himself. A n o t h e r reason is that he ^usually deals w i t h h i m self more gingerly t h a n an analyst w o u l d : he w i l l sense
the danger far ahead and almost automatically shrink
back f r o m a straight approach, resorting instead to one
or another means of a v o i d i n g the p r o b l e m for the t i m e
being.
T h i s brings us to the defensive i n h i b i t i o n s and evasive maneuvers i n w h i c h a resistance may express itself.
These forms of b l o c k i n g the way are as i n n u m e r a b l e as
the variations i n personality, and they may develop at
any p o i n t along the way. T h e i r manifestations i n selfanalysis can be discussed most conveniently by p o i n t i n g
o u t certain crucial points at w h i c h they may impede
progress. I n b r i e f summary, they may prevent a person
f r o m starting to analyze a p r o b l e m ; they may i m p a i r the
value of his free associations; they may block his understanding; they may invalidate his

findings.

A n i n h i b i t i o n t o w a r d starting to analyze a p r o b l e m
may be indiscernible, for as a r u l e a person w h o is worki n g alone does n o t analyze himself regularly anyhow. H e
should n o t concern himself about the periods i n w h i c h
he feels n o need for analysis, though a resistance may be
operative i n such periods too. B u t he should be very
wary about the times w h e n he feels acutely distressed,
disgruntled, fatigued, i r r i t a t e d , indecisive, apprehensive,

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a n d nevertheless refrains f r o m any attempt to clarify the

c o n d i t i o n . H e may t h e n feel a conscious reluctance to anaJyze himself although he is f u l l y aware that by d o i n g so
he w o u l d at least give himself a chance to get o u t of the
distress a n d learn something f r o m i t . O r he may find any
n u m b e r o f excuses for n o t m a k i n g the a t t e m p t h e is
too busy, too t i r e d , there is too l i t t l e time. T h i s f o r m of
resistance is l i k e l y to be more frequent i n self-analysis
than i n professional analysis because i n the latter, w h i l e
the patient may forget or cancel an h o u r occasionally,
there is sufficient pressure of r o u t i n e , politeness, and
money to prevent h i m f r o m d o i n g i t very often.
i n the process of free association the defensive i n h i b i tions a n d evasions operate i n devious ways. T h e y may
make a person flatly u n p r o d u c t i v e . T h e y may lead h i m
to "figure o u t " rather than let his m i n d r u n freely. T h e y
may cause his thoughts to wander off o n a tangent, or,
rather, produce a k i n d of dozing off i n which he forgets
to keep track of the associations that emerge.
A resistance can block his understanding by produci n g b l i n d spots toward certain factors. E i t h e r he w i l l
pay n o a t t e n t i o n to such factors or he w i l l fail to grasp
their m e a n i n g or significance, even though he is perfectly capable of d o i n g so; there were several examples of
this i n Clare's analysis. A n d the feelings or thoughts that
emerge may be m i n i m i z e d , as at the b e g i n n i n g Clare
m i n i m i z e d her resentment and her unhappiness concerning her relationship w i t h Peter. F u r t h e r m o r e , the
resistance may lead to a search i n a w r o n g direction. Here
the danger is n o t so m u c h i n being altogether fanciful

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Resistances

i n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t is, reading something i n t o

the associations that is n o t thereas i n p i c k i n g o u t an
existing factor w i t h o u t considering the context i n w h i c h
i t appears, and thereby i n t e g r a t i n g i t wrongly. Clare's
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the memory of her d o l l E m i l y is an
example.
Finally, when a person does arrive at a real finding a
resistance operating t h r o u g h i n h i b i t i o n s or evasions can
spoil its constructive value i n many ways. Perhaps he
w i l l invalidate the significance of his finding. O r instead
of w o r k i n g at i t patiently he may precociously

decide

that conscious efforts to overcome the p a r t i c u l a r difficulty

are a l l that is needed. O r he may r e f r a i n f r o m

f o l l o w i n g i t up, because he "forgets" about i t , does n o t

"feel l i k e " d o i n g i t , or for some reason or other simply
does n o t get a r o u n d to d o i n g i t . A n d when i t is necessary
for h i m to take a clear stand he may, i n conscious good
f a i t h , resort to one or another compromise s o l u t i o n and
thereby deceive himself about the result he has attained.
H e w i l l believe thenas Clare d i d several t i m e s t h a t
he has solved a p r o b l e m t h o u g h actually he is s t i l l far
f r o m a solution.
A n d now, how are resistances to be coped with? T o
begin w i t h , n o one can do a n y t h i n g about those that are
unnoticeable, because the first a n d uppermost requirement is to recognize that a resistance operates. Most resistances can be overlooked, particularly since as a r u l e
one is not too keen t o see them. B u t there are certain
forms that are b o u n d to escape attention, n o matter how

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alert one is, o r how i n t e n t o n getting o n . T h e foremost

among these are the b l i n d spots and the m i n i m i z i n g of
feelings. T h e severity of the obstacle these present depends u p o n how widespread and tenacious they are, and
o n the foices that are b e h i n d t h e m . As a r u l e , they are
merely an expression of the fact that one is n o t yet able
to face certain factors. Clare, for instance, c o u l d n o t possibly have seen at the b e g i n n i n g the depth of her resentm e n t against Peter, o r the extent to w h i c h she suffered
under the relationship. Even an analyst c o u l d hardly
have helped her to see this, or rather to grasp i t . T o o
m u c h w o r k h a d to be done before she c o u l d tackle these
factors. T h i s consideration implies, encouragingly, that
b l i n d spots w i l l often clear u p i n time i f the w o r k is carried on.
AJmost the same holds t r u e for a search i n a w r o n g
d i r e c t i o n . A resistance that expresses itself i n this f o r m
is also difficult to detect, a n d i t w i l l cause a loss of time.
B u t its presence may be suspected i f one finds after a
w h i l e that n o progress has been made, or that one is only
m o v i n g i n circles i n spite of h a v i n g w o r k e d at the problems concerned. I t is i m p o r t a n t i n self-analysisas i n any
analysisnot to be deluded about the progress made.
Such a delusion may l i f t one's spirits for a w h i l e b u t i t
easily prevents the discovery of a deep-seated resistance.
T h i s possibility of a w r o n g integration of findings is one
of the reasons why an occasional checkup w i t h an analyst
is desirable.
T h e other kinds of resistance are more easily noticed
w i t h due allowance for the fact that they may be of a

