Chapter 2: Atoms, Molecules and Ions

2.1 The Atomic Theory

In 500 BC, the Greek philosopher Democritus expressed his belief that all matter is
composed of small, indivisible particles (which he called atomos).
In 1808, John Dalton generated an atomic theory which defined what we call atoms. The
main ideas of his atomic theory are summarized below:

1. Elements are composed of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.

2. All atoms of a given element are identical (same size, mass, and chemical properties).
However, the atoms of one element are different from atoms of other elements.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. In any compound, the ratio
of the number of atoms of any two elements will be in whole numbers or fractions.
4. A chemical reaction involves the separation, combination and rearrangement of atoms. It
does not involve the creation or destruction of any atoms.

Rule 3 supports the law of definite proportions and law of multiple proportions.
o Law of Definite Proportions Different samples of a compound contain the
elements that the compound is composed of in the same proportions by mass.
o Also, in a compound, the ratios of the atoms of the elements that make up the
compound must be the same.
Every molecule in carbon dioxide must have a 2:1 ratio of O atoms to C
atoms. Also each molecule must be 73% O and 27% C by mass.
o Law of Multiple Proportions When two elements, A and B combine to form
more than one compound, in which the mass of element A remains constant, the
ratio of the masses of element B in the compounds will be in whole numbers.
The ratio of O in CO to the O in CO2 is 1:2.
Rule 4 support the law of conservation of mass.
o Law of Conservation of Mass Matter can neither be created nor destroyed.
In a chemical reaction, the atoms get rearranged to form new compounds.
No atoms are created or destroyed.

2.2 The Structure of the Atom

Dalton proposed that atoms were indivisible. However, it was later discovered that atoms
consisted of three subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Electron

The cathode ray tube experiment, performed by JJ Thomson led to the discovery of the
electron.
When two metal plates are connected to a high voltage source, the negatively charged
plate, called the cathode emits an invisible ray called the cathode ray.
The cathode ray is drawn towards the positively charged plate called the anode and
passes through a hole in it.
The cathode ray passes through the anode and then to the end of the tube. Here, it strikes
the fluorescent screen (specially coated surface) and produces a bright light.
When a magnet (magnetic field) and two electrically charged plates (electric field) are
added to the tube, the cathode ray experienced a magnetic force and an electric force.
o When the magnetic field is on and the electric field is off, the ray deflected to A.
o When the magnetic field is off and the electric field is on, the ray deflected to C.
o When the magnetic and electric fields both were on, the forces exerted by both
fields on the ray got cancelled and the ray continued straight to B.
JJ Thomson said that since the cathode ray got attracted to the positively charged plate
and repelled the negatively charged plate, the cathode ray consisted of negatively charged
particles he called electrons.

Any moving charged body behaves like a magnet and can interact with external magnetic and
electric fields.

When a magnet was brought close to the cathode ray tube, the cathode rays deflected
either up or down, depending on the polarity of the magnet. Reversing the polarity caused
the cathode rays to deflect in the opposite direction
JJ Thomson then used the cathode ray tube to determine the charge to mass ratio of an
electron. He calculated it to be -1.76 108 C/g.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GzMh4q-2HjM

Between 1908 and 1917, Robert Millikan performed an experiment that helped him to
determine the charge of an electron.
o In his experiment, an atomizer sprayed a fine
mist of oil into the upper chamber.
o Then, some of these oil droplets moved
through a hole in the upper, positive plate and
down into the chamber below. Millikan used
the terminal velocity of the oil droplets to
determine their mass.
o X-rays were used to ionize gas particles in the
second chamber. Electrons lost by the gas
particles combined with oil droplets, giving
them a negative charge.
o When the voltage across the plates increased,
the oil drops started to attract to the positive plate and began to slow down.
o The voltage was adjusted in such a way that the Fe and Fg counteracted each
other, causing the oil droplets to remain floating in the second chamber.
When this happened, he used the formula q = mg and solved for the
charge, q. He noticed that all the charges were multiples of -1.6022 10-19
C and concluded that -1.6022 10-19 C is the charge of an electron.
Then he used this value and the charge to mass ratio determined by
Thomson to calculate the mass of an electron, 9.10 10-28 g.

http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?it=swf::100%::100%::/sites/dl/free/0072512644/117354/02_Millikan_Oil_Drop.
swf::Milikan%20Oil%20Drop

