Rethinking Complexity Edemskaya-Libre

Rethinking complexity: steel lattice structures,
past and present
Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree

Master of Architecture
January 2014
ELIZAVETA D EDEMSKAYA
School of Architecture
The University of Liverpool
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank Asterios Agkathidis for his help in selecting and refining my chosen topic
as well as his immense patience and constructive guidance throughout the year.
Special thanks to Vladimir Shukhov, grandson of the great Russian engineer Vladimir
Grigorevich Shukhov, and his daughter Sonya for providing me with information and contacts
that helped incredibly during the research process.
Thank you to Sergei Arsenev, International Relations Director at the Shukhov Tower
Foundation, who kindly presented me with a book about Vladimir Shukhov.
Finally, I would like to thank my parents for their support and faith in me.
ABSTRACT
This paper explores the advantages and shortcomings of standardized and non-standardized
design and construction techniques relating to architectural double-curvature metal frame
constructions through a discussion of some examples from the pre- and post-computational eras.
The study of the past focuses on Vladimir Shukhovs construction systems. In late 19th century
this Russian engineer invented and successfully applied the tessellation method to double-curved
surfaces using simple standardized elements. The study of the present digital approach revolves
around leading architects using computational tools, including Norman Foster and Frank Gehry,
who have materialized complex geometries of irregular units by taking advantage of
computational tools.
The two approaches are compared based on the following criteria: design process, structural
construction principles, fabrication process, assembly and construction cost. In the conclusion,
some suggestions are put forward about how principles of the past may inform current
computational design procedures.
CONTENTS
1.
Introduction
2.
Literature review
3.
Introduction of metal constructions
11
4.
3.1. Iron as a new construction material

3.2. Prefabrication and optimization
Vladimir Shukhov
15
4.1. The Russian school of engineering

4.2. The Russian Edison
4.3. Lattice structures and the first hyperboloid
4.4. Vladimir Shukhov and Constructivists
5.
Developing grid-shell structures
6.
Desig i the la guage of the
7.
Discussion
25
a hi e
28
32
7.1. 30St Mary Axe Tower and Shabolovskaya Tower

7.2. The Great Court of the British Museum and Viksa Works
8.
Conclusion
49
8.1. Overview of research findings on Shukhov and others

