The Psychological Effects of Light

Understanding
The Psychological
Effects of
Light.
Dissertation by Susanna Olczak

Glasgow School of Art
2009/10
11, 366 words
Susanna Olczak
Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
Contents
1.1
Pg
Abstract
Introduction
Chapter 1: The Effect of Light on Knowledge and

Mood.
1.1
How perception affects knowledge

and mood
1.2
The psychological experience of seeing

light away from the objects it illuminates.
21
1.3
The Universal Experience of Light.
26
1.4
Exploiting the universal power of light

to create mood
29
Chapter 2: The Effect of Light on the Psychological

Wellbeing of Individuals.
31
2.1
Ways in which too little light affects

an individual psychologically.
32
2.2
Ways in which too much light affects

an individual psychologically.
39
2.3
Individuals have lost control of how

their environment is lit.
51
Chapter 3: Lighting the Environment to Increase the

Wellbeing of Individuals.
55
3.1
60
How designers can control light to increase the

psychological wellbeing of individuals.
Conclusion
82
Bibliography
85
Readers Notes: Footnotes are numbered conventionally.

Endnotes are numbered in Roman Numerals.
Susanna Olczak
Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
Abstract
Light is intrinsic to the psychological wellbeing of individuals. An empiricist approach is

used to argue that light is inherent to perception and therefore to knowledge and mood. Light
shapes ones sense of self and their existence. Too little light and an overabundance of light
can cause depression, too much electrical lighting in particular. Therefore, lighting needs to
be carefully considered and controlled.
Quality and variety, over quantity of lighting is beneficial. It is important to better utilise
natural lighting and to only use electrical lighting where there is no alternative.
This paper calls for an increasing awareness by artists and designers of the psychological
effects of light. Evidence suggests that artists and designers are becoming more aware of the
effects of light and are beginning to find ways to allow more versatility over how the
environment is lit. They are designing with the intent of allowing individuals increased
control over natural and artificial lighting. This could be beneficial to the psychological
health of individuals.
Susanna Olczak
Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
Into the world of perpetual solitude,

World not world, but that which is not world,
Internal darkness, deprivation...
The surface glittered out of heart of light,
And they were behind us, reflected in the pool.
Then a cloud passed, and the pool was empty.
T. S Eliot.
(1944) Four Quartets.1
Eliot, T. S. (1944) Four Quartets. Faber and Faber.
Susanna Olczak
Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
Introduction
TS Eliots evocation of the collective memory of mankind begins with light and its loss as a
metaphor for the loss of human consciousness and feeling. Four Quartets shimmers with
light and light metaphor to reconnect with emotion and the perception of our world. Where is
our not world 2 our internal darkness 3 ? The passing cloud and the empty pool of
memory and perception are all that remain of Eliots primal world.
Eliot speaks of light as the beginning of life, of experience and memory. He also describes
the effects light has in allowing man to experience oneself and the other, to reconnect with
their existence. Furthermore, the formal qualities of Four Quartets allow Eliot to define
precisely each location and to secure emotion and perception for Eliot light is crucial in
defining space, time and feeling.
Light is a necessity for humans to live. Light allows man to see the world around him, from
minute details to the vast expanses of the universe. The sun the stars and the moon act as a
guide, enabling an understanding of ones place in the universe. Light alters our mood and is
intrinsic to our sense of wellbeing.
This paper will discuss this idea; it questions the effect that the lack of natural lighting and
too much electrical lighting can have on how an individual understands oneself. The paper
will focus on the works of James Turrell, and Antony Gormley, the architecture of Norman
Susanna Olczak
Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
Foster, and essays from the Royal College of Psychiatry amongst others to construct its
argument.
Susanna Olczak
Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
Chapter 1: The Effect of Light on Knowledge and Mood
As far as we can discern, the sole purpose of human existence is to

kindle a light in the darkness of mere being.
Karl Jung,
(1963.) Memories, Dreams, Reflections, 4
Contrary to common perception of light as the universal constant, repeated robotically

through Einsteins equation,
it is actually the variability and variety of light that
gives it its properties and irregularities.
Light is a psychological necessity. However, the importance of light goes beyond just
fulfilling a basic psychological need. Light also shapes our experience of the world; it is
fundamental to how people feel and see. People see an object by light reflecting from it. The
information is interpreted by the visual cortex of the brain. This perception provides
individuals with information and knowledge. This knowledge helps to form identity:
reflections, for example, allow people to see who they are. Jacques Lacan identified the
mirror phase in human development, when a baby first recognises itself in the surface of a
mirrori. Moreover, as Jung also suggests, light is intrinsic to the existence of individuals.
Jaffe, A (ed) (1989). Memories, Dreams, Reflections. (Translated from German by, Richard and Clara Winston)
Vintage books
Susanna Olczak
Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
How Perception affects Knowledge and Mood.
Recognising the importance that light has, many artists and writers have used light as the
subject of their work. In literature, light has been used as a metaphor to symbolise
intelligence or lack of intelligence: someone is said to be dim witted if they are lacking in
common sense; and bright if they are intelligent. Light is often used to describe the
difference between conscious and unconscious states. Contrasting to be in the dark or
blacked out with metaphors such as, to be enlightened and to shed light on something.
Light is most commonly used metaphorically in order to suggest mood, someone is said to be
bright and breezy or to have a sunny disposition. Light has become intrinsic to our
language in order to become a metaphor for knowledge and mood. Writers and philosophers
also use light as a metaphor for progression. For example, Immanuel Kant wrote about the
Enlightenment5 in order to critique the dark ages before. Light becomes symbolic for gaining
knowledge in order to progress.
Visual artists have used light as their subject matter. Vermeer, in the 17th Century, used
optical devices to control light, for example, the camera obscura, a device that uses mirrors
and a lens to project an image onto a screen which the artist can copy. Light was used
primarily to help the painters technique achieve exquisite realism.
The impressionist painters addressed how light affects objects as their subject matter. Light
became their medium and perception became intrinsic to the work.6 They began to investigate
Dark Ages (2010) Available at < http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Dark_Ages> (23.02.2010)
Impressionism. (2010) Available at < http://www.artmovements.co.uk/impressionism.htm> (23/02/2010)
Susanna Olczak
Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
closely the varying properties of light: for example, how light changes in substances like
water.
Figure 1: Monet, C. (1906). Water Lilies.
Light defines form, depth and density. Emphasis is placed on the reflections and colour of the
water and Monet uses darker tones to suggest the changing depths in the water and to show
how the water is moving. This painting focuses on how light allows us to see and to feel an
atmosphere.
Art is not only about capturing the real world. Many artists seek to produce art that creates an
emotional mood in the viewer. The impressionists were beginning to understand that light is
constantly shifting how individuals experience the world and therefore how they think about
things .Light is thus inherent to an individuals existence.
Susanna Olczak
Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
Throughout history, philosophers, artists, and other individuals have attempted to understand
what existence means. This can be done by analysing ones perceptions. Perceptions make up
a significant part of individual identity. The world can be engaged with and understood by
perceiving it. Children perceive before learning how to communicate. John Berger claims
that, seeing comes before words.7 If the argument is dismissed that humans are born with
innate ideas, ii then it can be argued that people generate all their ideas about the world
through perception.
Sight is one of the most dominant senses: Seeing is conditioned by light, and the presence of
things to be seen is conditioned by their being in light.8 Perception, therefore, is a primary
source of knowledge. If light is fundamental to perception, it is therefore fundamental to
knowledge: Light may literally refer to sensory experience, but at the same time it offers one
of our most far reaching metaphors, Knowledge is light.9 Knowledge can only be formed by
understanding what something is, and also what something is not.
Eliot suggests, what you do not know is the only thing you know.10 People can form a
concept of one thing by seeing how it is different from something else. Light epitomises this
concept of difference. The contrast light creates, allows an individual to question their
knowledge. It is by seeing the difference between one shade of light or colour and another
that one can work out what something is.
Berger, J. (2008). Ways of Seeing. Penguin classics. Front cover.
Barzel, A. De Gara, C . (2006) Targetti, Paolo Light Art. Skira Berenice. pg 11
Kapstein, Matthew. (2004 ) The Presence of Light. University of Chicago press. Preface
10
Eliot, T. S. (1944) Four Quartets. Faber and Faber. pg 18
Susanna Olczak
Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
10
Shadows represent the potential in something that is ambiguous, partly because, dissolved
things are at the same time only partly formed, they can be subjectively read, re read,
constructed, and reconstructed.11 Shadows represent the point of flux between knowing and
not knowing.
Artists have realised the importance of difference in forming knowledge. They question what
perception is for the rest of humanity and understand the role light can play in making the
viewer question their perception and knowledge. For example, artists have tried to capture in
their works the way in which different shades of light can give us knowledge.
Magrittes The Empire of Lights suggests that humans need contrast in order to perceive. At
first the scene seems normal. However, on closer inspection, the painting shows an unusual
scene: it depicts the simultaneous appearance of day and night. One half of the painting is
immersed in daylight. An expanse of blue sky is depicted, and although no sun is shown, the
intensity of the colour informs the viewer it is daytime. The highlights on the clouds suggest
that the light is strong.
11
Plummer, H. (2009). Poetics of Light. Tokyo Au. pg 77
Susanna Olczak
Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
11
Figure 2: Magritte, R. (1953-54.) The Empire of Lights
The lower half of the painting contrasts this. Artificial lighting appliances are shown. A
Victorian lamp illuminates the front of the house, and lights shine from two of the windows.
As a result, the building glows from the inside. The water in the foreground creates
reflections which soften, and emphasise the atmosphere. The silhouetted trees
Susanna Olczak
Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
12
compositionally link up the two halves of this painting. This provides contrast, and draws the
eyes of the viewer towards the sky. There is a very apparent difference in intensity between
the two types of light. The daylight fills the sky, and creates a vast and overpowering expanse
of colour. In contrast the artificial lighting is much more directional and intense against the
dark setting around.
This painting contrasts realistic detail with parts where very little detail is shown. This could
also suggest how people differentiate between what they know and do not know. This
painting introduces the viewer to ideas of perception and how knowledge is formed, by being
confronted with light, and darkness. This is done by the subtle but powerful inversion of how
day and night is normally depicted.
This suggests that individuals need contrast and a variety of lighting conditions, as, sensory
qualities related to light are recharged by successive contrast. 12 Likewise, we must
conclude that normal consciousness, perception, and thought can be maintained only in a
constantly changing environment. When there is no change, a state of sensory deprivation
occurs.13 Most important is the need for variety of lighting.
Light offers people the opportunity to question knowledge by the contrast it offers and also
its ability to trick individuals in their perceptions. Light has the power to aid perception, and
to form knowledge. But light can also create illusions. iii
12
13
Birren, F. (1988). Light, Colour and Environment. Shiffer publishing. pg 8
Susanna Olczak
Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
13
Artists began to manipulate light to deceive the viewer. Rather than telling the viewer exactly
what to perceive, artists began to make the viewer question what is being looked at. In this
example, Magritte makes the viewer question illusions and how perception informs people
about their identity. This work shows an illusion in the mirror. The man cannot see himself:
he is only able to see what someone looking behind him can see.
Figure 3: Magritte, R. (1937) Interdit
Susanna Olczak
Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
14
Light also provides contrast through colour. The painter Rothko uses colour to represent
difference in light. His work is about the contrast of one colour to another.
Figure 4: Rothko, M. (1962). Blue and Grey
In 1970, installation art became popular. Artists began to make works that related to the site
in which the work was to be shown. These artists made works into which the viewer could
enter. This allowed the viewer a more holistic experience of the artwork. Installation art
offered the opportunity for the viewer to begin to further understand the relationship one has
not only to objects but to the world around.
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Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
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Artists began to combine the idea of using optical illusions with installation art. In doing this
these artists could make the viewer question their experiences of a space. The artist Olafur
Eliasson uses a mirror to fill a room, creating an illusion that the viewer can enter into,
distorting the viewers experience.
Figure 5: Eliasson, O. (2003) . Frost Activit
Artists were beginning to realise that light can create an experience, impacting on mood and
evoking intense feeling on the viewer. They began to not only using light as a medium with
which to investigate the world, but to manipulate light in order to control how the viewer
feels.
For centuries Architects have understood that light affects people psychologically and have
controlled light for aesthetic and functional reasons. The Mayan pyramids were designed to
control the light.
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Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
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On the Spring and Autumn equinox, at the rising and setting of the sun, the corner of
the structure casts a shadow in the shape of a plumed serpent - Kukulcan, or
Quetzalcoatl - along the west side of the north staircase. On these two annual occasions,
the shadows from the corner tiers slither down the northern side of the pyramid with the
sun's movement to the serpent's head at the base. 14
Architects exploit the power light has to create atmosphere and mood in order to move the
viewer towards a political or religious idea. A long tradition of this is seen in religious
buildings. Light in these buildings is used to draw the eye of those entering up to the centre of
the building. This has religious symbolism. The viewer imagines they are being brought
closer to the God or gods they worship. Light is used to illuminate the detail of the
architecture. The beholder looks up in awe and believes the power their religion has.
Figure 6: Agrippa, M. (126ad) Pantheon. Rome
14
Pyramids of Mesoamerica. (2010) Available at <http://www.crystalinks.com/pyramidmesoamerica.html>