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ffmling

with

Resistweei

Forbidding ^M^nsity. A person can certainly notice his

resistance to starting w o r k , i f the s i t u a t i o n is as described
above. I n the process of association he can become aware
that he h f i g u r i n g o u t instead of t h i n k i n g spontaneously;
he can notice that his thoughts are w a n d e r i n g o i l , a n d
then either retrospectively recall their sequence or at
least retrieve the p o i n t at w h i c h they wandered off. H e
can catch himself u p o n fallacious reasoning i f he goes
over his notes o n another day, as Clare d i d i n connection
w i t h her expectations of magic help. H e can suspect that
something is b l o c k i n g progress i f he finds that w i t h conspicuous regularity his findings are highly c o m p l i m e n tary, or highly u n c o m p l i m e n t a r y , to himself. H e can
even suspect that a reaction of discouragement is a f o r m
of resistance, though this is difficult i f he is i n the clutches
of such a feeling; what he should do here is to regard the
discouragement itself as a reaction to the analysis, i n stead of t a k i n g i t at its face value.
W h e n he has become aware of an existing blockage
he should d r o p whatever analytical pursuits he is engaged i n and take the resistance as the most urgent probl e m to be tackled. I t is as useless to force himself to go
o n against the resistance as i t w o u l d be, to use Freud's
i l l u s t r a t i o n , to t r y again and again to l i g h t an electric
b u l b that docs n o t b u r n ; one has to see where the electric c u r r e n t is blocked, whether i n the b u l b , i n the fixture, i n the cord, i n the switch.
T h e technique of t a c k l i n g a resistance is to t r y to associate to i t . B u t i n a l l resistances o c c u r r i n g d u r i n g
analytical w o r k i t is h e l p f u l , before associating, to go

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over the notes that precede the blockage, because there

is a f a i r chance that the clue for i t lies i n an issue at least
touched u p o n , a n d that w h i l e glancing over the notes
the p o i n t of departure may become evident. A n d sometimes a person w i l l n o t be capable of going after a resistance immediately: he may be too reluctant or feel too
uneasy to do so. I t is advisable then, instead of forcing
himself, merely to make a note that at this or that p o i n t
he suddenly felt uneasy or t i r e d , and to resume w o r k
the n e x t day when he may have a fresh perspective o n
matters.
I n advocating that he "associate to a resistance" I mean
that he should consider the particular manifestation of
the blockage and let his thoughts r u n freely along that
line. T h u s i f he has noticed that no matter what problems are concerned his interpretations always make h i m
come o u t o n top he should try to take that finding as a
p o i n t of departure for f u r t h e r associations. I f he has become discouraged at a finding he should remember that
the latter may have touched u p o n factors that he is not
yet able or w i l l i n g to change, and t r y to associate w i t h
that possibility i n m i n d . I f his difficulty is i n starting to
analyze, t h o u g h he feels a need for self-exarnination, he
should r e m i n d himself that a previous piece of analysis
or some outside occurrence may have produced a blockage.
These resistances provoked by outside factors are part i c u l a r l y c o m m o n i n self-analysis, for reasons that were
m e n t i o n e d above. A person w h o is i n the g r i p of neurotic
t r e n d s o r for that matter almost any personis q u i t e

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Resistances

l i k e l y to feel offended or u n f a i r l y dealt w i t h by a special

i n d i v i d u a l , or by life i n general, a n d to take at face value
his reaction of h u r t o r resentment. I n such situations i t
takes a considerable degree of clarity to distinguish between a real a n d an imagined offense. A n d even i f the
offense is real i t need n o t necessarily produce such reactions: i f he is n o t himself vulnerable to what others
may do to h i m there are many offenses to w h i c h he may
respond w i t h p i t y or disapproval of the offender, perhaps w i t h open battle, rather t h a n w i t h h u r t or resentment. I t is m u c h easier merely to feel a r i g h t to be angry
t h a n to examine exactly what vulnerable spot i n h i m self has been h i t . B u t for his o w n interests this is the way
he should proceed, even i f there is n o d o u b t that the
other has been cruel, u n f a i r , or inconsiderate.
L e t us assume that a wife is deeply disturbed at learni n g that her husband has had a transient affair w i t h another woman. Even months later she cannot get over i t ,
although she knows i t is a matter of the past a n d although the husband does everything to re-establish a
good relationship. She makes herself and h i m miserable,
and now a n d t h e n goes o n a spree of b i t t e r reproaches
against h i m . T h e r e are a n u m b e r of reasons that m i g h t
e x p l a i n w h y she feels a n d acts i n this way, q u i t e apart
f r o m a genuine h u r t about the breach of confidence. I t
may have h u r t her p r i d e that the husband c o u l d be attached to anyone b u t herself. I t may be intolerable t o
her that the husband c o u l d slip o u t f r o m her c o n t r o l a n d
d o m i n a t i o n . T h e i n c i d e n t may have touched off a dread
of desertion, as i t w o u l d i n a person l i k e Clare. She may

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be discontented w i t h the marriage for reasons of w h i c h

she is n o t aware, a n d she may use this conspicuous occurrence as a n excuse for expressing a l l her repressed
grievances,

thus engaging

merely i n an

unconscious

campaign of revenge. She may have felt attracted toward

another m a n a n d resent the fact that her husband i n d u l g e d i n a freedom that she had n o t allowed herself. I f
she examined such possibilities she m i g h t n o t o n l y i m prove the s i t u a t i o n considerably b u t also gain a m u c h
clearer knowledge of herself. N e i t h e r result is possible,
however, as l o n g as she merely insists u p o n her r i g h t to
be angry. T h e s i t u a t i o n w o u l d be essentially the same i f
she had repressed her anger, t h o u g h i n that case i t w o u l d
be m u c h more difficult to detect her resistance toward
self-examination.
A r e m a r k may be i n place about the spirit of tackling
resistances. W e are easily tempted to be annoyed at ourselves f o r h a v i n g a resistance, as i f i t indicated an i r r i t a t i n g s t u p i d i t y or obstinacy. Such an attitude is understandable because i t is a n n o y i n g or even exasperating to
encounter self-made obstacles o n o u r way to a goal that
we desire i n o u r best interests. Nevertheless there is n o
justification or even any m e a n i n g i n a person scolding
himself for his resistances. H e is n o t to blame for the development of the forces b e h i n d them, and, besides, the
n e u r o t i c trends that they t r y to protect have given h i m
a means of dealing w i t h life w h e n all other means have
failed. I t is m o r e sensible for h i m to regard the opposing
forces as given factors. I am almost i n c l i n e d to say that
he should respect t h e m as a p a r t of himselfrespect

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Resistances

t h e m n o t i n the sense of g i v i n g t h e m approval a n d i n dulgence b u t i n the sense of acknowledging t h e m as organic developments. Such an a t t i t u d e w i l l n o t only be
more just to himself b u t w i l l also give h i m a m u c h better
basis for dealing w i t h resistances. I f he approaches t h e m
w i t h a hostile d e t e r m i n a t i o n to crush t h e m he w i l l
hardly have the patience and willingness necessary for
t h e i r understanding.
I f resistances are tackled i n the way and i n the s p i r i t
indicated, there is a good chance that they may be understood and o v e r c o m e p r o v i d e d

they are n o

stronger

t h a n one's constructive w i l l . Those that are stronger

present difficulties that can at best be overcome o n l y
w i t h expert help.