8.2. Review of the discussion chapter
. . I fa or of hukho s ar hitectural heritage
Appendix 1.
56
Appendix 2
54
Bibliography
55
List of images
62
INTRODUCTION
Professio gi eer is u grateful, e ause for u dersta di g its eauty you
ust ha e k o ledge
Vladimir Shukhov
Technology, materials and construction are three interdependent components that change
architecture. Contemporary architecture started with the Industrial Revolution, which brought
new technologies and new construction materials: iron and steel. Due to the high load-capacity
and the elastic qualities of these new materials, architectural construction had significantly
changed. The height of buildings started to increase, and so did their span. Architects and
engineers aimed to optimize buildings utilizing the advantageous properties of the new materials,
and to apply new technologies to improve the construction process. Prefabrication and
standardization methods emerged; they are widely applied today. Off-site manufacturing in the
controlled environment of a factory or workshop enables better fabrication element quality
control, whereas element unification simplifies the production process and reduces the building
cost. Then, the advent of computational technologies in the 20th century opened a new chapter in
architecture.
In recent decades, computation has become an impetus for architectural development.1
This was most conspicuously the case in the late 1990s with the rise of Blob Architecture, which
optimized the use of computer-aided design (CAD) in the creation of new geometries.
Computation redefined the practice of architecture. Instead of working on compositions,
designers construct a parametric computational system, where the form can be generated simply
by varying parameter values. On one hand, computational technologies make it possible to
design a building of any level of geometric complexity. If you find a nice curve of surface
somewhere with interesting properties you can incorporate it in your design. 2 In addition,
simulating environment conditions optimizes any design proposal. On the other hand,
computational technologies create a gap between architects and the final product, because today
many architects do not have sufficient knowledge of algorithmic concepts. 3 Despite of the
attention digital design methods have received and their wide implementation, computation has
ele Castle, ditorial , .
Brady and Peters, Inside Smartgeometry: Expanding the Architectural Possibilities of Computational
Design, 139.
3
Brad et al, The uildi g of algorith i , .
1
2
not yet been integrated as an intuitive and natural way to design. Most practices come up with a
building shape and a concept; then invite computational designers to optimize the project.
Computational designers generate and explore architectural concepts by writing and modifying
algorithms, but how efficient is this approach?
Aiming to rethink the advantages and disadvantages of the computational design
approach, I compare this contemporary method with the most efficient approach of the precomputational era. To narrow down my research area, the dissertation is focused on metal grid
structures. They were introduced to the construction field in late 19th century, but have been
extensively used only since late 20th century. Grid-shell structures are especially popular in
computational design. Due to their mathematical nature grid-shell structures are easily
transported to computer software, where they can be managed as meshes that can form a
structure of any level of complexity.
In this paper I investigate two types of grid structures: grid-shell towers and grid-shell
roofs. As an example of the pre-computational era, I discuss the constructions of the Russian
engineer Vladimir Shukhov, who invented and extensively applied this construction system in
his practice. Shukhovs unique design method has been called the earliest example of the
parametric approach. 4 To illustrate my discussion of the computational era, I analyze some
buildings created by Foster & Partners. Foster & Partners were one of the first to have applied
computational design methods in practice; they also established the Special Modeling Group,
whose guiding principle from the outset was to develop parametric geometry models for their
various projects.
The analysis in this paper is based on four core questions:
Does the design process and form definition differ in the pre- and post-computational
approaches?
What is the difference between manufacturing and assembling processes?
What is the difference in the design logic between the two approaches?
What benefits could be achieved by combining the design logic of the past masters with
the new technologies of parametric design?
Matthias Be kh et al., Dis ussio , 1147.