(02/02/2010)
Susanna Olczak
Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
17
Figure 7: Militus, I. (537 ad) Hagia Sophia . Istanbul
Light comes from natural and artificial sources. Natural light can be controlled to some extent,
but artificial lighting allows for greater control. Albert Speer, who was the architect for the
Nazis, was strongly influenced by Rembrandts use of striking light. He used artificial
lighting to influence people in Hitlers propaganda.15
15
Hudson, A. Nazi use of Rembrandt. Available at <www.redoribit.com.> (05/10/2009)
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Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
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Figure 8: Rembrandt, V R. (1635 ). The Feast of Belhazzar
The mass of people in this scene are confronted with the powerful light display which
engages their entire vision. The power of the light is used to convey the power of the Nazis.
Figure 9: Speer, A. (1923-1938.) The Cathedral of Light

Susanna Olczak
Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
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By exploiting the power of light, these architects could change, even just for a moment, how
individuals feel about the world around them. They are filled with belief in the power of god,
or of a political party. Their ideas about the world are altered.
Susanna Olczak
Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
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The psychological experience of seeing light away from the objects it illuminates.
When the viewer is so accustomed to moving around a space and looking at objects
illuminated by light, what happens when the object is taken away? Many philosophers have
tried to understand how individuals gain knowledge through experience. One of the most
influential theorists is Maurice Marceau Ponty, who explored ideas of phenomenology, the
study of things as they are perceived and the interpretation of the world by how people sense
it.
Ponty explains that perception is how people engage with the objects of the world. He claims,
I regard my body, which is my point of view on the world as one of the objects of that
world. 16 This suggests that the viewer has a direct relationship with the objects in a space,
our sense of the objects around us is based on who we are and forms who we are. This
connects perception closely with identity.
Likewise, Sartre states, the others presence to me is object-ness.17 He is suggesting that

the other is similar to an object. Therefore, by rethinking how objects are perceived,
individuals can question the effect perception has on who they are and the other. Without the
object the experience of light can be questioned more closely.
Two works that makes us consider how we perceive more closely are Wedge Work Series by
Turrell and Sonne Statt Regen by Ollafur Eliasson. These works not only abstract the object,
16
Ponty, M. (2002). Phenomology of Perception. Routeledge pg 81
17
Sartre, JP. (1958) (Translated from French by H. E Barnes.) Being and Nothingness. Menthuen and Co. Ltd.
Pg 276
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Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
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light is manipulated further to allow the viewer to see light separately from the object it
illuminates. This completely changes how the viewer would normally perceive.
It could be argued that by taking away the object these artists are moving the art world into a
post post-modern era. They are doing this by making a radical change in the experience of
viewing the art object. For never before has an artwork encouraged the viewer to perceive
without an object being present.
By allowing the viewer to see light away from the light source and objects, the work becomes
even more about the psychological impact of light. Kant said that abstraction of form
provides knowledge.18 This is because; it allows individuals to see the difference between the
abstracted images, and the real object it is representing. Plato states the importance of
abstraction in creating new ideas: abstraction is a distinctive mental process in which new
ideas or conceptions are formed, by considering several objects or ideas, and omitting the
features that distinguish them.19 This is suggesting that when we see something abstracted,
we compare the abstracted form to realistic forms that we have seen. Through this
comparison we can form knowledge.
By taking away the objects that light affects, the viewer can reconsider how they experience
light. These artists are seeing how the viewer reacts in an unusual space. These works
become psychological experiments.
18
Want, C, Klimowski, A. (1996.) Kant for Beginners. Icon Books LTD.
19
Stanford encyclopaedia of Philosophy. (2001) Available at <Http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstractobjects. >Abstract Objects. Thu Jul 19, 2001 (06/02/2010)
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Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
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Figure 10: Turrell, J. (1969) . Wedge Work Series.
Turrells Wedge Work Series is a space which can be entered into. It takes a few moments for
the viewer to adjust to the light. The light defines the space and creates atmosphere. For that
moment in time, one can hardly see. They are unable to see any of the other viewers.
Gradually adjusting to the light, feeling the gradual increase of their sight, the viewer
becomes more accustomed to the space and becomes increasingly more aware of their
physical presence. The light begins to wash over the viewer. Each individual experiences the
work, not knowing if the other viewers are seeing the same thing. The act of perception
becomes the work and the viewer starts to question this experience of perceiving, by
gradually regaining their ability to see.
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Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
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Light is used not only as the medium for this artwork but as its essence, Turrell chose simply
to use light itself.20 In these works, light withdraws from the things which it illuminates to
appear by itself differently as something tactile.21 Light which is so immaterial becomes so
real it is almost tangible. Turrell creates, rooms where the experience of seeing is given to
itself as its own revelation.22 This work becomes an experience of perceiving.
The intent of Turrell is always the gift of experience dispensed in light.23 Installation art,
artwork that physically incorporates the viewer into the work, combined with the medium of
light, creates a powerful experience. As Plummer writes, A light animated space is never
susceptible to neutral measurement or observation, for not only does it with hold some of its
contents, but it incorporates the viewer directly into the work.24 Light can never be observed
without becoming immersed in it.
Normally when an individual experiences light one is conscious of the light source. It is used
to orientate oneself. Turrell not only allows us the opportunity to see light away from the
objects it normally illuminates, the light source is also invisible. Ollafur Eliasson also
experiments with installations where the viewer can see the light source and where the viewer
cannot. Diverting away from art for a moment, lighting designer Kaoru Mende says,
imagine this scene, lighting fixtures are invisible, but a pleasant light dances in space
like a southern breeze at dusk. If we are ever able to make that scene real, then the
design of moods may prove more than just a daydream. 25
20
Herbert, L. et al. (1988). Turrell- Spirit and Light , and the Immensity Within. Houston Contemporary arts
museum. Pg 17
21
Noever, P. (1999) (ed) James Turrell the Other Horizon. MAK pg 50
22
Noever, P (ed). (1999) James Turrell the Other Horizon. MAK pg 48
23
Noever, P (ed). (1999) James Turrell the Other Horizon. MAK pg 46
24
25
Mende, K, lighting planners associates Inc. (2000) Designing with Light and Shadow. Australia images
publishing group. pg 6
Susanna Olczak
Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
24
This quote shows that Mende recognised the power that not seeing the source has. He is
suggesting that this has the potential to shift how we feel. Eliasson manipulates light and
colour, to encourage the viewer to question how light affects mood. He creates spaces in
which the viewer is not only able to experience light, but the intense colour created.
Figure 11: Eliasson, O. (2003). Sonne Statt Regen
Sonne Statt Regen is impacting. This work subjects the viewer to changing intensities and
colours of light within a space, which allows the opportunity to feel the change in mood
whilst experiencing the piece. Not seeing the light source offers an unusual experience. An
experience, which people travel far and wide to witness, for example, a solar eclipse and the
northern lights. In these examples the viewer is confronted with an experience that confronts
and engulfs those viewing.
The powerful manipulation of light creates a holistic experience for the viewer, which allows
the individual to question their experience of the world. Light and space artists use light to
create spaces that allow for new, sometimes disturbing, but always self reflexive modes of
perception. 26 One can reflect on oneself, ones knowledge and mood.
26
Broeker, H et al. (2004) Olafur Eliasson Your Lighthouse. Hatje Cantz publishers pg 37
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David Sweeney.
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The Universal Experience of Light.
Figure 12: Gormley, A. (2007- 2009). Blind Light
Blind Light by Antony Gormley creates a setting which invites the viewer to explore how
they perceive and how this shapes their identity. The title suggests this oxymoronic sentiment
of being visually impaired by something that normally facilitates seeing. Like in Turrels
Wedge Work series, the viewer becomes disorientated by the blinding white light. The mist
holds the light, making it seem to float around the viewer. The mist takes away our sense of
depth and distance.
The work allows two very different experiences of perception, depending on whether the
viewer is inside or outside the work. Inside the work, the viewer becomes aware of what it is
to see by being disorientated. Those inside the work fumble around in the light trying to
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Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
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become better orientated, encountering other people in the space doing a similar thing.
Gormley experiments further than Turrell by allowing the viewer to view from outside the
work. From outside, the glass outer structure enables the viewer to watch the event taking
place. No longer directly interacting with the work, the viewer can stand back, and question
what it is to perceive by watching others do so.
The work intrinsically, allows other viewers the experience of seeing real bodies interacting
with a conceptual space that is also physical, and seeing how they deal with it.27 When
exhibited in the Hayward, in 2008 Gormleys Blind Light was popular, 208,000 people
experienced the installation, making it the most visited exhibition of any living artist in the
Haywards 39-year history.28 Although there were other works on show, the light box was a
central attraction. This could be because of the interactive experience and the subject matter.
Light because of its fundamental nature, becomes universal, lights ubiquitous, but strikingly
precise similarities may be found in altogether different historical and cultural settings.29
Light affects everyone, artwork dealing with something as fundamental as light is accessible
to everyone; it offers everyone the chance to experience it. By making artwork about the
psychological experience of light, these artworks can be understood on many levels, and can
therefore be enjoyed more readily by everyone.
Therefore art like Blind Light has the power to connect people. Olafur Eliasson whose work
focuses almost entirely on light, states that his goal is to integrate art into society, so that it
27
Vidler, A. Stewart, S. (2007). Antony Gormley- Blind Light. Hayward Publishing. pg 52
28
Antony Gormleys Blind Light. (2010) Available at < http://www.artcat.com/exhibits/5676> (24/02/2010)

Kapstein, M. (2004) The Presence of Light. University of Chicago press. Preface
29
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will once more have the function of helping sensory orientation. 30 This statement appears
to recognise that art has been disconnected from direct sensory experience. In a similar way,
Walter Benjamin argued the aura of an artwork is being lost through the ease of
reproduction. That, even the most perfect reproduction of a work of art is lacking in one
element; its presence in time and space, its unique existence at the place where it happens to
be.31 Work using light however is about experience and is therefore irreproducible; therefore
perhaps the aura of art can be recreated through work about the experience of light.
The counter argument of course is that by making artwork that is irreproducible, it becomes
more elitist and less easily accessible worldwide. Nonetheless, artworks such as the works of
Turrell and Gormley, are still reproduced and enjoyed as representational forms. But when
the work is visited, the viewer is offered a universal and holistic experience that changes the
psychological state of the viewer.
30
Broeker, H. Et al. (2004) Olafur Eliasson Your Lighthouse. Hatje Cantz publishers pg 7
31
Benjamin, W. Underwood, J, A. (1935) The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction. Penguin.
pg 2
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Exploiting the universal power of light to create mood
Only very recently have artists like Gormley and Eliasson started to really expose the way
light alters our psychological state. However film, which is one of the most accessible and
universal artistic mediums, has been aware of this for some time. It relies on light for its
production and is often used as a medium to address the psychological effects of light and
darkness.
It is often proposed that human beings intrinsically have an inherent fear of the dark. 32 Fear
of the dark can be synonymous with fear of death. Therefore, light makes people realise what
it is to be alive and has an effect on uplifting mood. Light is symbolic of new life and
salvation. Light coming out of darkness symbolises light at the end of the tunnel which gives
the sense of hope, and escapism.
David Slade and David Twohy, have used these concepts in their films. Just as when the
viewer enters the strange light of Turrells work they might feel uneasy, or being immersed in
Blind Light can be unnerving, being in pitch black is equally terrifying. Horror films exploit
the psychological effect of darkness. These films play on peoples innate fear of the dark, in
order to create drama. 30 Days of Night33 directed by David Slade in 2008 is set in Alaska
where the sun sets for 30 days during winter. This continuous darkness allows vampires to
come out and prey on those who live there. The film Pitch Black34 directed by David Twohy
32
Fricter, Lisa. (2008) Nyctophobia, Fear of The Dark. Available at <
http://phobias.about.com/od/phobiaslist/a/nyctophobia.htm>(22/02/2010)
33
30 Days of Night . (2008). Directed by David Slade. [DVD.] USA: Sony Pictures.
34
Pitch Black. (2009) Directed by David Twohy. [DVD]. USA: Universal Pictures.
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in 2009 also sets a scene where people are plunged into perpetual darkness. It uses the
symbolism of light as a saviour as a key part of the plot.
The film opens with a spaceship crashing onto an unknown planet which orbits three Suns.
On board is a prisoner. Immediately the characters start to show sensitivity to the perpetual
sunlight. The crash victims soon realise that no one else is on the planet. Signs of life are
everywhere, but there are no inhabitants. It soon becomes clear that the inhabitants were
forced to leave. The crash victims realise that the planet is inhabited by nocturnal creatures,
which prey on humans during darkness. The only way to kill these creatures is by using light.
The planet is plunged into darkness by an eclipse from another planet and the creatures come
out to prey in the darkness. The victims soon realise that the prisoner could help everyone to
survive. He has had eye surgery, which resulted in extreme sensitivity to light, however, he
can now see in the dark. Armed with light sources, and the prisoner as a guide, the victims
head out to fight the creatures. Not only are these films addressing the psychological effects
of light, they are beginning to suggest the effects of extremes of perpetual darkness and light.
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Chapter 2: The Effect of Light on the Psychological of individuals.