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C H A P T E R

E L E V E H

Limitations of Self-Analysis

T h e d i s t i n c t i o n between resistance a n d l i m i t a t i o n is
merely one of degree. A n y resistance, i f strong enough,
can t u r n i n t o an actual l i m i t a t i o n . A n y factor that decreases or paralyzes a person's incentive to come to grips
w i t h himself constitutes a possible l i m i t a t i o n to selfanalysis. I do n o t see any other way of presenting these
factors t h a n to discuss t h e m separately, although they
are n o t separate entities. T h u s i n the f o l l o w i n g pages the
same factor is sometimes dealt w i t h f r o m several viewpoints.
T o begin w i t h , a deep-rooted feeling of resignation
constitutes a serious l i m i t a t i o n to self-analysis. A person
may be so hopeless about ever escaping from his psychic
entanglements that he has no incentive to make more
than a halfhearted a t t e m p t to outgrow his difficulties.
Hopelessness is present to some extent i n every severe

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of

Self-Analysis

neurosis. W h e t h e r i t constitutes a serious obstacle t o

therapy depends u p o n the a m o u n t of constructive forces
s t i l l alive or still to be revived. Such constructive forces
are often present even though they seem to have been
lost. B u t sometimes a person has been so entirely crushed
at an early age, or has become caught i n such unsolvable conflicts, that he has l o n g since given u p expectations
and struggle.
T h i s a t t i t u d e of resignation may be entirely conscious,
expressing itself i n a pervasive feeling of f u t i l i t y concerni n g ones o w n life or i n a more or less elaborate p h i losophy of the f u t i l i t y of life i n general. O f t e n i t is reinforced by a p r i d e i n belonging among the few people
who have n o t b l i n d e d themselves to this "fact." I n some
persons n o such conscious elaboration has taken place;
they are merely passive, endure life i n a stoical way, a n d
no longer respond to any prospect of a more meaningf u l existence.
Such resignation may be h i d d e n also b e h i n d a feeling
of boredom w i t h life, as i n Ibsen's H e d d a Gabler. H e r
expectations are extremely meager. L i f e should be ent e r t a i n i n g n o w a n d then, should provide some f u n or
t h r i l l or excitement, b u t she expects n o t h i n g of positive
value. T h i s a t t i t u d e is often accompaniedas

i t is i n

H e d d a Gabler-by a p r o f o u n d cynicism, the result of

a disbelief i n any value i n life a n d i n any goal to strive
for. B u t a p r o f o u n d hopelessness may exist also i n persons one w o u l d n o t suspect of i t , persons w h o superficially

give the impression of being capable of enjoying

life. T h e y may be good company, enjoy eating, d r i n k i n g ,

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sexual relations. I n adolescence they may have been

p r o m i s i n g , capable of genuine

interests and

genuine

feelings. B u t for some reason or other they have become

shallow, have lost their a m b i t i o n ; t h e i r interest i n w o r k
has become perfunctory, their relationships w i t h people
are loose, easily made and easily terminated. I n short,
they, too, have ceased to strive for a meaningful existence
a n d have t u r n e d to the periphery of life instead.
Q u i t e a different k i n d of l i m i t a t i o n is set to selfanalysis i f a neurotic t r e n d is w h a t we m i g h t call, w i t h
some inaccuracy, too successhd. A craving for power, for
example, may be gratified to such an extent that the per^
son w o u l d scoif at any suggestion of analysis, even though
his satistaction w i t h his life is actually b u i l t o n quicksand. T h e same holds true i f a l o n g i n g for dependency
is f u l f i l l e d i n a marriagea marriage, for example, between such a person and one w h o has an urge for d o m i n a t i o n o r i n subordination to a group. Similarly, a person may successfully w i t h d r a w i n t o an ivory tower a n d
feel comparatively at ease by keeping w i t h i n its precincts.
T h i s apparently successful assertion of a neurotic
trend is produced by a c o m b i n a t i o n of internal and external conditions. As to the former, a neurotic t r e n d that
"succeeds" must n o t conflict too sharply w i t h

other

needs. A c t u a l l y a person is never entirely consumed by

just one compulsive s t r i v i n g , w i t h everything else blotted
o u t : n o h u m a n being is ever reduced to a streamlined
machine d r i v i n g i n one d i r e c t i o n . B u t this concentrat i o n may be approximated. A n d external conditions

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Self-Analysis

must be of a k i n d to allow such a development. T h e comparative importance of external a n d i n t e r n a l conditions

varies i n f i n i t e l y . I n o u r society a m a n wh o is

financially

independent can easily w i t h d r a w i n t o his ivory tower;

b u t a person w i t h scant resources can also w i t h d r a w f r o m
the w o r l d , i f he restricts his other needs to a m i n i m u m .
One person has g r o w n u p i n an e n v i r o n m e n t that allows
h i m a display of prestige o r power, b u t another, t h o u g h
he started w i t h n o t h i n g , makes such a relentless use of
external circumstances that i n the end he attains the
same goal.
B u t no matter how such a "successful" assertion of a
neurotic t r e n d is achieved, the result is a more or less
complete b a r r i e r to development by w ay of analysis. For
T

one t h i n g , the successful t r e n d has become too valuable

to be s u b m i t t e d to any questioning. A n d for another
t h i n g , the goal that is striven for i n analysisa h a r m o n i ous development, w i t h good relations to self a n d others
w o u l d n o t appeal to such a person because the forces
that m i g h t respond to the appeal are too enfeebled.
A t h i r d l i m i t a t i o n to analytical w o r k is constituted by
the prevalence of destructive tendencies, whether they
p e r t a i n p r i m a r i l y to others or to the self. I t should be
emphasized that such tendencies are n o t necessarily
l i t e r a l l y destructive, i n the sense of an urge toward suicide, for example. M o r e often they take such forms as
hostility o r contempt o r a general attitude of negation.
These destructive impulses are engendered i n every
severe neurosis. I n greater or less degree they are at the
b o t t o m of every n e u r o t i c development, a n d they become

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intensified t h r o u g h the clashing of r i g i d , egocentric demands a n d illusions w i t h the external w o r l d . A n y severe

neurosis is l i k e a t i g h t a r m o r that prevents the person
f r o m h a v i n g a f u l l and active life w i t h others. I t necessarily engenders a resentment t o w a r d life, a deep resentm e n t at b e i n g left out w h i c h Nietzsche has described as
Lebensneid.