In the process of my research I extensively studied the background of the two approaches. Since
Shukhov belongs to the time of 19th century industrialization, it was important to identify the
reasons for this process and its features, particularly in Russia. I explored relevant documents,
drawings and work pads stored in various archives in Russia. To obtain additional information
about the prominent engineer, I contacted Shukhovs heritor and the Shukhov Tower
Foundation, and attended a conference dedicated to Shukhovs 160th birthday anniversary. I also
consulted numerous literary recourses concerning Shukhovs biographical details and articles
about the uniqueness of his structures. Finally, I visited some of Shukhovs constructions.
In order to familiarize myself with computational design processes, I comprehensively
researched material on the history of computational technology development and the features of
computational geometry and 3D modelling. Moreover, to understand the computational approach
on practical terms, I studied some architectural parametric 3D modelling programs.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
In the process of writing this paper, I analysed a large amount of information connected
to the origin and development of metal grid structures. The Literature Review covers the main
sources of information I consulted regarding the origin, design and development of metal grid
constructions.
The history of lattice structures started in mid- to late-19th century, when iron and steel
were introduced to the building industry as construction materials. The reasons for and
circumstances crucial to this turning point in architecture are explored in detail in Lee Wyatts
book Industrial Revolution (2008). Further development of metal construction theory and
construction methods is presented in French Iron Architecture (1984) by Frances H. Steiner.
The Eiffel Tower, the most famous monument of new technologies of that time, is thoroughly
described in Henri Loyrettes book Gustave Eiffel (1986). In
addition,
engineers
M.M.
Sundaram and G.K. Ananthasuresh offer some interesting insights in the article Gustave Eiffel
and his optimal structures (2009), published in the Resonance journal, where they analyse
how Eiffel & Co cleverly optimized the tower through a combination of parameters and shape
hierarchy.5
Sourcing the literature about the origins of the metal lattice structure and its inventor
Vladimir Shukhov was challenging. Shukhovs active creative period coincided with a difficult
historical period in Russia: the end of the Russian Empire, the Revolution and the Civil War.
During that time a significant amount of Russian cultural heritage was lost or destroyed. Luckily,
Shukhovs family managed to save some of his photographs, drawings, sketchpads and other
working materials. Nowadays, most of them are stored in different national archives.
Alongside Shukhovs drawings and sketchpads, the most informative document was a typescript
produced by Shukhovs former employee Grigory Kovelman. Kovelman put together an
extensive overview of Shukhovs inventions and projects both as a biographer and a specialist
who had worked with Shukhov and had insider knowledge of the engineers design processes.
Elena Shukhova, the granddaughter of the genius engineer, extensively describes biographical
details in the book Vladimir Grigorevich Shukhov. The First Engineer in Russia (2003). The
book Art of Construction (1989), edited by Murrat Guppoev, Ralner Graefe and Ottmar Pertchi,
is a valuable collection of articles about Shukhov and his various inventions written by different
specialists. It includes illustrations and information about Shukhovs structures and some
5
u dara
a d A a thasuresh, Gusta e iffel a d is Opti al tru tures , 849-850.
examples of his calculations. Shukhovs book Rafters (1897) has been a useful find because in it
he discusses mathematical investigations that have led him to the spatial lattice structure and
pronounced it the only way for further roof structure optimization.6 In 2010 the journal Detail
published an analysis of Shukhovs constructions, calling his approach to design an early
example of parametric design.7
Recursion and a new stage of lattice structure development are presented in the book
Finding Forms (2001), where Frei Otto, one of the most famous engineers working with such
structures, explains his way of modelling and calculating grid surfaces. Ottos writings are
particularly interesting because he started working with lattice structures at the dawn of the era
of computational engineering and was one of the first to have collaborated with computational
designers in realizing complex lattice structure projects.8
Since computational technologies are so prominent in contemporary design, there have