Be near me when my light is low,
When the blood creeps, and the nerves prick
And tingle; and the heart is sick,
And all the wheels of Being slow.
A, L, Tennyson, 35
(1850) From In Memoriam
As Tennyson is suggesting light fuels a person, not only physically but it feeds their emotions.
When my light is low, 36 could perhaps be similar to Eliots, eternal darkness, 37 The
diminishing light suggests a vulnerability and a slowing down of the body and mind. Light is
something that speaks to the heart of someone, it creeps38 and tingles39 through the body
and into the heart and mind.
Light is a physiological necessity. However is affects how people feel and think. The author
of Light, Colour and Environment, Faber Birren, argued that given food and water it might be
possible physiologically for people to live without light; however it is undisputed that it
would not be possible psychologically for humans to survive in complete darkness.40
35
Tennyson, A, L. (1859). In Memoriam. Edward Moxon
36
37
38
39
40
Birren, F. (1988) Light, Colour and Environment. Shiffer publishing.
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Ways in which too little light affects an individual psychologically.
Herman Melville explores the psychological effects of darkness on his protagonists

Ishmaels feeling of identity in chapter 4 of Moby Dick. Melville describes a scene where the
character, who has been in bed for a long period of time, wakes and believes he can feel and
see a hand that is not his own attached to him;I opened my eyes, and the before sun-lit room
was now wrapped in outer darkness. Instantly I felt a shock running through my [entire]
frame, nothing was to be seen and nothing was to be heard; but a supernatural hand seemed
placed in mine.41 This suggests that being in a room where there is no sensory stimulation
leads to severe psychological abnormalities. Melville captures the fact that too much darkness
affects people psychologically.
The use of black-outs in World War II to block out the light at night could have had
detrimental effects. Light made people more obvious to the enemy. People would have been
fearful of the light, Instead they would hide under the darkness. This subversion of the
normal feeling of light being desirable could have resulted in a change in how one understood
who they were. Light became something that people were forced to control. If they refused,
or if light could be seen from a house, a punishment was issued.
The article, New
Restrictions on the Home Front- Britain is Blacked out, discusses the effect that fear of these
punishments had on individuals:
With the introduction of the Blackout came stringent regulations and harsh punishment
for people that did not adhere to these rules. The local A.R.P. could report anyone to
the local authorities if any sign of a light was seen. Many householders would sit and
wait for that knock on the door to tell them they had a chink of light shining from their
homes. Being reported could lead to a hefty fine or in some cases an appearance in
court.42
41
Melville, H. (1998). Moby Dick. Oxford Publishing. Pg 22
42
New Restrictions on the Home Front- Britain is Blacked out. (2006) Available at
http://www.homesweethomefront.co.uk/web_pages/hshf_blackout_pg.htm June 2006 (10/02/2010)
Susanna Olczak
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Normal life became affected by this enforced regulation of lighting and by having no
artificial lighting outside at night. As well as the blackouts, no street lights were used.
Accidents and crime began to increase and people struggled to navigate the streets in the
darkness. Firsthand account of the blackouts, describe the problems people faced.
Not only did we have the problem of just finding our way in the dark but there were
times when the weather added to our problems. Fog was a regular addition especially
when it was aided by the smoke screen put up on the outskirts of the city to confuse the
bombers.
I can well recall walking home using my bicycle to feel the kerb, hoping that I would
not take a wrong turning. If that happened one was completely disoriented and one
could only hope to meet someone who could put you back on track. In one instance,
near where I lived, a man mistook a left turn and, instead of turning down the road he
wanted, he turned down a track leading to the canal. He fell in and although his cries
could be heard, he drowned before anyone could locate him.43
The account talks about the disorientation as a result of lack of light. This describes a scene
somewhat like in the artwork of Gormley. The combination of fog and poor lighting has
disorienting affects. This suggests that lack of light not only hinders how people live, but
makes people psychologically unstable.
Because lack of light is something that has such strong psychological effects, it has been used
to inflict torture. The article, The CIAS Favourite Form of Torture, argues that sensory
deprivation torture is said to be one of the most effective and traumatic.44 For those prisoners,
being subjected to unchanging conditions, it takes just twelve hours for most subjects to
begin to hallucinate. Prisoners begin to suffer severe mood swings; and they crave mental
stimulation and interaction. As a result the prisoner becomes more easily controlled by an
43
WW2 Peoples War. (2003) The End of the Blackout in London Available at
<www.bbc.co.uk/ww2peopleswar/stories/59>(21/02/2010)
44
Benjamin, M. (2009) The CIAS Favourite Form of Torture. Available at

<www.salon.com/news/feature/2007/06/07/sensory_deprivation. 2009.> (09/08/2009)
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interrogator. These extreme cases suggest how powerful a psychological impact constant
darkness can have on individuals.
However, to be in a situation where there is absolutely no light available is extremely rare. It

is a more common occurrence for individuals to be subjected to very little natural light. Lack
of natural light is known to induce irritability, lethargy, and anti-social tendencies. It often
increases insomnia and changes eating patterns. Individuals suffer from; somnolence and
despondency; lacking in a sense of worth and hope. Lack of natural light is known to affect
patients suffering from depression or psychiatric disorders, patients with eating disorders
frequently experience a winter exacerbation of their symptoms. 45 This suggests that
individuals who are already mentally unstable become more sensitive to lack of light.
Research undertaken demonstrates the acknowledgement in psychological health conditions

resulting from the lack of natural light, For example; sick building syndrome, 46 and
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD). The psychological effect of lack of natural light has been
investigated for many years. The first classification of SAD was made by Norman Rosenthal
in 1984. However as the book, Seasonal Affective Disorder, Practice and Research, 47
suggests, research into SAD has been undertaken since 1825. Likewise in 400BC,
45
Eagles. J. (2004.) Light Therapy , and the Management of Winter Depression. The Royal College of
Psychiatrists. Available at <http://apt.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/full/10/3/233. > (27/12/2009.)
46
Sick Building Syndrome. (2010) Available at

<http://www.lhc.org.uk/members/pubs/books/sbs/sb04.htm>(22/02/2010)
47
Magnuson, A. Partanen, T (eds) (2001) Seasonal Affective Disorder: Practice and Research.Oxford
University Press.
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Hippocrates postulated that it was the changes of seasons which produce disease. 48
Therefore SAD is not a modern disorder.
(SAD) is a medical condition where people suffer adverse mood alterations as a result of lack
of light. Beck writes that,
SAD, is officially recognized as a form of major depression that remits in spring, and
summer. The seasonal and geographic patterns provide strong clues that it is related to
the diminishing daylight in the fall and winter. One theory suggests that the reduced
light disrupts peoples' circadian rhythms, the 24-hour biological clock that governs
waking, sleeping, and many other body functions. Another theory holds that the
darkness wreaks havoc with neurotransmittersbrain chemicals that effect mood.49
Results suggest that in the treatment of SAD and other psychological disorders, light therapy
works well. The Royal College of Psychiatry states that, light therapy has been shown to be
effective in up to 85 percent of diagnosed cases.50 However, it has to be a very particular
intensity of lighting. 51 If the patients are exposed for too long, or for too little time, side
effects may occur, or the treatment does not work.
Success of treatment that helps alleviate the psychological symptoms as well as the
physiological problems is said to be effective. Beck writes,
Dr. Rohan and her colleagues developed a cognitive behavioural therapy 52 (CBT)
program, in which patients identified and then challenged, negative thoughts and
48
Eagles, J (2004.) . Light Therapy and the Management of Winter Depression. The Royal College of
Psychiatrists. Available at <http://apt.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/full/10/3/233.> (27/12/2009.)
49
Beck, M. (2009). Bright Ideas for Treating Winter Blues. Available at

<.http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703300504574567881192085174.html?mod=rss_Today%27
s_Most_Popular.> (01/02/2010).
50
Information on Seasonal Affective Disorder. (2009.) Available at <www.Sada.org.uk.> (15/01/2010)
51
Information on Seasonal Affective Disorder. (2009.) Available at < www.Sada.org.uk.> (15/01/2010)
52
Beck, M. (2009) Bright Ideas for Treating Winter Blues. Available at

<http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703300504574567881192085174.html?mod=rss_Today%27s
_Most_Popular. > (01/02/2010.)
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behaviours (like declining social invitations and spending time in bed) that were
contributing to their depression.53
Results show,
that in a study of 69 patients published in the Journal of Behaviour Therapy this year,
Dr. Rohan and colleagues treated some SAD patients with CBT, some with light
therapy and some with a combination , and followed them through two winters. About
37% of the patients treated with light therapy had a recurrence of depression. That
compared with 7% of patients treated only with CBT and 6% of patients who received
a combination of treatments.54
Treatment should therefore treat the physiological and psychological symptoms.
As this article suggests, SAD can cause individuals to become anti social. When individuals
are subjected to too little natural light, hibernation becomes the natural reaction: Lack of
light would lead to a natural form of human hibernation. 55 Individuals begin to exclude
themselves from the world.
Studies undertaken by The Royal College of Psychiatrists, state that SAD is more apparent in
people who have a smaller or less stable social circle. The article, Negative Life Events and
Poor social Support Predict Seasonal Patterns of Mood Disorder, argues that there is an,
increased risk of seasonality by negative life events and having low levels of social
support.56 It is known that the two main side-effects of SAD are that patients stop exercising,
and have a larger appetite: both of which factors contribute to weight gain, which in turn can
53