For many reasons hostility and contempt,

i n regard to self and others alike, may be so strong that

to let oneself go to pieces appears as an appealing way to
take revenge. T o say " n o " to everything life has to offer
remains the only assertion of self that is left. Ibsen s
H e d d a Gabier, already m e n t i o n e d when discussing the
factor of resignation, is a good example of a person i n
w h o m destructiveness t o w a r d others and self is a prevaili n g tendency.
H o w p r o h i b i t i v e such destructiveness is to self-development depends, as always, o n the degree of severity.
I f a person feels, f o r example, that t r i u m p h over others
is far more i m p o r t a n t than d o i n g a n y t h i n g constructive
w i t h his o w n life, he is n o t l i k e l y to derive m u c h benefit
from analysis. I f i n his m i n d enjoyment, happiness, and
affection, o r any closeness to people, have t u r n e d i n t o
indications of contemptible softness or mediocrity, it
may be impossible for h i m o r anyone else to penetrate
his a r m o r o f hardness.
A f o u r t h l i m i t a t i o n is more comprehensive and more
difficult to define, because i t concerns the elusive concept o f "self." W h a t I mean here is perhaps best i n d i cated by W i l l i a m James's concept of the "real self" as
distinguished f r o m the m a t e r i a l a n d social self. I n simple

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of

Self-Analysis

terms i t concerns what / really feel, what / really want,

what / really believe, what / really decide. I t is, or should
be, the most alive center of psychic life. I t is this psychic
center to w h i c h the appeal is made i n analytical w o r k .
I n every neurosis its scope and its aliveness are decreased,
for genuine self-regard, native d i g n i t y , i n i t i a t i v e , the
capacity to take responsibility for one's life, and l i k e
factors that account for the development of self have
always been battered. Moreover, the n e u r o t i c trends
themselves have usurped a great deal of its energies becauseto resume

an analogy

previously

usedthey

t u r n a person i n t o an airplane d r i v e n by remote c o n t r o l .

I n most instances there are sufficient possibilities for
recapturing and developing the self, though the strength
of these possibilities is difficult to estimate at the beginn i n g . B u t i f the real self is considerably damaged the
person has lost his o w n center of gravity and is directed
by other forces, f r o m w i t h i n or f r o m w i t h o u t . H e may
overadapt himself to his e n v i r o n m e n t and become an
automaton. H e may find his only r i g h t to existence i n
being helpful to others, and thus be socially

useful

though his lack of any center of gravity w i t h i n himself

is b o u n d to hamper his efficiency. H e may lose a l l i n n e r
sense of d i r e c t i o n , and either d r i f t aimlessly or be entirely directed by a neurotic t r e n d , as m e n t i o n e d i n the
discussion of "oversuccessful" neurotic trends. H i s feelings, thoughts, a n d actions may be almost entirely det e r m i n e d by an inflated image w h i c h he has b u i l t u p o f
himself: he w i l l be sympathetic n o t because he really
feels i t , b u t because to be sympathetic is p a r t of his

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image; he w i l l have p a r t i c u l a r " f r i e n d s " or "interests"

because those friends or interests are r e q u i r e d by his
image.
A final l i m i t a t i o n to be m e n t i o n e d is set by strongly
developed secondary defenses. I f the whole neurosis is
safeguarded by r i g i d convictions that everything is r i g h t ,
good, o r unalterable, there can h a r d l y be an incentive
to change a n y t h i n g .
Everyone w h o struggles to liberate himself f r o m neur o t i c bondages knows o r senses that some of these factors operate w i t h i n himself, and for those u n f a m i l i a r
w i t h psychoanalytic therapy the enumeration of these
l i m i t a t i o n s may have a d e t e r r i n g effect. I t must be remembered, however, that none of these factors is proh i b i t i v e i n a n absolute sense. I t can be asserted flatly and
absolutely t h a t w i t h o u t airplanes there is n o chance
nowadays of w i n n i n g a war. B u t i t w o u l d be nonsensical
to say flatly that a feeling of f u t i l i t y or a diffuse resentm e n t against people w o u l d prevent anyone f r o m analyzi n g himself. H i s chances for constructive

self-analysis

depend largely o n the relative strength of " I can" a n d

" I can't" or " I w i l l " and " I w o n ' t . " A n d this i n t u r n depends u p o n the d e p t h of those attitudes that jeopardize
self-development. T h e r e is a great difference between a
person w h o , t h o u g h merely d r i f t i n g and

finding

no

meaning i n life, is nevertheless vaguely searching for

something, a n d a person who, l i k e Hedda Gabler, has
t u r n e d his back o n life w i t h a b i t t e r and final resignation.
Just as there is between a person w h o is p r o f o u n d l y cynical and discounts every ideal as mere hypocrisy, a n d an2$2

Limitations

of Self

Analysis

other, apparently equally cynical, w h o nevertheless feels

a positive respect a n d l i k i n g f o r anyone w h o lives u p to
genuine ideals. O r between a person w h o is diffusely i r r i t a b l e and contemptuous t o w a r d people b u t responds to
their friendliness, a n d one w h o , l i k e H e d d a Gabler, is
equally vicious t o w a r d f r i e n d and enemy, and even tends
particularly to destroy those w h o touch remnants of
softer feelings w i t h i n himself.
I f the barriers to self-development t h r o u g h analysis
are genuinely unsurpassable i t is never one factor alone
that accounts for t h e m , b u t a c o m b i n a t i o n of several.
Deep hopelessness, f o r example, is an absolute obstacle
o n l y i f i t is c o m b i n e d w i t h a r e i n f o r c i n g tendency, an
armor of self-righteousness, perhaps, or a pervasive destructiveness; complete alienation f r o m self cannot be
p r o h i b i t i v e unless there is also some such r e i n f o r c i n g
tendency as a firmly entrenched dependency. I n other
words, genuine l i m i t a t i o n s exist o n l y i n severe and complicated neuroses, a n d even there constructive forces
may s t i l l be alive, i f o n l y they can be f o u n d a n d used.
T h e r e are various ways i n w h i c h d e t e r r i n g psychic
forces, such as those discussed above, may affect an endeavor at self-analysis, i f they are n o t of such c o m p e l l i n g
strength as to p r o h i b i t the endeavor entirely. For one
t h i n g , they may imperceptibly spoil the w h o l e analysis
by causing i t to be carried o u t i n a s p i r i t of o n l y partial
honesty. I n these cases the one-sided emphases a n d the
b l i n d spots concerning rather w i d e areas, w h i c h are
present at the b e g i n n i n g of every

analysis,

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A N A L Y S I S

t h r o u g h o u t the w o r k , rather t h a n decreasing gradually

i n extent a n d intensity. Factors l y i n g outside these areas
may be faced squarely. B u t since n o area w i t h i n the self
is isolated f r o m others, a n d hence cannot really be u n derstood w i t h o u t being related to the whole structure,
even those factors that are seen r e m a i n o n the level of
superficial insights.
Rousseau's Confessions,

t h o u g h only remotely a k i n

to analysis, may serve as an example of this possibility.