Radioactivity

In 1895, Wilhelm Rntgen noticed that cathode rays emit highly energetic radiation
which caused the photographic plates in the cathode ray tube experiment to darken.
Since the rays of this radiation could not be deflected by a magnet, they were not
composed of charged particles.
o Rntgen called these rays X-rays.
Antoine Becquerel noticed that thickly wrapped photographic plates started to darken
when exposed to a certain Uranium compound.
o Similar to the X-rays that Rntgen discovered, the rays from the Uranium
compound were highly energetic and could not be deflected by a magnet.
However, unlike X-rays, they were emitted spontaneously.
Any element that spontaneously emits radiation is said to be radioactive.
Three types of rays can be produced from the radiation emitted by radioactive substances.

o Alpha rays consist of positively charged particles. Therefore, they are deflected
towards the negatively charged plate.
o Beta rays consist of particles (electrons). They are deflected towards the
positively charged plate.
o Gamma rays are composed of particles, which are electrically neutral. They do
not get deflected towards any of the electrical plates as they are NOT affected by
electrical/magnetic fields.
The Proton and the Nucleus

In the early 1900s, Thomsons plum pudding model of the atom was
used.
o In the plum pudding model of the atom, the electrons are
embedded in a uniform positively charged sphere.
o The positive charge of the sphere is enough to cancel the
negative charge of all the electrons.
In 1910, Rutherford performed a series of experiments that helped
him in discovering the structure of an atom.
o He directed alpha particles at various metal foils (i.e. gold foil). Rutherford
predicted that most of the alpha particles would be slightly deflected as they pass
through the foil since an atoms positive charge is evenly distributed throughout
the atom in Thomsons model.
o However, most of the alpha particles went through the foil without getting
deflected, or with a very slight deflection. A very small number of particles had a
huge deflection or bounced back.

Rutherford proposed a new model of the atom that explained the observations of his
experiment.
o Most of an atom is empty space.
This explains why many alpha particles were not deflected or only slightly
deflected.
o All the positive charge and most of the mass are in the centre of the atom called
the nucleus. The nucleus only occupies 1/1013 of the atoms volume.

The few alpha particles that bounced back or had a huge deflection were
directed at the nucleus. The great repulsion force between the alpha
particle and the nucleus caused the particles to deflect greatly or bounce
back.
o The nucleus takes up 1/1013 of the volume of an atom.
The Neutron

One major problem in Rutherfords model of the atom was that it could not explain why
the ratio of the masses in helium and hydrogen is 4:1.
o Since a hydrogen atom has 1 proton and a helium atom has two protons, the ratio
should be 2:1.
o Rutherford said that the difference in ratio is because the nucleus probably
consists of a third subatomic particle.
James Chadwick discovered the third subatomic particle, the neutron.
o When he bombarded a thin sheet of beryllium with particles, a high energy
radiation of electrically neutral particles was
emitted.
o Chadwick called these neutral particles neutrons
and said that they exist in the nucleus. Neutrons
have a mass slightly greater than protons.
The three main subatomic particles are protons,
neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons are
located in the nucleus, whereas electrons are located in
orbitals at various distances from the nucleus.

2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes

Atomic Number (Z) = Number of Protons

The number of protons in an atom determines the element the atom is from.
o Ex: Any atom that contains 9 protons is a fluorine atom
In a neutral atom, Number of Protons = Number of Electrons
Mass Number (A) = Number of Protons + Number of Neutrons

Isotopes: Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons (same atomic
number, different mass number).
o Ex: Hydrogen (1p, 0n), Deuterium (1p, 1n), and Tritium (1p, 2n)

All isotopes except for the ones for H are identified by their mass numbers.
o Ex: carbon-12, carbon-13, carbon-14
Since the numbers of protons and electrons in an atom determine its chemical properties,
all isotopes have the same chemical properties (only the number of neutrons vary
between isotopes).
o This means that all isotopes are equally reactive and can form the same
compounds.

2.4 The Periodic Table

Periodic Table: A chart in which elements with similar chemical and physical properties are
grouped together.
In the periodic table, elements are arranged in terms of atomic number.
Horizontal rows are called periods. There are 7 periods in the periodic table.
Vertical columns are called groups or families. There are 18 groups in the periodic table.
The elements in the periodic table can be divided into 3 categories metals, non-metals,
and metalloids.
o A metal is a good conductor of heat and electricity. The majority of the elements
are metals (left of periodic table)
o A non-metal is a poor conductor of heat and electricity. There are 17 non-metals
(right of periodic table)
o A metalloid has properties intermediate between metals and non-metals (located
between metals and non-metals on the periodic table).
From left to right, across any period, the physical and chemical properties of the elements
change from metallic to non-metallic.
The group 1A metals are called Alkali Metals.
The group 2A metals are called Alkaline Earth Metals.
The elements in 7A are called the halogens.
The elements in 8A are called noble gases, or inert gases, or rare gases.
The lanthanides (57-72) are period 6 elements and the actinides (89-104) are period 7
elements.