_Most_Popular. > (01/02/2010.)
54

_Most_Popular. > (01/02/2010.)
55
Birren, F. (1988) Light Colour and Environment. Shiffer publishing. pg 12
56
Negative life Events, and Poor Social Support Predict Seasonal Patterns of Mood Disorder. (2003) Royal
College of Psychiatrists. Available at
<http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/pressparliament/pressreleasearchive/pr412.aspx. 2003. pg 1.> (10/11/2009)
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contribute to deteriorating interpersonal relationships and social withdrawal.57 This suggests

that Lack of light makes people less sociable, yet being less sociable can make people more
susceptible to SAD.
The Royal College of Psychiatry conclude that their studies provide further evidence of the
importance of evaluating the role of psycho-social factors in relation to seasonality, and
SAD.58 Lighting and its impact not only on the self, but also interaction with others, could
be argued as intrinsically linked, as depression caused by too little lighting can cause people
to become reclusive and antisocial. Society is affected because people become less sociable
and motivated as a result of sad.
SAD could be having an impact on a large majority of society within the United Kingdom
and other countries. J. M Eagles of The Royal College of Psychiatry argues that, it would
probably be justifiable to classify more than half of the UK population as experiencing mild
symptoms of winter depression.59 However the United Kingdom is not the worst country to
be affected. SAD is linked to geographic places where there is a distinct lack of light in the
winter. The report, Winter Seasonal Affective Disorder: A global, Bio cultural
Perspective,60 suggests the correlation between lack of sun light and Depression. Therefore it
is most prevalent in the more northern countries.
57
Eagles. J. (2004) Light Therapy and The Management of Winter Depression. The Royal College of
Psychiatrists. Available at <http://apt.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/full/10/3/233.> (27/12/2009.)
58
Negative life Events and Poor Social Support Predict Seasonal Patterns of Mood Disorder. (2003) Royal
<http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/pressparliament/pressreleasearchive/pr412.aspx.> 2003. Pg 1. (10/11/2009)
59
Eagles. John. (2004.) Light Therapy and the Management of Winter Depression. The Royal College of
Psychiatrists. Availaalbe at <http://apt.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/full/10/3/233.> (27/12/2009.)
60
Whitehead, B. Winter Seasonal Affective Disorder: A Global, Biocultural Perspective. Available at <
http://www.as.ua.edu/ant/bindon/ant570/Papers/Whitehead.pdf>(21/02/2010)
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The American journal of Psychiatry states that in surveys taken to determine the level of Sad,
in Alaska. The rates were the highest recorded.
A random sample of 283 residents of Fairbanks who had lived in Alaska for 3 years or
more were interviewed with the Seasonal Pattern Assessment Questionnaire and
the Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D Scale).
RESULTS: Twenty-six (9.2%) of the subjects met diagnostic criteria for
seasonal affective disorder, one of the highest figures yet reported. 61
The suggestion is made that for people moving to northern areas the symptoms can be severe.
The report, Winter Seasonal Affective Disorder: A global, Biocultural Perspective, 62
suggests that for some people, staying a short time results in more severe symptoms, Others
notice a decrease in symptoms after 9 years in the country. It was also suggested, that a
survey of students living in Maine, showed that moving to a location where there is less light
can result in SAD, in particular for those students who moved from south to north. This
suggests that individuals react to lack of lighting in different ways but that they can become
more accustomed over time.
61
Moving to Alaska (2009) Available at <

http://www.pinkyswearpromise.com/articles/moving_to_alaska.html>(21/02/2010)
62
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Ways in which too much light affects individual psychologically.

The novel L Etranger, (The Outsider)63 by Albert Camus, presents an existentialist character,
Meursault, whose whole sense of self is affected by lighting. He often describes how the
bright light of Algiers affects him, for example he says, the glare from the sky was
unbearable. 64 His experiences and moods are evoked through his sensory perceptions, in
particular his relationship to light. The suggestion is made that Meursault is sensitive to too
much lighting. This chapter will begin to discuss the effect that too much lighting can have
on individuals.
For those subjected to too much light, it becomes difficult to rest and to work out what time it
is. The individuals body-clock becomes unset and individuals become more prone to
insomnia.
This is a subject that artists have addressed. Insomnia65, directed by Christopher Nolan in
2003, is a detective story set in Alaska. The main character, detective, Dormer, (Latin word
Dormire, Meaning to sleep.) becomes increasingly unstable throughout the film as a result of
insomnia, caused by the continuous daylight of the Alaskan summer. As a result of sleep
deprivation, he struggles to concentrate, becomes increasingly less alert and loses confidence
in his judgment.
Of course this is an unusual circumstance: few countries in the world have periods of
continuous daylight. However, for these countries which also have seasons of perpetual
63
Camus, A. (1983) (Translated from French by J Laredo. 1942) The Outsder. Pengun Group. Pg 21
64
Camus, Albert. The Outsder. Pengun Group. 1983. Pg 21
65
Insomnia. (2003) Directed by Christopher, Nolan. [DVD.] USA: Buena Vista Home Entertainment.
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darkness such as Finland, Russia and, Alaska rates of depression, suicide and alcholism are
high.
A report for the Denver post on the suicide rates in America states that: Alaska reported the
highest suicide rate. 66 Likewise, a report on Alcohol Cultures in Finland and Alaska 67
suggests that both cultures have a high tendency towards alcohol abuse, In 2005 alcohol
killed more adult Finns than heart disease or any form of cancer. 68 Likewise Alcohol
consumption in 2005 set a record for Finland. 69 Alcohol is becoming one of the highest
causes of death. Coffee consumption is also high.70 This could be because individuals wish to
stimulate their brain due to the lack of sunlight. This suggests the detrimental effects of
extremes of light.
Although not all countries suffer from such extremes as in Finland and Alaska, Artificial
lighting can result in people being subjected to constant lighting. An excess of light can be
beneficial, if someone is exposed to it at the right time of the day. However, too much
66
Draper, E. (2007) States Suicide Rate, Eighth Highest. Available at <

http://www.denverpost.com/news/ci_7584821>(19/02/2010)
67
Erlanda, M. (2007) Alcohol cultures in Finland and Alaska: Explosive Drinking Patterns and their
Consequences.(Report) Available at < http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article-1G1-185821604/alcoholcultures-finland-and.html>(20/02/2010)
68
Erlanda, M. (2007) Alcohol cultures in Finland and Alaska: Explosive Drinking Patterns and their
Consequences.(Report) Available at < http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article-1G1-185821604/alcoholcultures-finland-and.html>(20/02/2010)
69
Alcohol Deaths in Finland.(2010) Alcohol and Drugs, History Society. Available at <
http://historyofalcoholanddrugs.typepad.com/alcohol_and_drugs_history/finland/>(20/02/2010)
70
Finns Drink the Most Coffee. Alcohol and Drugs, History Society. (2010) Available at <
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artificial lighting is not healthy. In particular too much artificial lighting at night, people are
exposed to an excess at lighting when they should normally be exposed to darkness.
In these paintings Van Gogh depicts an intensely lit scene, starlight and artificial light blaze
before the eyes of the viewer, whose entire vision is exposed to light. The lights cast a warm
glow on the scene beneath and the water reflects it, increasing the intensity. In contrast to the
brightness of the lighting, the buildings become lost and blur into the background.
Figure 13: Van Gogh, V. (1888). Starry Night Over the Rhone.
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Figure 14: Van Gogh, V.(1889). Starry Starry Night
The light in Starry Starry Night, swirls violently and expressively through the sky revealing
in luminosity the relationship between light, atmosphere and mood. This suggests unease, but
also enjoyment of the intensities of light. Van Gogh was known to suffer from epilepsy.71
This painting shows sensitivity to lighting when there is an overabundance. The painting
blurs the distinction between day and night, and suggests an intensity of lighting even at night.
The ability to create twenty-four hour lighting has had an immense impact on the developed
world. Although artificial lighting existed before the invention of the light bulb, the light bulb
was able to be so easily and cheaply produced and was more efficient and longer-lasting. This
71
Vincent Van Gogh (2010) Available at <

http://www.charge.org.uk/htmlsite/van%20_gogh.shtml>(23/02/2010)
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meant that lighting could have a much wider use. It began to be controlled for aesthetic
purposes, such as to light up buildings at night, not only where it was a functional necessity.
The increase of electrical lighting not only impacted on the exterior world, it also had an
effect on individuals and society. The use of artificial lighting has helped society in many
ways: people are able to work, shop, and socialise after night fall. However the ability to light
urban spaces and buildings all the time has had an effect on the psychological stability of
individuals.
The invention of artificial lighting, on the one hand helped to give people more control over
lighting. On the other hand it has taken away peoples connection with the natural cycle of the
sun, something which people adjusted their lives to and was important for their wellbeing.
Before artificial lighting, individuals were constrained to only carrying out activities during
daylight hours and people accepted that darkness was something they could not change.
Electrical lighting changed how long people could work. With the increase of electrical
lighting, the working hours increased. This resulted in individuals having less free time.
Although being able to work through the night can be beneficial, it can also cause stress on
the individual workers. Alan Bellows in the article, The Shortness of Dark72 suggests that
artificial light varies the length of the day. This means that individuals do not have a set sleep
patterns and their body clock is not regulated. He argues that this is not healthy as it weakens
the immune system and causes other illnesses and stress.
72
Bellows, A. (2006) Shortness of Dark. Available at < http://www.damninteresting.com/shortness-of-dark>

13th March 2006. (10/02/2010)
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Shift work in particular means that the worker can never fully regulate their body-clock as
they are working unusual hours. Individuals who work night-time shifts are more susceptible
to stress. Surveys carried out in Canada on shift workers state that Statistics revealed that
nearly 8 out of 10 (79 per cent) workers had experienced depression in 2002 and almost one
in five (19 per cent) reported very severe interference. 73 Likewise, a report by the European
Working Conditions Observatory, 74 confirms that shift work and night work causes high
levels of stress. The report includes tables to show the high risk factors associated with shift
work. The report demonstrates the stress levels associated with these types of job. In
particular the risk of stress is highest when the shift work is not kept to a regular routine.
Figure 15: Percentage of night and shift workers experiencing stress at work.
73
Shift Work Linked to Depression (2007) Available at
<http://dcnonl.com/article/20070122300>(19/02/2010)
74
Night Work and Shift Work Cause High Stress Levels (2006) Available at
<http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/ewco/2006/09/BE0609019I.htm> (21/02/2010)
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A report on Shift work wellbeing75 shows further study into the detrimental effects of Shift
work. It states that 25 percent of people in western society now work in shifts; therefore the
problems could be affecting more people than in the past.
However, shift work is
unavoidable in certain workplaces - for example, in health care, where people need to be
looked after through the night, therefore perhaps something can be done to improve the
conditions for these workers.
Often the conditions where people work are not beneficial to their wellbeing. Workplaces
often have very little natural light in the daytime and rely on electrical lighting. A report by
John M Eagles for the Royal College of Psychiatrics states that, the increased likelihood of
working indoors over the past century has been linked to the increased recognition of
SAD.76 This suggests there is a correlation between sustained exposure to indoor electrical
lighting and the workers psychological state.
Therefore psychological disorders relating to light could be becoming worse by the increase
in electrical lighting, in particular the amount of lighting at night. In countries with little
natural light in winter, the dark days result in electrical lighting being constantly used.
Likewise in summer, the days are bright and the nights are also brightly lit. Individuals are
subjected to constant lighting. This causes individuals body-clocks to be disrupted, one has
cause to wonder if the great white ways of big cities are indeed not generators of physical
75
Pease, E. Raether, K (2003) Shift Working and Well-being: A Physiological and Psychological Analysis of
Shift Workers Available at < http://www.uwlax.edu/URC/JUR-online/PDF/2003/pease.pdf>(20/02/2010)
76
Eagles. J. (2004). Light Therapy and the Management of Winter Depression The Royal College of
Psychiatrists Available at <http://apt.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/full/10/3/233>. (27/12/2009).
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appetite through the blaze of their lights, and neon signs.77 The night seems as bright as the
daytime. Psychologically the mind thinks it is still day time, but the body cannot keep up.
Figure 16: Tokyo street at night.
Figure 17: NASA. (2008); Satellite view of Tokyo at night.
77
Birren, Faber. Light Colour and Environment. Shiffer publishing. 1988 pg 12
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Figure 18: Henry Thoreau. (2009).This map and study shows the increase in light pollution.
78
78
Thoreau. H D(2009.).LIGHT POLLUTION To Increase as Population , and Energy use Increases. The
Conservation Report. Available at
http://conservationreport.com/?s=light+pollution+increases+as+population+increases. March 8 2009,
(22/01/2010)
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The increase in electrical lighting is detrimental to peoples wellbeing. The article, Twenty
Four Hour Lighting Can Affect Your Health by Eisha Sarkar discusses this. Sarkar states
that scientists say,
Let there be light..., but not for 24 hours. A new study shows that bright street lighting
and office blocks that remain lit all night could be affecting our mental health.
Researchers said too much light at night can be linked to depression. 79
The article argues that, Those living in cities have long complained that fluorescent street
lights effect their ability to sleep, and can alter their mood. 80 Psychologists have confirmed
that, being unable to escape to the dark can have a harmful effect on someone's
personality.81 Artificial lighting is doing more harm than good. Sarkar discusses the results
from a case study in order to form this conclusion:
The researched involved 24 male laboratory mice, half were housed in light for 16
hours a days , and darkness for eight hours, while the other half had 24 hours of light.
Half of each group had dark tubes in their units that let them escape the light when they
chose. The other half had similar tubes that were clear and let light in. After 3 weeks,
the mice began a series of tests that are used to measure depression and anxiety in
animals.82
The results showed that:

In all the tests, mice living in constant light showed more depressive-like symptoms
than those with normal light-dark cycles. Mice that lived in constant light, but could
79
Sarkar, E. (2009) 24-hour Lighting can Affect your Mental Health. The Times. October [online] Available at
<.http://www.timeswellness.com/article/11/2009102920091028152546578cbc3835a/24hour-lighting-can-effectyour-mental-health.html. Times online. October 2009>. (06/02/2010)
80
<http://www.timeswellness.com/article/11/2009102920091028152546578cbc3835a/24hour-lighting-can-effectyour-mental-health.html Times online. October 2009>. (06/02/2010)
81
<http://www.timeswellness.com/article/11/2009102920091028152546578cbc3835a/24hour-lighting-can-effectyour-mental-health.html Times online. October 2009>. (06/02/2010)
82
Sarkar, E. (2009) 24-hour Lighting can Affect your Mental Health. The Times. October [online] Available
at <.http://www.timeswellness.com/article/11/2009102920091028152546578cbc3835a/24hour-lighting-caneffect-your-mental-health.html Times online. October 2009.> (06/02/2010)
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escape into a dark tube when they wanted showed less evidence of depressive
symptoms than those who had no escape. 83
The report suggests this has the same effect on humans. Too much lighting which individuals
are not in control of leads to individuals whose body-clock is unstable. Sarkar suggests that:
"The increasing rate of depressive disorders in humans corresponds with the increasing use of
light at night in modern society. Many people are now exposed to unnatural light cycles,84
and this may be detrimental to the health of an individual.
Figure 19: Nasa. (2000) the world at night
To further strengthen this argument, this map shows that the most densely lit countries are
Japan and the United States. The report from the United States, National Centre for Health
Statistics, Depression in the United States Household Population, 2005-200685 States that 1
83
<.http://www.timeswellness.com/article/11/2009102920091028152546578cbc3835a/24hour-lighting-can-effectyour-mental-health.html. Times online. October 2009.> (06/02/2010)
84
Sarkar, E. (2009) 24-hour Lighting can Effect your mental health. The Times. October [online] Available at
<.http://www.timeswellness.com/article/11/2009102920091028152546578cbc3835a/24hour-lighting-can-effectyour-mental-health.htmlTimes online. October 2009.> (06/02/2010)
85
Pratt, L. Brody, D. (2008) Depression in the United States Household Population, 2005-2006 Available at <
http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db07.htm> (20/02/2010)
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in 20 American citizens suffer from Depression. Likewise an article by The Times,86suggests

that Japan is on the verge of a suicide crisis. With 30, 093 people committing suicide in 2007.
This shows a correlation between the amount of artificial lighting and depression.
86
Lewis, L. (2008) Japan Gripped by Suicide Epidemic. The Times Online. Available at <
http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article4170649.ece>(21/02/2010)
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Individuals have lost control of how their environment is lit.
The invention of artificial lighting meant that people could create lighting whenever they
wanted. However although individuals should have been more able to control lighting as a
result, electrical lighting designers recognised the power that lies in this control and have
exploited its power for political, commercial, artistic, and other functions. Lighting became a
way that individuals could be controlled.
Jon Henley, the author of the essay life before artificial light87 argues that street lighting
was, self evidently a powerful weapon of both economic and social control.88 In particular it
enhanced the ability to control the mood of individuals.
Designers could more easily manipulate individuals by the design of lighting. They did this in
many ways, such as by illuminating the walkways in shopping centres in such a way that
people do not want to remain still. Also by lighting up shop windows at night, so that people
become constantly provoked by advertising. Urban planners began to use lighting to create
urban spaces that never sleep.
Therefore artificial light has increased both lightings potential as something which can be
controlled to orientate people within an environment and also to disorientate people. This
can lead to individuals who are becoming increasingly detached. For example, when walking
through a city like Tokyo at night, an individual is surrounded by lights, from every car and
building. Lighting completely invades every street. Whether designed to do so or accidently
so, lighting is attracting peoples attention, they are subjected to sensory overload. As a result
87
Henley, Jon. (2009) Life Before Artificial Light. Available at

http://www.guardian.co.uk/lifeandstyle/2009/oct/31/life-before-artificial-light 31st october 2009. (10/02/2010)
88

http://www.guardian.co.uk/lifeandstyle/2009/oct/31/life-before-artificial-light 31st october 2009. (10/02/2010)
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individuals do not know where to look and cannot connect to any one thing. They become
disorientated and cut off from the environment they are in.
As a result of the mass of light and information which is constantly changing, individuals
cannot adjust and become alienated. J, Arp recognises this saying that, individuals become,
hidden away in his vanity like a mole in his hills [and they] no longer understand the
language of light which fills the sky with its inconceivable immensity.89 People no longer
have the opportunity to enjoy the gradually increasing or diminishing light of dawn and dusk
or the starlight, instead they are confronted with electrical lighting throughout the day and
night. This can make individuals isolated. Karl Marx argued to be isolated was undesirable,iv
and that the further one looks back in history the more the individual appears as dependent,
as belonging to a greater whole. 90 Perhaps people have lost a sense of collective identity as
a result of too much lighting.
This suggests the psychological and social impact of not being in control of how the
environment is lit. As electrical lighting at night increasingly illuminates the urban
environment, individuals are affected more than one realises and this affects how people
understand themselves and other people.
Therefore perhaps variations in lighting and as result variations in relationships to the other
could be important. Roland Barthes in The Nauticus and the Drunken Boat, 91 argues the
importance of contrasting times of inner self exploration by being isolated,v with times of a
wider exploration of the surrounding environment. This suggests that that by engaging with
89
Arp J. (1948) On My Way- Poetry and Papers. Wittenborn Scultz inc. pg 49
90
Blackledge, P. (2008) Marxism and Ethics. Available at

<http://www.isj.org.uk/index.php4?id=486&issue=120>. (17/08/2009)
91
Barthes, R. (1991) Mythologies. The Nauticus, and the Drunken Boat. Noonday press. Pg 34
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the world an individual can contrast times where they understand how they relate to the
environment, with times of disorientation. Bachelards Poetics of Space states, For we are
where we are not.
92
Alienation can sometimes be beneficial, but this needs to be a
temporary state. From indulging in proximity of expression or losing oneself in the detail of
light and shade, one feels that one is in the presence of an essential impression seeking
expression. 93 By losing oneself, one is better enabled to express who they are and to form
knowledge. Variations of light and darkness allow individuals to go between these two states.
But as a result of too much electrical lighting people are not allowed this opportunity. This
results in individuals who are psychologically unstable and isolated.
Therefore too little or too much light is not beneficial. Light is more beneficial when it is
varied. The quality rather than the quantity of lighting is worth considering. Mende states that
there is, nothing more excruciating than staying in an environment with invariable light.94
He argues that lighting at night is important, but it has to be done with extreme consideration
of the effects on those being subjected to it. Lighting must not be too constant or be
constantly changing, people being subjected to sensory deprivation or sensory overload is not
healthy. Therefore it would be beneficial to the psychological state of individuals for artificial
lighting to be more carefully controlled and designed, for the lighting to subtly change rather
than being too constant or changing too often.
Moreover, perhaps individuals are easily manipulated as a result of being unaware of how
light affects them. Therefore individuals could benefit by being more aware and designers
92
Bachelard, Gaston. Poetics of Space. Beacon press. 1992 pg 211
93
Bachelard, Gaston. Poetics of Space. Beacon press. 1992 pg 186
94
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could consider ways to enable individuals to have greater control over the lighting of the
spaces they use.
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Chapter 3: Lighting the Environment to Increase the Wellbeing of

Individuals.
Had I the heavens' embroidered cloths,

Enwrought with golden and silver light,
The blue and the dim and the dark cloths
Of night and light and the half-light.
W.B Yeats
(1911) From The Wind Among The Reeds95.
Yeats is evoking his desire to be able to have control over the light of the sky, to be able to
change his experience of light to suit his needs. How one experiences lighting within the
environment is fundamental to ones psychological stability. Lighting designer Mende states
that, lighting design does not merely serve a practical or functional role, but has the power to
appeal directly to the human spirit or sensibility.96 Ernest Hemingway, in the story A Clean,
Well- Lighted Place,97 portrays a character whose main desire is to be in place that is well lit.
The cafe was a clean and pleasant cafe. It is well lighted. The light is very good and also,
now, there are shadows of the leaves.98 The cafe owner says Each night I am reluctant to
close up because there may be someone who needs the cafe. 99 The suggestion is made that
this is something that most people desire.
95
Yeats, W. (1911) The Wind Above the Reeds. Elkin Matthews.
96
97
Hemingway, E. (1990) A Clean Well- Lighted Place. Creative Education. pg 5
98
99
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These sources suggest that as lighting is so intrinsic to peoples sensibility. How they feel
about themselves and the other. It has the power to make an individual feel comfortable and
psychologically stable, or uncomfortable and stressed and depressed. It is, therefore,
important that individuals have an understanding of how light affects them and that they have
ways to control lighting to suit how they are feeling and their needs in a space.
In order to be able to light the environment to suit their needs, it is imperative that each
individual understands how light affects them. Beck, in her article, Bright Ideas for Treating
Winter Blues, suggests it is possible to, calculate your own melatonin onset point. [This is
done by taking] the morningness / eveningness test at the website of the Centre for
Environmental Therapeutics, a non-profit group of researchers studying light and circadian
rhythms.100 An individual can use this website to calculate their individual relationship to
light, thus calculating out how to light their environment to suit their needs. In particular,
what times they should avoid exposure to bright lights, as this can affect their productivity
and their circadian rhythms.
The environment can be adapted to suit the needs of individuals. Psychiatrists are starting to
experiment with new ways to treat patients suffering with psychiatric disorders, by designing
the environment to suit their needs. Instead of treating patients with medication to try to fit
the patient into the classification of normal society, psychiatrists are beginning to construct
an environment around the needs of the patient.
100

_Most_Popular. > (01/02/2010.)
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Nidotherapy is the, formal term introduced to describe the systematic manipulation of the
physical and social environment, to help achieve a better fit for a person with a persistent or
permanent mental disorder.101 Psychiatrists argue that this treatments success is because it
aims to change the environment not the person. This is because one of the reasons why
patients are so dissatisfied with current therapeutic systems is that they are perceived as
making them into people they are not.102 It suggests that mental illness arises from being
out of synchronisation with the surrounding environment: We hypothesised that many
people with apparently intractable forms of mental illness, were out of harmony with their
environment. 103 Further that, choice and control of the environment are taken for
granted. 104 This confirms the importance of controlling the environment to suit each
individuals needs.
As light is so fundamental to the environment, it is therefore the most crucial element to