H e r e is a m a n w h o apparently wants to give an honest
p i c t u r e of himself, a n d does so to a moderate extent. B u t
t h r o u g h o u t the book he retains b l i n d spots concerning
his vanity a n d his i n a b i l i t y to l o v e t o m e n t i o n only
t w o outstanding factorswhich are so blatant that they
impress us today as grotesque. H e is frank about what
he expects a n d accepts f r o m others, b u t he interprets the
resulting dependency as "love." H e recognizes his v u l n e r a b i l i t y b u t relates i t to his "feeling heart." Fie recognizes his animosities, b u t they always t u r n o u t to be
warranted. H e sees his failures, b u t always others arc
responsible for them.
T o be sure, Rousseau's confessions

are not a self-

analysis. Yet o n rereading the book i n recent years 1 have

often been r e m i n d e d of friends and patients whose
analytical endeavors were not too different. T h e book,
indeed, deserves a careful and critical study. A n endeavor
at self-analysis, even though m o r e sophisticated, may
easily meet w i t h a s i m i l a r fate. A person equipped w i t h
greater psychological knowledge m i g h t merely be more
2

Limitations

of

Setf-Analysis

subtle i n his attempts to justify a n d embellish his actions

and motivations.
T h e r e is one p o i n t , however, o n w h i c h Rousseau is
straight: his sexual peculiarities. T h i s frankness must
certainly be appreciated. Rut his frankness i n sexual
matters helps to keep h i m f r o m seeing how l i t t l e he actually faces his other problems. I n this regard, too, the
lesson we can s t i l l learn f r o m Rousseau is w o r t h ment i o n i n g . Since sexuality is an i m p o r t a n t d o m a i n i n o u r
life i t is i m p o r t a n t to be as relentlessly honest t o w a r d i t
as toward everything else. B u t the one sided emphasis
that Freud has given sexual factors may t e m p t many
people to single t h e m o u t above others, as Rousseau d i d .
T o be straight i n sexual questions is necessary; b u t to be
straight only w i t h them is n o t enough.
Another one-sided emphasis is a persistent tendency to
regard a particular present difficulty as a static r e p e t i t i o n
of a particular i n f a n t i l e experience.

W h e n a person

wants to understand himself i t is i m p o r t a n t , beyond any

d o u b t , that he understand the forces that were instrumental i n his development, and i t is one of Freud's foremost discoveries to have recognized the influence that
early experiences exert u p o n the f o r m a t i o n of personality. B u t i t is always the sum total of a l l o u r early experiences that has c o n t r i b u t e d to m o l d the present structure. A n d i t is therefore f u t i l e to uncover

isolated

connections between a certain present disturbance and a

certain early influence. Present peculiarities can be u n derstood only as an expression of the whole i n t e r p l a y of

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forces operating i n the present personality. For example,

the peculiar development that took place i n Clares relationship w i t h her mother had a definite bearing u p o n
her dependency o n m e n . B u t i f Clare had seen only the
similarities between the o l d pattern and the new one she
w o u l d have failed to recognize

the essential

driving

forces that compelled her to perpetuate the pattern. She

m i g h t have seen that she subordinated herself to Peter
as she had to the mother, that she hero-worshiped Peter
as she had adored the mother, that she expected h i m to
protect her a n d to help her i n distress as she had expected
the m o t h e r to help her, that she resented Peter's rejecti n g her as she had resented the mother's d i s c r i m i n a t i o n
against her. I n recognizing these connections she m i g h t
have gained a certain distance to her actual p r o b l e m ,
simply by recognizing the operation of a compulsive pattern. B u t actually she c l u n g to Peter not because he represented a mother-image b u t because, through her compulsive modesty and t h r o u g h her repressed

arrogance

and a m b i t i o n , she had lost her self-regard, almost lost

her i d e n t i t y ; thus she was fearful, i n h i b i t e d , defenseless,
and isolated, a n d o n these grounds was compelled to seek
shelter a n d restoration o i herself i n ways that were
doomed to failure and merely entangled her more deeply
i n the n e t w o r k of her i n h i b i t i o n s and fears. O n l y by
realizing these dynamics could she eventually free herself from the aftermaths of an unfortunate childhood.
S t i l l another one-sided emphasis is a tendency to harp
always o n the " b a d " sides, or w h a t are regarded as such.
Confessing a n d condemning can then take the place of

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Self-Analysis

understanding. T h i s is done partly i n a spirit of hostile

scl[-recrimination b u t also w i t h a secret belief that confession alone is enough to harvest a reward.
These b l i n d spots and one-sided emphases may be
f o u n d , of course, i n any endeavor at self-analysis, whether
or n o t the l i m i t a t i o n s discussed above are present. T o
some extent they may result from mistaken preconceptions about psychoanalysis. I n this case they can be corrected i f the person achieves a more r o u n d e d understanding of psychic processes. B u t the p o i n t 1 w o u l d
stress here is that they may also represent merely a means
of evading the essential problems. Tn this case they are
ultimately caused by resistances to progress, and i f these
resistances are stiong e n o u g h i f they a m o u n t to what
I have described as l i m i t a t i o n s t h e y may constitute a
definite obstruction to the success of the analysis.
T h e deterring forces that were m e n t i o n e d above can
frustrate self-analysis also by causing a premature term i n a t i o n of efforts. I am referring here to instances i n
which the analysis proceeds up to a certain p o i n t , is helpf u l to some extent, b u t does not proceed beyond this
point because the person w i l l not grapple w i t h those
factors w i t h i n himself which prevent his f u r t h e r development. T h i s may happen after he has overcome the
most d i s t u r b i n g factors and no longer feels a pressing
need to w o r k at himself, even t h o u g h many

diffuse

handicaps are left. T h e t e m p t a t i o n to relax i n this way

is particularly gieat i f life goes smoothly a n d offers no
particular challenge. N a t u r a l l y i n such situations a l l of
us are less eager for complete self-recognition. A n d i t is