been numerous articles and books dedicated to different aspects of digital architecture. Animate
Form (1999) by Greg Lynn is one of the first comprehensive books on digital architecture; it
remains fundamental in its discussions of the computational approach. Lynn introduces a new
paradigm of thinking about architectural forms based on computational possibilities, and a new
vocabulary of blobs, bodies, hypersurfaces, and polysurfaces. Lynn establishes three base
properties of digital architecture: topology, time and parameters. 9 Branko Kolareviks book
Architecture in the Digital Age (2003) provides useful background knowledge on the process of
developing the computer-aided design approach. This book emerged out of the symposium on
designing and manufacturing architecture in the digital age 10 held at the University of
Pennsylvania in March 2002. It tells the story of the development of the parametric approach
from the very beginning. In addition, a series of Architectural Design journals have been most
helpful for exploring the current situation in the field of digital architecture. In the issue
Computation Works. The building of algorithm thought (02/2013), a problem is raised: even
though architecture is shifting from drawing to algorithms, architects still do not have sufficient
understanding of algorithm concepts. At the same time, the role of computational designers is
Shukhov, Rafters, 105.

Matthias Be kh et al., Dis ussio , 1147.
8
Otto and Rasch. Finding Forms: Towards an Architecture of the Minimal, p 76.
9
Lynn, Animate form, 9.
10
Kolarevic, Architecture in the digital age: design and manufacturing, V.
significantly increasing; they do not just create 3D models, but distil the underlying logic of
architecture and create new environments.11
Inside Smartgeometry: Expanding the Architectural Possibilities of Computational Design
(2013), edited by Brady and Terri Peters, is a collection of articles dedicated to new geometry. In
the article Geometry: How smart do you have to be? Chris Williams, a structural engineer
known for his innovative work on the Great Court of the British Museum, speculates about the
irrelevance of particular mathematical knowledge for architects who want to model complicated
forms using computational programs: You dont need to be Bradley Wiggins to ride to the
shops. 12 The vocabulary of new geometric objects and working principles in the field of
computational design is presented in Architectural Geometry (2007), written by Helmut
Pottmann, Andreas Asperl, Michael Hofer and Axel Kilian. In this book, the authors describe the
elements of new computational geometry applied in the contemporary practice of modelling
grid-shell structures, including freeform surface, mesh and the logic of its formation.
Written sources on the Great Court of the British Museum and 30St Mary Axe tower,
designed by Foster & Partners for their client Swiss Re, are plentiful due to the cultural value
and the public discussion around these structures. The Great Court and The British Museum
(2000), published by the British Museum Press, documents the process of design, development
and construction of the Great Court. More construction details are presented in articles The
Brilliant Shell Game at the British Museum in Architectural Record (2001) and Court in the
Act in the Architects Journal (1999).
The process of genesis, development and construction of the tower at 30St Mary Axe in London
is described in the book 30St Mary Axe: A Tower of London (2006) by architecture critic and
journalist Kenneth Powell. The articles Swiss Res building, London (2006), published in the
electronic journal , and London will never look the same again (2002) in the Building
Magazine also cover 30St Mary Axe tower. Even though many journal articles are dedicated to
these prominent buildings, usually they do not include detailed construction and design
information. Therefore, I have collated comprehensive information about digital design
principles by cross-referencing numerous sources.
Brad et al, The uildi g of algorith i , .

Brady and Peters, Inside Smartgeometry: Expanding the Architectural Possibilities of Computational
Design, 139.
11
12
10
3. INTRODUCTION OF METAL CONSTRUCTIONS

3.1. Iron as a new construction material
Between mid-18th and early 20th century, first Great Britain, then Western Europe, Russia
and several other parts of the world experienced great technical and social transformations that
were later called the Industrial Revolution. Numerous factors led to this significant point in
world history; however, in his book The Industrial Revolution, Lee Wyatt considers three main
reasons.13 The first reason pertains to social change: urbanization and the growth of population.
The second reason dates back to the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th century, a period
marked by a spirit of invention, when, unlike in medieval practice, science and technology were
no longer seen as separate. In turn, the manufacturing field gained prominence as merchants and
manufacturers became more invested with practical applications, solutions to specific problems
and resulting financial gain. The third factor that triggered the Industrial Revolution was the
burgeoning economic development, whereby entrepreneurs and inventors realized that dated
methods and old technology failed to meet the demands of the new environment.14 These three
reasons primarily accounted for the changes that had occurred between the end of the 18 th and
the beginning of the 20th century.
The Industrial Revolution had a significant effect on architecture. The rapid growth of
cities and increasing populations created a strong demand for new buildings that had to be bigger
and included various new functions. In addition, extensive construction of utilitarian buildings,
such as factories, brought a new value to architecture, whereby a building was no longer
perceived as a unique piece of art. In the century of the fast-growing commercial sphere, the
most important qualities of a building were its economic value, final cost and construction time.
In light of such requirements, architects were looking for a new approach. They found one in
developing structural systems using iron and later steel, new materials that were already being
utilized by scientists and industrialists.
Theophile Gautier wrote La Presse in 1850, We have searched for a long time
without success to create an original architecture which is neither Greek nor
Gothic, nor the mixture of the two, as was that of the Renaissance. We will
succeed not in creating impossible forms on paper, but in being served by the new
means which modern industry gives.15
13
Wyatt, The Industrial Revolution, 11.

ibid, 23.
15
Steiner, French iron architecture, 1
14
11
The use of iron made it possible to increase distances between supports at an affordable price,
and to have thinner floor constructions, which meant that while keeping the same cornice height,
the building could have more levels.
The first well-known precedent of such an approach, which unfortunately was destroyed
soon after its construction, was Crystal Palace designed by Sir Joseph Paxton in Hyde Park in
1851, when Great Britain was the leader in new technologies.16 The design of the building, based
on Paxtons experience of making greenhouses, was extremely simple and repeated a
conventional construction form. The structure was made from ferro-vitreous iron, and its
dimensions were based on the largest sheet of glass that could be manufactured at the time.
Figure 1. The Chrystal Palace
Figure 2. Sketch
A further technological jump occurred in France in the second half of the 19th century. French
engineers and mathematicians developed the principles of iron construction and explored theory
and creation methods, disengaging from empiricism and paving a path for progress.17
3.2. Prefabrication and optimization