2.5 Molecules and Ions

Only the noble gases in group 8A exist in nature as single atoms. Hence they are called
monatomic gases.
Molecules
A molecule is a combination of two or more atoms chemically bonded to one another.
A molecule can consist of atoms of the same element or atoms of different elements (in
the same ratio).

Ions

o Ex: O2 (composed of two atoms of the same element), H2O (composed of 2 H

atoms and 1 O atom)
Molecules are discrete units. This means that they are the smallest units of a molecular
compound.
o Placing a molecular compound in water would NOT cause the molecules to
dissociate.
Molecules consisting of atoms of different elements are called compounds.
All molecules are electrically neutral.
Diatomic molecules are composed of only two atoms. These atoms can be of the same
element, or different elements.
o Ex: H2, O2, F2, Br2, I2, N2, Cl2, HCl, CO.
Polyatomic molecules contain two or more atoms. These atoms can be of the same
element or different elements.
o Ex: O3, NH3, CH4, H2O
An ion is an atom or group of atoms with a net positive or negative charge.
A cation is an ion with a net positive charge.
o During a chemical reaction, when an atom loses one or more electrons, a cation is
formed.
o Ex: A Na atom loses an electron to form Na+ (a cation).
An anion is an ion with a net negative charge.
o During a chemical reaction, when an atom gains one or more electrons, an anion
is formed.
o Ex: A Cl atom gains an electron to form Cl- (an anion).
An ionic compound is formed of cations and anions.
o Ex: NaCl is an ionic compound. It is composed of Na+ and Cl-.
Monatomic ions are ions composed of only one atom.
o Mg2+, Fe3+, S2-, N3Polyatomic ions are ions composed of more than one atom.
o OH-, CN-, NH4+

2.6 Chemical Formulas

Chemical formulas show the composition of molecules and ionic compounds using
element symbols.

Molecular Formulas
A molecular formula shows the number of atoms of each element in the smallest unit of a
substance (i.e. molecule, ionic compounds,)

The subscript(s) in a molecular formula represent the number of atoms of a specific

element in the smallest unit of a substance.
o In H2O, the subscript 2 represents that there are 2 H atoms in the molecule.
An allotrope is one of the two or more distinct forms of an element.
o Ex: O2 (oxygen) and O3 (ozone) are allotropes of oxygen.

In the ball and stick model, the size of the atoms are NOT relative to one another. Also, the
spaces between the bonds are too much. However the 3D shapes of the molecules are shown
accurately.

In the space filling model, the spaces between the atoms are shown correctly, however the 3D shape is not accurate.

Empirical Formula
The empirical formula of an atom tells us the smallest whole ratio of the atoms of all the
elements in a molecule.
However, it does not give us information on the molecular formula of the molecule.
o The molecular formula of hydrazine is N2H4 and the empirical formula is NH2. If
the empirical formula was only given, we would not be able to tell what the
molecular formula would be.
For many molecules, the empirical formula is the same as the molecular formula.
o H2O, CH4, NH3, CO2

Formula of Ionic Compounds

The empirical formula would be the same as the normal formula of an ionic compound
since an ionic compound is not composed of discrete units.
o In NaCl, a Na+ can be associated with any of the six Cl- surrounding it in its 3D
arrangement. No Na+ is bonded to a specific Cl-.

The cations and anions are arranged so that ionic compounds are electrically neutral.
When writing the formula of an ionic compound, the charge of the cation is the subscript
of the anion, and the charge of the anion is the subscript of the cation (cross multiply).
o In an ionic compound, the ratio of cations to anions must be the smallest possible
since the formula for an ionic compound is the same as its empirical formula.
o The charge of the smallest unit of an ionic compound must be 0 (neutral)
Potassium Bromide KBr
(+1) + (-1) = 0
Zinc Iodide ZnI2
(+2) +2 (-1) = 0
Aluminum Oxide Al2O3
2(+3) + 3(-2) = 0

2.7 Naming Compounds

Organic compounds contain carbon, usually with other elements such as oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur. All other compounds are inorganic.
o However, there are a few exceptions: CO, CO2, CS2, compounds containing CN-,
CO32-, and HCO3- are inorganic.
There are 4 types of inorganic compounds that we will discuss the nomenclature for:
Ionic Compounds, Molecular Compounds, Acids and Bases, and Hydrates.