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u l t i m a t e l y a matter of o u r personal philosophy of life

h o w h i g h l y we value a constructive dissatisfaction w i t h
ourselves that drives us o n toward further g r o w t h and
development. I t is desirable, however, that we be or become clear as to what exactly are o u r sets of values, and
act accordingly. I t w o u l d constitute an essential lack of
t r u t h to ourselves if, w i t h a conscious adherence to the
ideal of g r o w t h , i n reality we r e l i n q u i s h e d o u r efforts to
measure u p to i t or even let t h e m be stifled by a smug
self-satisfaction.
B u t a person may break off his efforts at self-analysis
for q u i t e an opposite reason: he has arrived at various
relevant insights i n t o his difficulties, b u t n o t h i n g changes
and he becomes discouraged by the lack of tangible results. Actually, as m e n t i o n e d before, the discouragement
itself constitutes a p r o b l e m and should be tackled as
such. But i f i t derives f r o m severe neurotic entanglem e n t s f o r example, f r o m the a t t i t u d e of hopeless resignation described abovethe person may be unable to
cope w i t h i t alone. T h i s does n o t mean that his efforts
u p to this p o i n t have been useless. Very often, despite
the l i m i t a t i o n s to what he can accomplish, he has succeeded i n losing one or another gross manifestation of
his neurotic difficulties.
I n h e r e n t l i m i t a t i o n s may cause a premature terminat i o n of self-analysis i n s t i l l another way: the person may
arrive at a k i n d of pseudo s o l u t i o n by arranging his life
to fit i n w i t h his r e m a i n i n g neurosis. Life itself may be
instrumental i n b i i n g i n g about such solutions. H e may
be t h r o w n i n t o a s i t u a t i o n that provides an outlet for a

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Analysis

craving for power, o r permits a life of obscurity and subo r d i n a t i o n i n which he need not assert himself. H e may
seize the possibility of a marriage to solve his urge f o r
dependency. O r he may more or less consciously decide
that his difficulties i n h u m a n relationshipssome of
w h i c h he has recognized a n d understood-are too great
a d r a i n on his energies, and that the only way to live a
peaceful life o r to save his creative abilities is to w i t h draw f r o m others; he may then restrict to a m i n i m u m his
need for people or f o r m a t e r i a l things, and under these
conditions be able to w o r k out a tolerable existence.
These solutions are n o t ideal, to be sure, b u t a psychic
e q u i l i b r i u m may be reached o n a better level than before. A n d i n some circumstances of very severe entanglements such pseudo solutions may be the most that can
be attained.
I n p r i n c i p l e these l i m i t s to constructive w o r k are present i n professional analysis as w e l l as i n self-analysis. I n
fact, as was m e n t i o n e d before, i f the d e t e n i n g forces are
strong enough the idea of analysis w i l l be rejected altogether. A n d even i f i t is n o t rejectedif the person
suffers so m u c h under the pressure of his disabilities
that he undertakes analytical treatment-the analyst is
no sorcerer w h o can conjure up forces that are entirely
choked. T h e r e is n o d o u b t , however, that by and large
the limitations are considerably greater for self-analysis.
I n many instances an analyst can liberate constructive
forces by showing the patient concrete problems accessible to a solution, whereas i f the patient were w o r k i n g
2

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

alone, and felt b l i n d l y caught i n invisible and apparently

i n e x t n c a b l e entanglements, he could n o t possibly pick
u p enough courage to grapple w i t h his problems. Moreover, the relative strength of the various psychic forces
w i t h i n the patient may change d u r i n g treatment, because none of these forces is a q u a n t i t y given once and
for a l l . Every step that leads h i m closer to his real self
and closer to others renders h i m less hopeless and less
isolated and thereby adds to his active interest i n life,
i n c l u d i n g also his interest i n his o w n

development.

T h e r e f o r e after a period of c o m m o n w o r k w i t h an analyst even patients who started w i t h severe neurotic difficulties

may i n some cases be able to continue o n their

o w n , i f necessary.
T h o u g h o n the whole the comparison w i t h professional analysis is i n favor of the latter whenever intricate
and diffuse entanglements are concerned, there are certain reservations that should be borne i n m i n d . I t is not
entirely fair to compare self-analysis, and its unavoidable deficiencies, w i t h an ideal analytical treatment. I
k n o w several people w h o were barely touched by treat
m e n t b u t afterward grappled successfully on their own
w i t h rather serious problems. W e should be cautious
b o t h ways, and neither underrate n o r overrate what can
be done w i t h o u t expert help.
T h i s brings us back to a question that was raised at
the b e g i n n i n g , regarding the specific conditions under
w h i c h a person can analyze himself. I f he has already
had some analytical treatment, and i f conditions are
favorable, I believe, as I have emphasized t h r o u g h o u t

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Self-Analysis

the book, that he can continue alone w i t h the hope of

achieving far-reaching results. T h e example of C l a r e
and also other cases n o t presented hereshows clearly
that i t is possible, w i t h previous experience, to deal alone
w i t h even severe and intricate problems. I t appears a
reasonable hope that b o t h analysts and patients w i l l become more aware of this possibility, and that more attempts of this k i n d w i l l be made. I t may be hoped, too,
that analysts w i l l gradually assemble criteria that w i l l
enable them to judge when they can reasonably encourage the patient to continue his w o r k independently.
I n this context there is a consideration I should l i k e
to emphasize, though i t does n o t refer directly to selfanalysis. I f the analyst does n o t assume an authoritative
attitude toward the patient, b u t makes i t clear f r o m the
beginning that the enterprise is a co-operative one i n
w h i c h b o t h analyst a n d patient w o r k actively toward the
same goal, the patient w i l l be able to develop his o w n
resources i n a m u c h higher degree. H e w i l l lose the
paralyzing feeling that he is more or less helpless and
that the analyst must carry the sole responsibility, and
w i l l learn to respond w i t h i n i t i a t i v e and resourcefulness. Broadly speaking, psychoanalytic treatment has developed f r o m a situation i n w h i c h b o t h patient and analyst are relatively passive to one i n w h i c h the analyst is
more active, and finally to one i n w h i c h b o t h participants take an active role. W h e r e the latter s p i r i t prevails more can be accomplished i n a shorter t i m e . T h e
reason I m e n t i o n this fact here is n o t to p o i n t o u t the
possibilities of shortening analytical treatment, t h o u g h

S E L F - A N A L Y S I S

that is desirable a n d i m p o r t a n t , b u t to p o i n t o u t how

such a co-operative attitude can c o n t r i b u t e to the possibilities of self-analysis.
I t is more difficult to give a definite answer concerni n g the possibility of self-analysis f o r those w i t h o u t
previous analytical experience. H e r e m u c h , i f n o t everyt h i n g , depends o n the severity of the neurotic disturbance. T h e r e is n o d o u b t i n m y m i n d that severe neuroses
belong i n the hands of experts: anyone who suffers f r o m
severe disturbances should consult an expert before emb a r k i n g u p o n self-analysis. B u t i n considering the poss i b i l i t y of self-analysis i t is a mistake to t h i n k p r i m a r i l y
i n terms of severe neuroses. Beyond d o u b t they are far
o u t n u m b e r e d by the m i l d e r neuroses and the various
neurotic troubles caused p r i m a r i l y by the difficulties of
a p a r t i c u l a r situation. Persons suffering f r o m

these

m i l d e r disturbances rarely come to the attention of analysts, b u t t h e i r difficulties should n o t be taken lightly,
T h e i r troubles n o t o n l y cause suffering and handicaps
b u t also result i n a waste of valuable energies, for the
person is prevented f r o m developing to the best of his
h u m a n capacities.
I feel that w i t h regard to these difficulties experiences
of the k i n d reported i n the chapter o n occasional selfanalysis are encouraging. I n several instances reported
there the persons concerned h a d l i t t l e i f any experience
w i t h analytical treatment. T o be sure, they d i d n o t go
far enough i n their endeavors at self-examination. B u t
there seems n o good reason n o t to believe that w i t h a
more widespread general knowledge of the nature o f