The most prominent construction of that period in France was a tower built by Gustave
Eiffel & Co in 1889. Designed as the entrance arch for the Worlds Fair, it represented a new
approach to engineering and architecture.
Before building the 300-meter tower, as it was called during its construction, Eiffel & Co had
already been distinguished in the field of bridge construction. Through these utilitarian structures
16
17
Wyatt, The Industrial Revolution, xii.

Steiner, French iron architecture, 7.
12
they explored the methods of prefabrication and standardization, optimizing project development
and construction processes. Prefabrication entails producing building elements in the controlled
environment of a factory or a workshop, which improves the final quality of the construction,
whereas standardization simplifies production and assembling. The Eiffel Tower is a structure
made with four curved weight-bearing edges that create irregular arcs and trusses in the
numerous panels that vary gradually from bottom to top. Its elements are not standardized;
however, each construction block has an internal structure that repeats the pattern of the bigger
one18 (Figure 5). This is similar to natural fractal systems.
In total, the tower consists of 18,038 individual pieces made from wrought iron. Each one was
designed separately, accounting for the inclination of the columns and the braces, and all bolt
holes were marked and made to precision. Then individual pieces were bolted together into 5foot segments at Eiffel's fabrication shop and transported to the site. There, the bolts were
removed and the segments permanently riveted together, using a total of 2,500,000 rivets.
Another feature making the Eiffel Tower especially interesting is the multi-level optimization
approach. The wide bottom part and the light tapering upper part of the structure reduce the wind
load, a major problem for high-raised buildings. The weight of the Eiffel Tower was remarkably
diminished by using bone-like connective parts in its construction elements, where all flesh
[had] been left off.19 In addition, the towers beams and columns have different cross-sections.
Some of them employ rectangular cross-sections; some have I-sections, while the rest rely on
other cross-sectional shapes. Only some elements have rectangular cross-sections for rotating
shafts, because each section was carefully chosen for certain loads: stretching/contracting,
bending, and twisting.20
Utilizing the properties of a new material, the Eiffel & Co engineers had designed a
building combining optimality and elegance. The tower became a monument to IR achievement
that represented the capability of new technologies. Its 300-meter height had remained
unprecedented until the 1930s. However, the structure of the Eiffel Tower was too complicated.
Thousands of different elements that had to be drawn and fabricated in a certain way made the
approach inappropriate for mass-production. This issue stayed unsolved until 1897, when
Russian engineer Vladimir Shukhov demonstrated his method of designing metal structures.
a as a , Ale a dre Gusta e iffel: A gi eer ie tist ,