begin to control: As Jonathan Speirs, Author of Made of Light states: the environment could
be controlled through the location, distribution and manipulation of light.105 The authors of
this psychiatric paper state that:
101
Bajaj, P. Tyrer, P. (2005) Nidotherapy: Making the Environment do the Therapeutic Work.. The Royal
College of Psychiatrists. Available at <http://apt.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/full/11/3/232 . 2005.> pg
1.( 02/02/2010)
102
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103
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104
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105
Major, M. Speirs, J .Tischhauser, A. Made of Light - The Art of Light and Architecture. Birkhauser
publication. 2005. Pg 34
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instead of having a large number of individuals competing for a limited space in the sun
we are creating a set of mini environments each fashioned to suit the person it is
accommodating, not in competition with everyone else and which allows everyone to
succeed.106
This suggests that a balance can be made in allowing the individual to tailor the environment
to their requirements, whilst also allowing people to live in harmony with others.
Nidotherapy, not only recognises that paying attention to the environment in mental health is
valuable, but goes further by arguing that the systematic planning and management of the
environment, is the best way to create mental harmony as a long term goal.107 Therefore, as
well as leaving the designs of public and private space to those trained to design; individuals
need to play an active role in how the spaces they use are lit. Collaborations between
designers, psychiatrists, and ordinary individuals could be beneficial in terms of increasing
the wellbeing of an individual. The individual could be enabled to control the variety,
quantity and intensity of lighting.
Nidotherapists argue the importance of, seeing the environment through the eyes of the
patient.108 The treatment should not dictate how the environment should be changed, but
should allow the patient to lead the proceedings. In order that the, primary improvement
should be in social function.109 As a result, better adjustment of the environment should
106
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107
Bajaj, P. Tyrer, P. (2005) Nidotherapy: Making the Environment do the Therapeutic Work. The Royal
1.( 02/02/2010)
108
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109
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lead to improved social functioning.110 The paper states that the patient must be adapted into
a society, the main aim of nidotherapy is to get a good personal fit between individual, and
environment. Furthermore, this cannot be done in isolation, and has to take account of wider
environmental needs, including those of society;111 because, the notion is that the patient is
in control of a nidotherapy programme. 112 Each individual is enabled to create the
environment to best suit their needs, but the wider community is also considered.
This chapter argues the importance of controlling lighting within the urban environment to
help individuals. Surveys carried out by the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians argue
that, it is possible to increase the quality of life by improving lighting conditions. 113
Therefore individuals could benefit by having a better understanding of how lighting affects
them in order to control lighting to best suit their individual needs. It will discuss examples of
designers who are enhancing the use of natural light and are allowing more control over how
spaces are lit. It suggests that designers are beginning to understand the importance of having
the ability to regulate and vary lighting in the same way as heat and the orientation of space,
within their works.
110
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111
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112
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113
Brunstrom, G. Sorensen, S. (2004) Quality of Life- The Effect of Lighting Adaptation Among People With
Low Vision. Ophthalmic , and physiological optics. The journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians.
Vol 24. Issue 4. Pg 1
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How designers can control of light to increase the psychological wellbeing of individuals.
Ideally individuals can reconnect with natural lighting. By doing this their body-clock can be
reset. In order to do this people must be more in control of electrical lighting. It is important
to harness natural lighting as much as possible in buildings to reduce the need for artificial
lighting as natural daylight benefits an individual psychologically and physiologically. It
regulates the body-clock of an individual and re-sets their circadian rhythm, the 24 hour
body-clock that is set by external stimuli, the natural light pattern for example the sun setting
and rises, informs the body when to rest. Better control over the body-clock can help improve
mood, reduce eye-strain, increase energy, moral and esteem.
Artists are beginning to make individuals realise how their wellbeing relies on light. The
Weather Project, by Olafur Eliasson, encourages the viewer to think about how natural light
can be beneficial. This piece comprised of a huge artificial sun which people could bask
underneath by lying on the floor. It creates a meditative space that feels almost therapeutic
evoking the sense of wellbeing created from basking in the sun.
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Figure 20: Eliasson, O. (2004) The Weather Project.
Turrells Deer Shelter offers the viewer the opportunity to reconnect with natural lighting.
Here Turrell offers the viewer nothing more than simply to be in harmony with natural
lighting. He has created a room where the viewer can sit back and gaze at the sky, which has
been perfectly framed by a void ceiling. He offers the experience of natural light. The viewer
gets lost in the intensity of colour that subtly changes as the sun moves. It is interesting to
compare this piece with the Pantheon shown in chapter one. In both examples, the viewer is
drawn to look up to the light spilling down from the void in the ceiling. Perhaps to find ways
to control natural light, it could be interesting to look into the past, when there was no other
way to light a building.
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Figure 21: Turrell, J. (2006) Deer Shelter
However if it is so important to control lighting and to harness natural lighting why it is not
always considered? This could be attributed to a number of reasons. Firstly lack of
knowledge, ignorance of the effect that too much artificial lighting was having on people.
Perhaps with the influx of electrical lighting it became easier to introduce electrical lighting
to solve the problem of lack of light than to design buildings that adequately dispersed natural
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light. This is particularly relevant with regards to post war builds, which were built for
expediency and often show little consideration for introducing natural light.114
Likewise the lack of technology could have been a factor. The lighting technology was not
easily adaptable or versatile and if it was it was costly. Cost was another factor. The article,
Seeing Green by Beck Ireland,115 states that it has always been perceived that buildings that
are greener and make better use of natural lighting are much more costly. However evidence
shows that although the initial costs are more, the cut down in energy used can save money.
By improving the use of natural light, energy can be saved, an article on daylight savings:
buildings with natural light. 116 approximates that lighting accounts for 25-40 percent of
energy consumption.117
An article on Whole Building design, 118 states that green buildings cost no more than ten
percent to build and pay back money in the long term. This can be worked out by completing
simple payback analysis. Therefore it is possible to create buildings that are more
comfortable to live and work in and are more environmentally friendly and economical in the
same instance.
114
Bullock, N. (2002) Building The Post War Britain. Routledge.
115
Ireland, B. (2008) Seeing Green Available at <http://ecmweb.com/mag/electric_seeing_green/>(12/02/2010)
116
Daylight Savings: Building with Natural Light. (2006) Availabe at

<http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061114194440.htm>(16/02/2010)
117

118
Whole Building Design (2010) Available at

<http://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/commercial/whole_building_design.html>(10/02/2010)
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A report for the BBC on how, Buildings Threaten UK Emission Targets119 suggests that this
can be done by incorporating elements into the initial design or in refurbishments of buildings.
In particular refurbishments will be crucial. This is because 80% of the buildings that will be
occupied in 2050 have already been built;
120
Therefore by harnessing natural light,
buildings will become more comfortable for the individuals using them and will also save
energy and as a result cost.
The Literature Review of the Effects of Natural Light on Building Occupants,121 discusses
the importance of daylight in a number of different institutions and work places. This article
claims that improved interior lighting could alleviate problems that affect a large majority of
society. People working in buildings with day lighting had increased wellbeing. This results
in less absenteeism, increased productivity, fewer accidents and more profit. Moreover,
employees would have more job satisfaction.
Lighting designers are creating ways in which to harness the natural daylight in order to
improve living and working conditions. Designers at clearvisionuk 122 work with sun
collectors and heliostats, to increase levels of daylight in a space: by creating a range of
products and technologies that can increase the daylight factor in any space. The designs will
reduce the amount of artificial lighting needed. If applied properly, they also contribute to a
higher quality of light.123 However natural light also has its problems. It is harder to control
119
Buildings Threaten Uk Emmison Targets (2010) BBC News. Available at <http://news.bbc.co.uk.
120
121
Edwards, L. Torcellini, P. (2002). A Literature Review of the Effects of Natural Light on

Building Occupants. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Available at <
http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy02osti/30769.pdf. > July 2002. (11/02/20100)
122
Clearvisionuk. Available at <http://www.virtualdaylight.com/technology.htm > (07/02/2010)
123
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and can cause glare and overheating. However there are ways to increase the natural light in a
space whilst controlling the negative aspects. This can be done in different ways:
Addressing glare means keeping sunlight out of the field of view of building occupants
while protecting them from disturbing reflections. Addressing overheating means adding
appropriate exterior shading, filtering incoming solar radiation or even using passive
control means such as thermal mass. Furthermore, addressing the variability and privacy
issues requires creative ways to block or alter light patterns and compensate with other
light sources.124
To deal with these problems, architects are incorporating elements into their design which
allows for natural light to be shaded and let in where necessary. They are experimenting with
ways in which to give greater control over natural lighting. For example, louvres, become
ideal in controlling natural light. This system automatically monitors the suns path through
the sky and adjusts in order to shade the glare from the sunlight whilst still allowing a high
level of natural lighting.
Figure 22: Example of a louvre design by Levelux
124

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Of course natural lighting cannot always suffice, for countries where it is dark in the winter
electrical lighting must be used. If harnessing natural light is not possible the use of artificial
lighting is beginning to be carefully considered. Designers are finding ways to improve
lighting to make it more efficient and beneficial for people. According to Joseph Brennan
Conventional artificial lighting remains constant, with the only change in luminance levels
in a room resulting from infiltrated daylight through the window, skylights etc. [Therefore]
any artificial lighting system that hopes to mimic daylight, therefore, cannot be constant.125
Artificial lighting is better when it is as close to natural lighting as possible, lighting
designers are attempting to simulate natural lighting using artificial lighting.
Designers and architects are beginning to find ways in which to improve the use of natural
light at a low cost in various different types of building and within the public realm. They are
improving the versatility of lighting and are trying to find ways in which it is possible to only
use artificial lighting when necessary and to improve the control over it. For example, Office
buildings can be benefitted by improved lighting.
125
Brennan, J. Effects of Light on Humans. Dublin Institute of Technology. Available at

<http://www.ile.org.uk/uploads/File/News/Brennan%2020Effects%20of%20Light%20on%20humans%20-%20full%20version.pdf>. Pg 5. (07/02/1010)
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Figure 23: Foster, N (1992-9) Reichstag Building.
One example of an interesting design to improve the lighting is Norman Fosters Reichstag
building in Berlin. This funnels and diffuses natural light down the entire length of the
building. Similarly, the architect Toyo Ito incorporated a number of these funnels to channel
light into his design.
Figure 24: Ito, T. (2001) Sendai Mediatheque, Japan.

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He also maximised the use of windows. The increase in windows is said to improve the
workers wellbeing. Windows are valued highly, as the workers feel less cut off from the
world. Moreover, the natural light from the windows is more varied than artificial lighting.
Results from a survey on The Effects of Variable Lighting Intensities and Colour, on
Sulphatoxymelatonin; and Subjective Mood in an Experimental Office, suggest that,
analysis of a mood rating inventory revealed a benefit of variable light with respect to the
dimensions of activity.126 That, deactivation and fatigue were increased in regular light.127
Whereas, unvaried light sources make people more or less motivated to carry out an activity.
Therefore varied lighting is beneficial to individuals. When this is not accounted for in a
building, sick building syndrome may occur. People have reactions to the building they are in
which withdraw once they leave the building. Windows in factories can reduce these
symptoms such as, headaches, dizziness, sickness, feeling faint and depression.
Increased lighting can increase the safety and productivity of workers. An example of an
interesting factory design, where natural light is well utilised, is the New York Times print
factory. By designing a more comfortably and variably lit work space; the workers are more
likely to be productive. For a business point of view, this will be profitable. Surveys carried
out by the Health and Safety Executive, regarding Stress related and Psychological
Disorders suggest that
It is estimated that work-related stress, depression or anxiety affected 415 000
individuals who had worked in the last 12 months in 2008/09 (prevalence) with a
corresponding estimated 11.4 million lost working days due to these work-related
conditions . This represents an estimated average of 27.5 working days lost per affected
126
Canazei, M. Georg, H, (2008) Effects of Variable Lighting Intensities and Colour Temperatures on
Sulphatoxymelatonin and Subjective Mood in an Experimental Office. Applied ergonomics. Vol 39 Issue 6.
2008. Pg 1.
127
Canazei, M. Georg, H, (2008) Effects of Variable Lighting Intensities and Colour Temperatures on
Sulphatoxymelatonin and Subjective Mood in an Experimental Office. Applied ergonomics. Vol 39 Issue 6.
2008. Pg 1.
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case and makes stress, depression or anxiety the largest contributor to the overall
estimated annual days lost from work-related ill-health in 2008/09.128
By improving working conditions, In particular those known to contribute to depression, such

as poor lighting, working days would be regained which could increase the profit of
businesses.
A problem lies however in non profit institutions, like schools and hospitals. If no profit is
gained from the refurbishments or designs created for the schools it is less easy to justify the
initial costs. However, in schools, day lighting correlates with better results. Children learn
more effectively when a classroom is well lit, without flickering electrical lighting. An article
entitled, Day lighting and Productivity: A Study of the Effects of the Indoor Environment on
Human Function, suggests the impact that improved day lighting can have on children in
schools.
A 1999 study by the CEC found that students in classrooms with the highest levels of
daylight performed 7% to 18% higher on standardized tests than those with the lowest.
In San Juan Capistrano, California, students with the most day lighting in their
classrooms were found to progress 20% faster on math tests and 26% faster on reading
tests over the course of a year than those in classrooms with the least light. 129
Although for many schools exam results improve every year. Therefore it could be argued
that improved lighting is not needed. However depression is higher in children in the United
Kingdom than ever before. In a survey carried out by Depression Alliance Scotland. 130 A
quarter of children often feel depressed. A survey of 8,000 young teenagers 14-16 years, 27%
agreed with the statement, I often feel depressed.131 Likewise, the report, How common is
128
Stress and Psychological Disorders, (2009) Available at