302

Limitations

of

Seif-Analysis

neurotic troubles and the ways of tackling them attempts

of this k i n d can be carried furtheralways provided the
severity of the neurosis is n o t p r o h i b i t i v e . T h e structure
of personality is so m u c h less r i g i d i n m i l d e r neurotic
entanglements than i n severe ones that even attempts
that are n o t carried very far may help considerably. I n
severe neuroses i t is often necessary to do a great deal of
analytical w o r k before any l i b e r a t i n g effect is achieved.
I n m i l d e r disturbances even a single uncovering of an
unconscious conflict may be the t u r n i n g p o i n t t o w a r d a
freer development.
B u t even i f we grant that a considerable n u m b e r of
people can profitably analyze themselves, w i l l they ever
complete the work? W i l l there n o t always be problems
left that are not solved or n o t even touched upon? M y
answer is that there is no such t h i n g as a complete analysis. A n d this answer is n o t given i n a spirit of resignat i o n . Certainly the greater the degree of transparency
and the more ftecdom we can attain, the better for us.
B u t the idea of a finished h u m a n product not only appears presumptuous b u t even, i n my o p i n i o n , lacks any
strong appeal. L i f e is struggle and striving, development
and g r o w t h a n d analysis is one of the means that can
help i n this process. Certainly its positive accomplishments are i m p o r t a n t , b u t also the striving itself is of
i n t r i n s i c value. As Goethe has said i n Faust:
Whoe'er

aspires

unweariedly,

Is n o t beyond redeeming.

303

I N D E X

Adler, A., 40, 48

Character disorders, 9 ff.
Adventures
in Self-Dtscovery,
Character Growth and Educa18
tion, 39
Alcoholism, 69
Clare, childhood history, 47 ff.;
American Tragedy, 160
comparison with employee,
Analysis, goal of, 21; Freud's
52; secondary defenses in, 72,
goal, 21; com se of, 88 ff.
stages m psychoanalytic un
Analyst, equipment of prodemanding, 75 ff.; discov
fessional, 25; functions of,
ery of compulsive modesty,
123 ff, observation, 123 ff,
77 ff ; compulsive dependency
use of free association, 127,
in, 80 ff ; repressed ambitious
understanding, 127; mteiprestrivings, 84 ff.;
systematic
tation, 137 ff., help in resist
self-analysis by, 190 ff.; dis
ance, 138 ff; general human
covery of "private religion,"
help, 142 ff , extent functions
237 ff.
of can be taken over by pa- Compulsive dependency, in
tient alone, 145 ff.
Clare, 80 ff
Anxiety, 3iff, 95; from frus- Compulsive modesty, in Clare,
77 ff.
tration of neurotic trend, 42,
of Modern
Psy65; m free association, 109; Conceptions
chiatry, 39
caused by insights, 115 ff.
Confessions, 188, 294
Balzac, 39, 42
Conflicts, 95, 99
Beyond the Clinical
Frontiers, Contradictions, 135
Culbertson, Ely, 188
39
Carnegie, Dale, 17
Chagrin Leather, 42

Democracy
Opinion,

Through
18

3 5

Public

I N D E X

D e p r e s s i o n , 7, 6 9 , 9 5
Der

gehemmle

Dostoevski,
Dreams,

37> &

Mensch,

66

176,

39

176;

tations

of,

according

to

F u n c t i o n a l stomach upsets,

various interpre176 if.;

anxiety,

178
Dreiser, T h e o d o r e ,

Gabler,

Hedda,

287,

290,

292,

293

160

G e s t a l t psychologists,

D r u g addiction, 7
D y n a m i c s , of

146,

F r o m m , E r i c h , 39, 55, 238

135;

Freud,

1% 1 0 2 ,

39> 4 0 ,

178, 2 6 8 , 2 6 9 , 2 9 5

personality

trait,

Goethe,

172

303

260
H e n d r i c k , I v e s , 39
Emerson,
Escape

Ralph Waldo,

from

Freedom,

Hostility,

39
39,

55,

59

65;

t i o n , 110;
How

to

Win

fluence

Facts

and

analysis,
Fantasies,
Faust,

Theories

of

Psycho

associa-

Humiliation,

and

109;

repressed

119

Hysterical convulsions,

135

In-

18

303

F e a r , u n a w a r e n e s s of, 4 2 , 2 0 9

I b s e n , 39, 287, 290

Ferenczi,

I n c e n t i v e , 16 if.

111

F r e e a s s o c i a t i o n , 102 ff.; F r e u d ' s

d i s c o v e r y of, 102; p u r p o s e
103;

difficulties

inhibitions

i n , 107,

i n , 109;

of,
247;

humilia

t i o n i n , 109; analyst's use

of,

127;

in

analyst's

self-analyst,
of

free

Friends

People,

f e e l i n g of,

39

in

t o w a r d self, 2 9 0

writing

parison
188,

own,

186;
down,

with

technique

understanding,

306

187;

com-

diary-keeping,
of,

249;

251;

i t y i n a p p r o a c h to,
F r e u d , 7, 17,

137;

advantages

and

flexibil255

18, 2 0 , 2 1 , 2 2 , 2 9 ,

I n h i b i t i o n s , 66; i n free associat i o n , 109; t o w a r d s t a r t i n g a n

analysis of a problem,

277

I n s i g h t , 17, 2 8 , 3 2 , 3 4 , 111,
beneficial
reaction

results
to,

114 ff.;

r e a c t i o n to, 116;
119;

of,

Interpretation

negative

and

retreat from,

255;

ii2fL;

change,

141

of Dreams,

The,

39
Introductory
choanalysis,

Lectures
38

>, I n t r o s p e c t i o n , 3 0

on

Psy-

I N D E X

James, W i l l i a m , 290

N e e d to c o n t r o l self a n d o t h e r s ,

J u n g , C . G., 4 0

57
N e e d to e x p l o i t o t h e r s , 57

K u n k e l , Fritz, 39

N e e d to r e s t r i c t o n e ' s l i f e w i t h i n
n a r r o w borders,

Lass well, H a r o l d D.,

18

Late

The,

George

Apley,

Lebensneid,

29

forces

290

Limitations

of

self-analysis,

resignation,

cessful

assertion

trend,

2 8 8 ff.;

286;

of

suc-

neurotic

prevalence

tendencies,

of
289;

elusive concept of "self," 290;

strongly

in,

37

ff.;

essence

of.