.
Giedion, Building in France, building in iron, building in ferroconcrete, 143.
20
u dara a d A a thasuresh, Gusta e iffel a d is Opti al tru tures , 850.
18
19
13
Figure 3. Eiffel Tower
Figure 5. Fractal structure of the tower
Figure 4. First drawing of the Eiffel Tower
Figure 6. Construction unit
14
4. VLADIMIR SHUKHOV
4.1. The Russian school of engineering
Having started in Great Britain, the process of industrialization soon came to the Russian
Empire. However, although the exchange of technological achievements, the inflow of foreign
investment and the influx of foreign specialists had a strong impact on the Russian industry, a
widespread transformation of technology did not take place until the 1880s.21 The reason for that
lay in Russias vast territory. Compared to the countries in Western Europe, the process of
industrialization unfolded in a different order in Russia. In contrast to Europe, where the
transition from the workhouse started with the manufacturing industry, eventually pervading the
transport infrastructure and communication facilities, in Russia industrialization started within
the railway infrastructure; thus, in Russia, the development of the heavy industry preceded the
progress of the light industry.22
Because of its numerous wide rivers, Russias railway infrastructure demanded many long-span
metal bridges. In response to such a course of industrial development, a strong school of
engineering had soon formed in Russia.23 As in Europe, in Russia engineers were the people
behind a new type of constructions and architecture in the new industrial age. There was a
strange situation in the architectural field at the edge of the 19th and 20th centuries: architects
were trying to find a modern style desperately, but without any success, while the engineers
were already designing pieces of art.24
Figure
7.
Bridge
above
Enisei
river,
Figure 8. Brodge above Oka River
constructred designed by Shukhov
21
Wyatt, The Industrial Revolution, 146.

Khan-Magomedov, Constructivism conception of form finding, 29.
23
Khan-Magomedov, Constructivism conception of form finding, 29-30.
24
Shukhova, Vladimir Grigorevich Shukhov: the first engineer of Russia, 282.
22
15
4.2 The Russian Edison

One of the most interesting engineers of the late 19th and early 20th century in Russia was
Vladimir Shukhov. Contemporaries used to call him the Russian Edison due to his extensive
inventions in numerous science and engineering subfields, including the oil industry,
construction, thermal technology and ship-building. However, unlike Thomas Edisons,
Shukhovs approach was strictly based on analytical investigation.
Like Eiffel, Shukhov realized the commercial nature of the construction industry and the power
of optimization as aiding competitive advantage in the growing building industry. His design
method was based on two aspects, which, in Shukhovs opinion, fundamentally affected the total
cost of a construction and its quality: material consumption and labor expenditure.
Shukhov worked as a chief engineer in the Bari office, which specialized in industrial metal
constructions. For Shukhov, design processes had always been associated with extensive
analysis and research. Partly, this was due to the underdeveloped mechanics theory in late 19 th
century Russia, yet more importantly, it was because of Shukhovs interest in the properties of
materials. He perceived a construction as one organism consisting of hidden interconnections.25
During the analysis stage, he would try to reveal a system of such correlations and select an
appropriate construction scheme, one pertinent to all aspects of a particular task and simple
enough to be built with primitive technologies available at that time. The uniqueness of
Shukhovs engineering talent was in his viewing any engineering issue both as a fundamental
problem and as a specific task. 26 Shukhov used to encourage his fellow workers to think
symphonically,27 that is, multilaterally in a variety of ways. He never sought standard solutions
in any of his projects.
A serious educated engineer should not blindly follow existing precedents; such
repetition can sometimes lead to building a safe construction, but always causes
inefficient material expenses, which is unreasonable and usually harmful for a
deal.28
25

Khan-Magomedov, Vladimir Shukhov, 21.
27
AA, .
/Op. / , A. N. Gala ki , Vladi ir Grigore i h hukho the prominent Russian
inventor, engineer 1853-1939. My brief memories , 27.
28
Shukhov and Hudyakov. Book of tasks on the stretching and compression theory, V.
26
16
Shukhovs mathematical approach was based on geometry as an analytical tool. This method
was taught to him by Nikolai Zhukovsky, lecturer of analytical mathematics at the Technical
School and pioneer of Russian aviation, who encouraged his students to think in geometric
forms: A geometer will always be the artist who creates the final design of a building! 29
Shukhovs colleagues praised his ability to visualize and clearly explain even the most complex
spatial geometric interactions.30 He tried to ground his work in theoretical investigations and
never conducted research and calculations for their own sake. One cannot ask us, living people,
to pay special attention to figurative application of mathematical calculations.31 In other words,
Shukhovs scholarly endeavors were practical and focused on finding the most effective
solutions for his engineering tasks. In addition to mathematical calculations, Shukhov relied on
physical models. He believed that even the smallest paper model was able to reveal hidden
forces that could be missed during the analysis stage.32
Another important part of Shukhovs approach was preparing an elaborate plan for the
construction and assembling processes. He used rolled metal with varied section profiles and
tried to keep clear of any details and elements that could complicate the structure. In addition to
avoiding different-type elements in a construction, Shukhov aimed to standardize their size
within the structure. In an attempt to optimize the on-site building process and reduce faults,
Shukhov limited the number of working drawings and tried to combine all the necessary
information on a few sheets, developing detailed assembly process instructions for each specific
task. Some of them will be discussed in the following chapters. Shukhovs approach successfully
optimised structures as well as each step of the construction process.
29