Ionic Compounds
Metal cations have the same name as the metal they are derived from.
o Ex: Na+ Sodium cation
Binary compounds are composed of two elements (a metal cation and a non-metal anion).

AB
Metal Cation
Chemical Name:

Non-Metal Cation
Cation + Root of Anion + -ide

Ex: NaCl Sodium Chloride

Not all cations and anions are monatomic. They can be composed of two or more atoms.
This can cause ternary compounds to be formed. Ternary compounds are composed of 3
elements. This means that the cation or the anion would be composed of 2 elements.
o Ex: OH- (anion), NH+ (cation), LiOH (ternary compound).
For compounds consisting of more than 3 atoms, the chemical name is written as shown:
o Polyatomic or monatomic cation + Polyatomic or monatomic anion

Ions with more than one charge (transition metals) form multivalent compounds.

AB
Metal Cation

Non-Metal Cation

Chemical Name:
Cation + (charge in roman numerals) + Root of Anion + -ide
Ex: FeO Iron (II) Oxide
OR
Ferrous Oxide
Fe2O3 Iron (III) Oxide
OR
Ferric Oxide
***We use the stock system nomenclature for multivalent compound (the one on the left). ***

Molecular Compounds

Molecular compounds are composed of discrete units. These discrete units are composed
of non-metallic elements.
Most molecular compounds are binary compounds, meaning that they consist of only two
non-metals.

AnBm
First non-metal

Second non-metal
Chemical Name: Prefix (if n > 1) + First non-metal + Prefix + Cation
Second non-metal root + -ide
Ex: SO3 Sulphur Trioxide
N2O4 Dinitrogen Tetroxide
Di- prefix is used since there are 2
nitrogen atoms. If there was only one, the
prefix mono- would be ignored as n=1 (for
prefix to be included, n>1).

Tetra oxide loses the o from oxide and

becomes tetroxide

Molecular compounds containing hydrogen do NOT use the Greek

prefixes. Instead for these compounds, common names are used, or
the names used to not indicate the number of hydrogen atoms.
o Ex: CH4 (methane), H2O (water), H2S (hydrogen sulphide)

Acids and Bases

Naming Acids:

Acids are substances that dissociate into H+ when dissolved in water.

Acids are composed of hydrogen atoms and an anion.
Acids are formed only when compounds dissolve in water and dissociate into H+ and
anions.
o This means that acids only exist in aqueous states.
Binary acids are composed of two elements, a hydrogen atom and a non-metallic anion.
o HCl Hydrochloric acid

o HF Hydrofluoric acid
o HBr Hydrobromic acid
o HI Hydroiodic acid
Acids with anions composed of more than one element (excluding oxygen) are named the
same way as binary acids:
o HCN hydrocyanic acid
Oxoacids are composed of hydrogen, oxygen, and another element. This element and
oxygen form oxoanions, the anions of oxoacids.
o H2CO3 Carbonic acid
H3PO4 (phosphoric acid)
H2SO4 (sulphuric acid)
o HClO3 Chloric acid
H2PO4 (dihydrogen phosphate)
HSO4- (hydrogen sulphate)
o HNO3 Nitric acid
2SO42- (sulphate)
o H3PO4 Phosphoric acid HPO3-4 (hydrogen phosphate)
PO4 (phosphate)
o H2SO4 Sulphuric acid

Naming Bases

A base is a substance that yields OH- when dissolved in water. Therefore, they exist only
in aqueous states.
o NaOH Sodium Hydroxide
o KOH Potassium Hydroxide
o Ba(OH)2 Barium Hydroxide
NH3 (aq) is a base since it partially reacts with water to form NH4+ and OH-.

Hydrates

Hydrates are compounds that have a specific number of water molecules attached to
them.
In its normal state, copper (II) sulphate has 5 H2O molecules attached to it
o CuSO4 5H2O
These water molecules can be driven off by heating. If this happens, the compound would
be called anhydrous copper (II) sulphate.
o Anhydrous means that the compound no longer has any H2O molecules with it.
o BaCl2 2H2O (barium chloride dehydrate)
o MgSO4 7H2O (magnesium sulphate heptahydrate)

2.8 Introduction to Organic Compounds

Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that are made up of hydrogen and carbon atoms.
Alkanes are hydrocarbons that are held together by single bonds. All alkanes have Greek
prefixes that represent the number of carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon and an ane
suffix.
o Ex: Methane (CH4), Butane (C2H6), Propane (C3H8)
Various functional groups can be added to hydrocarbons.
o OH (hydroxyl group), COOH (carboxyl group), NH2 (amino group)
The reactivity of a hydrocarbon depends on the functional groups attached to it.