69

2 8 6 ff.;

destructive

55

N e u r o s e s , t h e o r y of, j o ; d r i v i n g

developed

a r y d e f e n s e s , 2 9 2 ff.;

secondone-sided

e m p h a s e s , 2 9 3 If.

N e u r o t i c ambition for personal

achievement,
Neurotic
Time,

The,

30

of

Our

39, 54, 5 6

N e u r o t i c trends, description
4 0 if.; c o m p u l s i v e
115;

nature,

of,
41,

g e n e s i s of, 4 3 f l . ; p e r s i s t -

e n c e of, 4 6 , 52 ff.; s e c u r i t y

of-

fered by, 5 3 ; classification

of,

5 4 ff.;
"Mania-psychologica,"

58

Personality

difference

between

n o r m a l a n d , Co ff.;

determine

M a s l o w , A . H . , 39

i m a g e o f s e l f , 6 3 ff.; effect

on

M i t t e l m a n n , B e l a , 39

evaluation

in-

Narcissistic elements, 22, 23, 58

conflicts

hibitions

of others,
resulting

from,

66;

resulting

from,

68;

N e e d f o r a f f e c t i o n , 2 0 , 4 1 , 5 4 , 61

"symptoms,"

N e e d for a p p r o v a l , 20, 54

stages

N e e d for independence,

recognition

N e e d for a "partner/*
Need

59

55

for perfectionism, 41,

ing
59,

62
Need

65;

in

69,

analysis
of,

through,

95;

three

of,

8 8 ff.;

89
91

ff;
ff.;

workunder-

standing of interrelations

of,

9 4 ft.
for personal

admiration,

58

New

Ways

in

Psychoanalysis,

39 55> 5 9

N e e d for power,

Nietzsche,

56

Need

for social recognition,

Need

to b e l i e v e

i n the

o t e n c e o f w i l l , 57,

62

39,

290

58

omnip-

Occasional
John's

self-analysis,
case,

155

ff.;

307

152 f L ;
Harry's

I N D E X

O c c a s i o n a l self-analysis
case,

159

tween
ff.;

John

Bill's

parison
Bill,
ff.;
as

ff.;

(Cont.)

Rank,

comparison

be-

Rationalization,

and

161

Repetitive

case,

Harry,
163

between

ff.;

com-

John

and

1 6 6 ff.; T o m ' s
potentialities

therapeutic

case,
of,

Resentment,

Resistance,

14,

coming

own,

17a

with,

267

Freud,

Otto, Max,

Peterson, H o u s t o n ,

117,

139;

147;

ff.;

self-analysis,
processes

sources

of,

268;
in,

271;

secondary
provocation

for i n self-analysis, 273;

Piz Palii,

expressed,

Principles

of

chology,

Abnormal

Psy-

in

neurotic

of

ther-

disorders,

a i d to character

develop-

Psychoanalytic

tient's
t i e n t's

process,

share

association

274;

open

fight,

in,

101

in,

insight,
change,

maneuvers,

277;
how

to

cope

nique

with,
of

279

pa-

ff.;

free

Psychoanalytic

102

ff.;

pa-

1n

ff.;

pa-

117

ff.;

inter-

understanding,
73

ff.;

in

Clare's

tion

compared

to,

308

ff.;

286

Rousseau,

188, 2 9 4 ff.

Schopenhauer,

39

Secondary

66

18

defenses,

71 ff.,

of

Everyday

271,

292
* Self-analysis, feasibility

c a s e , 7 5 ff.

39

tech-

281

R e v e n g e , 36

Seabury, David,

Life,

ff.;

tackling,

a n a l y s t ' s s h a r e , 123 ff.

Psychopathology

reactions,

i n free association, 278;

Schultz-Hencke, H .

in,

de-

inhibitions

r e l a t i o n o f t h r e e t a s k s , 1 2 0 ff.;

stages

of,

275;

emotional
defensive

evasive

ways

types

spirit of tackling, 284; l i m i t a -

m e n t , 8 ff.

tient's

275;
and

237, 242, 245

Psychoanalysis, method
apy

ff.;

fensive

39

" P r i v a t e r e l i g i o n , " Clare's, 205,

ff.;

275

de270;

P h o b i a , 7, 8 , 6 9 , 9 5
133

by

argument

defenses i n , 271;

30

used

as

fensive

over-

dealing

as

267;

against

23

analyst,

136

ff.;

ff.

134

toward

169

171

method,

66

themes,

sirability

of,

131!.,

and
147;

depos-

s i b i l i t y of, 2 5 , 2 8 , 3 5 ; c r u c i a l

 N D E X

difficulty

of,

attempts,

2 7 ; successful
dangers

27;

of,

2 9 fr.; limitations of, 3 1 , 2 8 6

fL;

self-protective

forces i n ,

83 ff'J gains of, 3 6 ; occasional,

151 if.;

goal

of

occasional,

2 9 3 ff.; frustration

of, 2 9 7

ff.;

in,298;

discouragement

pseudo solutions i n , 2 9 8 ff.

Self-Analysis

Made

Easy,

toward, 2 9 5

152 if.; preliminaries, 174 if.;

Shakespeare, 3 9

definition of systematic, 1 7 4 ,

Situational neuroses, 171

use of dreams i n , 176 fE.; r a w

Smart, C h a r l e s A l l e n , 3 9

materials

differ-

Strange

ences between analysis a n d ,

188

of,

183 if.;

regularity

of One Man,

183 if.;

Strecker, E d w a r d A . , 3 9
Suicide, 3 1 , 3 3 , 2 3 1 , 2 8 9

od

S u l l i v a n , H . S., 3 9

of,

1 8 6 ; of

dependency,

in,

Lives

spontaneity i n , 184 if.; meth-

183;

morbid

190 if.;

spirit

18

Sexuality, 2 9 5 ; F r e u d ' s attitude

The,

Switzerland, 1 3 3

a n d rules of, 2 4 7 if.; use of

reason i n , 2 5 2 ; use of emotional insight, 2 5 2 ; guidance
through interest, 2 5 3 ff.; con-

Unconscious

forces,

role

of,

37 &

tinuity i n , 2 5 7 ; development
of

structural

pattern

in,

2 5 8 JOE.; outside influences i n ,

2 6 5 ; effect of limitations o n ,

Wild

Geese

Them,

and

How

to

Chase

39

Wishful thinking, 178, 180

39