<http://www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/causdis/stress/scale.htm>(22/02/2010)
129
Hobsetter, D. (2007) Daylighting and Productivity: A study of the effects of the indoor environment on
human function Available at <http://www.thespaceplace.net/articles/hobstetter200703.php>(21/02/2010)
130
Quarter of Children often feel depressed. (2008) Available at < www.dascot.org> (21.02.2010)
131
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depression132 suggests that in the United Kingdom girls and boys between the ages of 11-15,
10% and 13% are depressed respectively.
The report Light: An Element in the Ergonomics of Learning, 133 suggests that currently
schools often use fluorescent strip lighting, which although the cheapest to install, is least
beneficial for the development of children as fluorescent lighting can cause stress. These
lights are also not energy efficient. Therefore as poor lighting is linked to depression,
improved lighting in schools could benefit children. Improving the lighting in schools can
also be done in a cost effective way.
By producing models which schools could adapt their designs to, the cost of innovative
designs for every school could be cut down. Mostly non profit buildings follow the same
design, without considering the functionality. If the functionality was carefully considered
the models would function well and could be adapted slightly to the location of different
schools. Improved lighting could improve how schools function.
Investigations into lighting in schools undertaken in the Netherlands by the University of

Delft, 134 suggest various options for improving lighting in schools. The report stressed the
importance of using natural lighting as much as possible in a learning environment. vi It is
important to consider the initial positioning of a school, as schools with classrooms that face
132
How Common is Depression, (2010) Available at

<http://www.overcomedepression.co.uk/HowCommonDepression.html> (21/02/2010)
133
Martel, L (2010) LIGHT: AN ELEMENT IN THE ERGONOMICS OF LEARNING Available at <

http://www.fullspectrumsolutions.com/lighting_for_schools.shtml>(20/02/2010)
134
Bruin- Hordijk, T. Groot, E. (2010) Lighting in Schools Available at

<http://www.lightinglab.fi/IEAAnnex45/publications/Technical_reports/lighting_in_schools.pdf> pg 2
(18/02/2010)
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north have their electrical lighting on most of the time. Classrooms should be positioned
where possible to increase the levels of natural light. Likewise within the school natural
daylight can be well distributed, results show that classrooms with two sided day lighting are
beneficial.135 However the most beneficial lighting design is a skylight as it allows for light to
be distributed evenly throughout the classroom.
The importance of a variety of lighting for children is suggested. Different tasks require
different levels of lighting, therefore lighting for the computer areas, blackboards and for the
corridor spaces should be different and should be adjustable for the different tasks.
A good example of a school that has been well designed to incorporate natural lighting is
Norman Fosters Corby Academy.
135

<http://www.lightinglab.fi/IEAAnnex45/publications/Technical_reports/lighting_in_schools.pdf> pg 4
(18/02/2010)
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Figure 25: Foster, N. (2004-8) Corby Acadamy. United Kingdom.
This building offers a variety of lighting conditions. An article on the academy by Kate
Ahira136 states that the fritting on the glazed atriums reduce glare [and] maximises light,
while angled walls at the back of the ground- floor classrooms sit below a light well to draw
daylight into the buildings recesses.137 By improving how schools harness natural lighting
and use electrical lighting, schools could save money on electricity. A school could be more
cost effective in the long term. The initial set up costs could be made back and this would
have the more important result of improving the education and wellbeing of the children.
Improved lighting has also been considered within healthcare. Increased use of daylight can
enhance the quality of life for the elderly. It helps to regulate sleep patterns and can reduce
136
Ahira, K. (2008) Fosters Corby Academy opens for Buisness. Available at

<http://www.building.co.uk/story.asp?storycode=3122602?
137

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the risk of falls. Sunlight can help the elderly to carry out everyday tasks with more ease.
Likewise controlled artificial light can help to regulate sleep patterns. New research suggests
that exposure to blue light can reduce sleep disturbances and increase[s] the likelihood of
stable, consolidated sleep in seniors138 As the report How common is depression139 states
that as many as 2 in 5 of the elderly are depressed. It could be interesting to investigate if
improved lighting could reduce these numbers.
In medical facilities, staff and patients can benefit from improved lighting. Daylight postsurgery is known to increase recovery and psychological health. It has also been proven to
reduce the need for medication. A report, on lighting design suggest that
In a recent study, 89 patients undergoing elective cervical and lumbar spinal surgery
were assigned to both sunny and shady rooms following their operations. Patients who
were exposed to 46% higher intensity sunlight experienced less perceived stress,
reported less pain, and took 22% less analgesic medication per hour, resulting in 20%
less pain140
This report suggests that lighting in hospitals should be well distributed and easy to control.
Clinical rooms should have portable task lighting and patients recovery rooms should have
ambient lighting which the patient can have some control over. Most importantly however,
natural light should be plentiful. A good example of a hospital that has been designed to
better utilise natural lighting, is the Childrens hospital in Denver in the USA. The architects
Zimmer Gunsul Frasca141, incorporated transparent facades and roof panels into the design, to
improve the natural light for the benefit of the children.
138
Fong, D. Nichelson, K. (2006) Evidence based Lighting Design Available at <

http://www.candela.com/CanAdmin/articles/Evidence.pdf>(20/02/2010)
139

140
Fong, D. Nichelson, K. (2006) Evidence based Lighting Design Available at <

141
Zimmer Gunsul Frasca, (2010) Available at < http://www.zgf.com/> (22/02/2010)
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The use of electrical lighting is also being reconsidered within the health care environment. If
controlled in the right way, artificial lighting can be used to help people become more
psychologically stable.vii In, people with dementia, dawn or dusk stimulation can improve
disturbed sleep/ wake cycles.142 Light therapy can slow deterioration by 5%.143 This helps
to stabilise and prolong the lifestyles of those affected. Light therapy is used to, enhance
adaptation to shift work.144 Shift workers for example in hospitals working night shifts need
to stay alert. Therefore a dark ward is not ideal. However patients need sleep to recover,
which would not be helped by excessive light. Designers are creating rooms where the staff
can take breaks under optimum lighting intensities, in order to recharge the energy needed to
complete their shift.
Designers are also experimenting with improving the versatility of artificial lighting so that it
can be adapted to the needs of both patients and workers. The needs of patients may be
conflicting to the needs of the staff; therefore the lighting must be easily adapted. The
designers at Starfield145 are using digital lighting to benefit patients. The designs allow the
patients to dim and alter their lighting. The system is also beneficial for staff as it allows staff
members to alter the lighting in different parts of the room to better suit their needs.
142
Eagles. J. (2004) Light Therapy and the Management of Winter Depression. The Royal College of
Psychiatrists. Available at <http://apt.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/full/10/3/233.>( 27/12/2009.)
143
Light Therapy can Slow Dementia. (2008) Available at <

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7445606.stm>(22/02/2010)
144
Eagles. J. (2004) Light Therapy and the Management of Winter Depression. The Royal College of
Psychiatrists. Available at <http://apt.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/full/10/3/233. > (27/12/2009.)
145
Digital Lighting Makes a Big Difference. (2010) Available at <http://www.starfieldcorp.com/>

(21/02/2010)
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Improving lighting in homes also presents problems. However architects are working to
improve the lighting in a range of low and high cost housing. Le Courbousier, advocated a
model for cheap housing design that allowed natural light to be well utilised. He created the
Dom-ino housing concept, which was a rectangular structure with only four load bearing
reinforced concrete members. The walls, then, could be opened up to sunlight via wrap
around glass windows. 146 The housing was proposed by Corbusier, as an efficient and
inexpensive way to house individuals, this could be followed to create more modern day
housing. In the initial design stage the orientation of the building can increase the natural
lighting in a home. This can be done by positioning the rooms so the rooms are used when the
light is at its best. For example, rooms where most time is spent during the day would have
the most sunlight and rooms where the evening is spent can be in the shade during the day.
Natural light can also be harnessed by placing rooms where more time is spent, on higher
levels.
146
Kennedy, R. Courbousiers Radiant City. (2010) Available at

<http://www.uky.edu/Classes/PS/776/Projects/Lecorbusier/lecorbusier.html> (20/02/2010)
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Norman Fosters Santa Guila Housing is an example of interesting housing with efficient use
of natural lighting.
Figure 26: Foster, N. (2003) Santa Guilia Housing. Milan
Lighting designers are also finding ways to use electrical lighting within the home to help
suffers of SAD. Beck in her Bright Ideas for Treating Winter Blues suggests a type of light
therapy that has newly been introduced. It allows for individuals to receive treatment without
taking time out of their day.
A newer form of light therapy gradually turns the light on in your bedroom, creating a slow
transition from darkness to dawn in the room while it is still dark outside. Even though the
user is still asleep and the maximum light is much dimmer than traditional light therapy; a few
studies have found that dawn stimulation can ease depression and help people wake up with
more energy.147
147

_Most_Popular. > (01/02/2010.)
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This may provide a more natural way to combat the symptoms of winter depression from the
patients own home.
Lighting designers are creating products which allow greater control over the electrical
lighting in a space. Lighting designer, Hamish Bigg, designs lighting that the user can
control. The designs allow control over the colour, positioning, portability and intensity.
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Figure 27: Hamish, B. (2009). Images taken from the website of Hamish Bigg.
Like hospitals and schools, the built environment causes problems with regards to lighting
design, because it must cater for many different individuals. Reports suggest that it is not
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efficiently designed currently in the United Kingdom. The 2009 report by the Royal
Commission on Environmental Pollution148 stated that:
much of our outdoor lighting is badly designed or poorly installed leading to wasted
light or sky glow. This, combined with the growth in outdoor lighting we have seen in
the UK since the Second World War, means we are losing our view of the night sky. 149
Likewise a report on Lighting for the BBC News,150 states that there is a lot of light that shines
where it is neither needed nor wanted. Most light fittings waste a large fraction of the light
they produce. More than 300 megawatts worth of light is wasted skywards from UK
streetlights alone, at an annual cost of about 100m151 This suggests that a better design of
lighting could not only help individuals but that it could cut costs substantially. The report by
the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution152 stressed the importance of carefully
considering the application of light, in order to reduce wastage, crime and accidents. The
report further states that:
The RCEP are therefore keen for local authorities to consider alternatives to simply
providing more light, such as using new lighting technologies coming on-stream, and
dimming or turning off lights in quieter areas where they are not needed. This would
have the added benefit of reducing energy use. 153
148
Artificial Light in the Environment.(2009) The Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution. Available
at http://www.rcep.org.uk/reports/sr2009light/documents/Artificial%20light%20press%20release.pdf>
(12/02/2010).
149
Artificial Light in the Environment.(2009) The Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution. Available at
<http://www.rcep.org.uk/reports/sr-2009-light/documents/Artificial%20light%20press%20release.pdf>
(12/02/2010). Pg 2.
150
Baskille, D. (2006) Lighting is Still in the Dark Age. BBC news. Available at
<http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4794249.stm>(20/02/2010)
151
152
Artificial Light in the Environment.(2009) The Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution. Available
at http://www.rcep.org.uk/reports/sr2009light/documents/Artificial%20light%20press%20release.pdf>
(12/02/2010).
153
(12/02/2010). Pg 2.
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The report for the BBC argues that the lighting at night is primarily used for security and
safety; however it is not always beneficial. The suggestion is made that in preventing crime,
more lighting can often be detrimental as it allows the criminals to be able to see better. The
suggestion is made to consider whether lighting really aids the function of the space. In
particular with regards to the prevention of crime, it is important to consider if anything else
can be done that is more beneficial.
In some countries the application of lighting is being carefully considered,
Things are different in other countries. Light pollution laws exist in the Czech
Republic, Italy, Chile and parts of the US. In 2005, the City of Calgary finished
replacing all 37,500 street lights with efficient lighting, saving $2m (0.9m) per year which will offset the replacement costs in just six years. 154
Countries like Italy are producing street lighting that dim after midnight, which reduces
lighting costs by 40% and reduces light pollution. Designers are also investigating whether
street lighting that is activated by sensors could be beneficial, however there is some concern
as to whether the constant change in light might be more detrimental than constant lighting.
This report suggests that lighting at night can have a strong function, but that designers should
pay careful consideration to how the environment is lit in order to avoid wastage. Therefore, it is
perhaps not beneficial to light up everywhere at night. It argues that authorities should use new
technologies and techniques to consider quality and variety of lighting, rather than the
amount. Furthermore, the report suggests that it is the ideal time for lighting design to begin
to change, as there are:
around 7 million road lights in the UK. Over 2 million are nearly 30 years old and
will therefore need to be replaced in the next couple of years. This presents a real
154
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opportunity for local authorities to think about minimising the negative impacts of stray
light, for the benefit of both nature and the general public. 155
An increased awareness of the effects of lighting within the public realm could help the
psychological states of society, increasing their ability to be sociable and stable individuals,
whilst at the same time it can be cost effective and more beneficial for the environment.
Lighting designers and architects are beginning to find ways to allow individuals to have
increased control over how the natural and artificial lighting in their environment. Electrical
lighting has made it much more accessible and easy to control lighting. For the most part,
man has been an observer of environments created by others; now he would participate in
environments, and form them himself.156 Everyone can be better equipped to control lighting
and this could have significant impact on the wellbeing of individuals.
155
(12/02/2010). Pg 1.
156
Birren, F. (1988) Light, Colour and Environment. Shiffer publishing
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Conclusions and Reflections
This paper argued that light, as something intrinsic to knowledge and perceptions, has
profound effects on our psychology and sense of identity. Perception provides individuals
with information and knowledge, enabling individuals to understand who they are. Light also
creates illusions, which encourage individuals to question what they know. They can judge
one experience from the other and form an idea of something by seeing it. Artists are
beginning to understand that light can be controlled to change how the viewer feels as
perception is linked to mood.
An examination of a wide range of artists showed how artwork has addressed the
psychological effect of light. Analysis of the works of James Turrell and Antony Gormley
show this by inviting the viewer to perceive in an unusual way; they are enabled to consider
the impact perception has on peoples knowledge and mood. The popularity of these works
and their potential for engaging the public point to the conclusion that using the medium of
light can allow artwork to be more universal. In using light to make art, artists can compel
viewers to actually experience a process as it happens rather than a reproduction. Through
this works can regain what might be termed the aura of art.
This paper shows the ways in which lighting can cause psychological problems. Extremities
of light cause people to be psychologically unstable. Too little lighting and too much lighting
can lead to depression and alterations to an individuals identity. Empirical data showed that
individuals in countries with perpetual daylight and conversely seasons of constant darkness
where highly prone to depression. Likewise, individuals who live in countries with an
abundance of electrical lighting showed a higher risk of depression and suicide.
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Electrical lighting enabled individuals to work through the night and in shifts. Shift work
showed high factors of stress and depression. In a report amongst Canadian shift workers, 79
per cent of the workers were diagnosed with depression. The suggestion was made that being
exposed to high levels of lighting at night has a detrimental effect on the body-clock of
individuals, again leading to depression. Alongside this, it was argued that the mass of
electrical lighting in the cityscape acts as an alienating factor which alienates people from the
environment around them. The conclusion was made that too much electrical lighting in
particular during the night, was detrimental to the wellbeing of individuals.
The astonishing psychological effects of lighting shown here indicate how vitally important it
is for the approach to light to be revised. Lighting should be carefully controlled and in
particular the application of electrical lighting must be carefully considered. Electrical
lighting should only be used where strictly necessary. Lighting should not be too constant as
sensory deprivation can occur. On the contrary, it should not be to constantly changing as this
may lead to over-stimulation to which people cannot adjust. The use of electrical lighting at
night should be carefully considered, as too much light at the wrong time of the day can cause
the body- clock of individuals to become unset.
The paper questioned why lighting was not always more carefully considered if it could
benefit the wellbeing of individuals. It hypothesised that lack of knowledge, lack of
technology and cost might be contributing factors. That the importance of natural lighting
was overlooked and electrical lighting was applied instead, as it was a much more expedient
solution.
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However artists, designers and architects are becoming increasingly aware of the
psychological effects of light. The work of artist like James Turrell has already started to
point out the importance of harnessing natural lighting wherever possible. Several architects
have also offered good models to follow, allowing for efficient and cost effective design
which is beneficial to the users of the space.
They are developing ways to increase the control of light and ways to enable individuals to
have more control over how their environment is lit. They are finding ways to harness natural
lighting and to create more efficient electrical lighting. This can be done at a low cost;
therefore lighting can be designed to meet the needs of individuals. It was suggested that
some of the changes may even save money as less energy can be used. In particular by
harnessing natural light the use of electrical lighting can be cut down. This can result in
increased functionality, and increased wellbeing for the users of the space. Therefore the
conclusion was made that improving the lighting of a space could be beneficial to the
psychological wellbeing of individuals.
For a long time individuals have allowed themselves to be controlled by lighting. Sunlight
and night shaped their moods in a way which the impressionist artists recognised so well. The
invention of electric lighting made people believe they had brought lighting under control,
but ironically this only added to the ways in which light could alter how individuals felt.
They remained passive observers of a wide range of lighting effects which altered their
moods and psychological stability. Now finally through the work of artists and others, people
are beginning to understand what this lighting is really doing to individuals. With the help of
architects and designers, individuals can now take control back. They can shape lighting to
suit their needs rather than letting the lighting shape them.
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In relation to the argument that perception is how individuals gain knowledge. This paper discusses Lancans
Mirror stage, which is Available at < http://www.pepweb.org/document.php?id=PI.005.0233A.> Lancan
believes that a baby first realises he is an individual when he sees his reflection in the mirror. The argument is
made that sight is important in relation to an understanding of self. However it is important to consider
individuals with visual impairment or no sight. The book by Patricia Sonksen and Blanche Stiff, Show Me What
My Friends Can See discusses this in relation to children developing. This book stresses the importance of
enabling children with visual impairments to develop their other senses in order to learn about the world without
sight. The argument is still made that of peoples perceptions sight is a primary source of knowledge, however it
is of course possible to form knowledge without sight.
ii
The debate as to whether individuals are born with innate ideas or a blank slate has been discussed for a
number of years. This paper suggests that we are born without any innate ideas. However the counter argument
to this is that individuals are born with understanding of certain aspects of the world. The article,
Are we Born with Innate Ideas? available at <
http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/259374/are_humans_born_with_innate_ideas.html> discusses this.
iii
This paper, places itself between two philosophical doctrines. Rationalism argues that Knowledge can be
formed independently or our sensory experiences. It suggests that our sensory experience is not reliable. This is
contrasted with Empiricism, which argues that our sensory experiences are the fundaments of Knowledge. This
paper stresses the importance of understanding the importance of our sensory experience in forming knowledge,
but to also realise that perception is not always reliable and therefore it is important to question the knowledge
gained. These ideas can be found in Monk, R. Raphael, F.(eds) The Great Philosophers and Rationalism vs.
Empiricism,
The Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. Available at < http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalismempiricism/>
iv
Alienation from self and society can also be caused by other factors, not only light. This source states 111
other causes of isolation. <http://www.wrongdiagnosis.com/symptoms/isolation/causes.htm.>
v
It is important to acknowledge that being isolated from society was often a celebrated state to be in.
Postmodernism encouraged the freedom of the individual. Post modern art put more emphasis on the viewer
than the artist and the reader rather than the author. Individual speech was regarded as much more important that
the opinion of the mass society. This is discussed in Robert Singlers article, From the Renaissance to Post
Modernism.
However the counter argument to this is that community and society is important. Karl Marx states, The free
development of each is the condition for the free development of all. This is discussed in the article Marxism ,
and Ethics. Available at <http://www.isj.org.uk/index.php4?id=486&issue=120 0ctober .2008.> (17/08/2009).
Likewise the importance of collective identity was acknowledged by Aristotle who recognised that humans are
only able to flourish within communities. It is argued that our very nature causes our needs and desires to be
those of atomised competitive individuals.
This paper places itself between these two viewpoints, suggesting therefore it could be possible to keep
individuality and freedom within a collective identity free from dispute over differences by understanding intersubjectivity and empathising with others.
vi
Cognitive learning encourages learning by using intuition reason and perception. Philosophers John Comenius
and Rousseau advocated learning in a natural environment, outdoors with plenty of natural daylight. More
information is available in the article Philosophy of an outdoor education
Available at < http://wilderdom.com/Philosophy.html>(21/02/2010)
vii
It is of course important to note light can also help prevent and treat physiological illnesses, such as rickets.
Artificial lighting can also be used to treat patients who have physiological illnesses. Light therapy is known to
be a treatment for a number of illnesses. Light therapy is beginning to be used to help women who suffer from
longer than normal menstrual cycles. Light therapy can shorten and regulate menstrual cycles. This could have
ground breaking impact on medicine as scientists speculate that it could one day help to treat infertility. This
information is available at <www.holisticonline.com> (09/01/2010)
Susanna Olczak
Year Four Sculpture
David Sweeney.
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Understanding

Dissertation by Susanna Olczak

Chapter 1: The Effect of Light on Knowledge and

How perception affects knowledge

The psychological experience of seeing

The Universal Experience of Light.

Exploiting the universal power of light

Chapter 2: The Effect of Light on the Psychological

Ways in which too little light affects

Ways in which too much light affects

Individuals have lost control of how

Chapter 3: Lighting the Environment to Increase the

How designers can control light to increase the

Readers Notes: Footnotes are numbered conventionally.

Light is intrinsic to the psychological wellbeing of individuals. An empiricist approach is

Into the world of perpetual solitude,

Eliot, T. S. (1944) Four Quartets. Faber and Faber.

Eliot, T. S. (1944) Four Quartets. Faber and Faber.

Eliot, T. S. (1944) Four Quartets. Faber and Faber.

Chapter 1: The Effect of Light on Knowledge and Mood

As far as we can discern, the sole purpose of human existence is to

Contrary to common perception of light as the universal constant, repeated robotically

it is actually the variability and variety of light that

gives it its properties and irregularities.

How Perception affects Knowledge and Mood.

Dark Ages (2010) Available at < http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Dark_Ages> (23.02.2010)

Impressionism. (2010) Available at < http://www.artmovements.co.uk/impressionism.htm> (23/02/2010)

Figure 1: Monet, C. (1906). Water Lilies.

Berger, J. (2008). Ways of Seeing. Penguin classics. Front cover.

Barzel, A. De Gara, C . (2006) Targetti, Paolo Light Art. Skira Berenice. pg 11

Eliot, T. S. (1944) Four Quartets. Faber and Faber. pg 18

Plummer, H. (2009). Poetics of Light. Tokyo Au. pg 77

Figure 2: Magritte, R. (1953-54.) The Empire of Lights

Plummer, H. (2009). Poetics of Light. Tokyo Au. pg 89

Birren, F. (1988). Light, Colour and Environment. Shiffer publishing. pg 8

Figure 3: Magritte, R. (1937) Interdit

Figure 4: Rothko, M. (1962). Blue and Grey

Figure 5: Eliasson, O. (2003) . Frost Activit

Figure 6: Agrippa, M. (126ad) Pantheon. Rome

Pyramids of Mesoamerica. (2010) Available at <http://www.crystalinks.com/pyramidmesoamerica.html>

Figure 7: Militus, I. (537 ad) Hagia Sophia . Istanbul

Hudson, A. Nazi use of Rembrandt. Available at <www.redoribit.com.> (05/10/2009)

Figure 8: Rembrandt, V R. (1635 ). The Feast of Belhazzar

Figure 9: Speer, A. (1923-1938.) The Cathedral of Light

Likewise, Sartre states, the others presence to me is object-ness.17 He is suggesting that

Ponty, M. (2002). Phenomology of Perception. Routeledge pg 81

Want, C, Klimowski, A. (1996.) Kant for Beginners. Icon Books LTD.

Figure 10: Turrell, J. (1969) . Wedge Work Series.

Noever, P. (1999) (ed) James Turrell the Other Horizon. MAK pg 50

Noever, P (ed). (1999) James Turrell the Other Horizon. MAK pg 48

Noever, P (ed). (1999) James Turrell the Other Horizon. MAK pg 46

Plummer, H. (2009). Poetics of Light. Tokyo Au. pg 75

Figure 11: Eliasson, O. (2003). Sonne Statt Regen

The Universal Experience of Light.

Figure 12: Gormley, A. (2007- 2009). Blind Light

Vidler, A. Stewart, S. (2007). Antony Gormley- Blind Light. Hayward Publishing. pg 52

Antony Gormleys Blind Light. (2010) Available at < http://www.artcat.com/exhibits/5676> (24/02/2010)

Exploiting the universal power of light to create mood

Fricter, Lisa. (2008) Nyctophobia, Fear of The Dark. Available at <

Chapter 2: The Effect of Light on the Psychological of individuals.

Tennyson, A, L. (1859). In Memoriam. Edward Moxon

Tennyson, A, L. (1859). In Memoriam. Edward Moxon

Eliot, T. S. (1944) Four Quartets. Faber and Faber.

Tennyson, A, L. (1859). In Memoriam. Edward Moxon