Konfederatov, Vladimir Grigirevich Shukhov, 13.
31
Shukhova, Vladimir Grigorevich Shukhov: the first engineer of Russia, 168 .
32
AA, .
/Op. / , G. N. o el a , The great ussia e gi eer Vladi ir Grigore i h hukho
(1853-1939), 65.
30
17
Figure 9.
Tower s
calculations
(published
for the first
time)
Figure 10.
Lattice
hyperboloi
d water
tower from
Nijnii
Novgorod
exhibition
Figure 11.
Lattice
vaulted
structure
Figure
12, 13.
Suspensi
on lattice
structure
, Oval
pavilion
and
circule
pavilion
18
4.3 Lattice structures and the first hyperboloid

One of the most significant of Shukhovs inventions in the field of architecture was the
thin metal lattice shell structure. Based on Skukhovs principles, this structure caused a
revolution in construction. The main idea of Skukhovs proposal was to use spatial framings
made with single-type elements instead of conventional coverings with multiple-plane
frameworks. Diagonally intersecting straight elements were fixed with bolts or rivets and formed
a grid with diamond-shaped cells. The advantages of a grid-shell covering compared to a regular
covering structure included: a significant reduction in weight; the uniaxial stress in working
elements (tension or compression); high load-bearing ability of a grid-shell surface, also in case
of concentrated strains; a remarkable simplification of production and assembly due to the use of
identical straight constructive elements.33
The structure was developed after detailed investigations searching for the most rational type of
rafters that weighed and cost the least and could be quickly assembled. Shukhov suggested a
proportion, which at first sight seemed senseless:
=e= ,
where length of panels, e minimal distance between frames, and distance between
two purlins, dependent on the actual situation34
According to the formula, the minimal covering weight could be achieved only if the
construction had no purlins, and the distance between trusses was equal to the distance between
the missing purlins. The answer to this riddle was the spatial lattice structure, where trusses and
purlins were the same, and the distances between trusses and purlins were equal. In 1895
Shukhov got a patent for the invention (see Appendix I).
The new structures were first presented to the general public at the All-Russian Industrial Art
Exhibition in Nizhniy Novgorod in 1896, where Shukhov designed a number of objects using
three types of lattice structures: suspension, vaulted and rigid spatial shell.
Suspension lattice structures were based on tension, the most advantageous type of stress for
metal constructions. These structures were designed based on Shukhovs elaborate investigations
of material properties. The grid surface comprised of overlapping tensile elements: rolled metal
33
34
Graefe et al., Shukhov V.G. (1853-1939): Art of construction, 28.

Shukhov, Rafters, 104.
19
plane or angle-section rods riveted to each other. They were called roofs without trusses.35 The
clear, extremely simple suspension structure system and the easy-to-perform node conjunction
made on-site construction fast and straightforward.36
Vaulted grid-shell constructions did not attract much public attention; however, they brought
commercial success to the Bari office.37 The vaults were formed with thin metal arches turned
from the frontal position at a particular angle. Thus, they worked as one continuous resilient
truss. 68 was considered the most optimal angle of intersection. One professor, Shukhovs
contemporary, describing his vaulted structures, proposed the angle of 90 instead of 68, which
would have meant a 31% increase in the structures weight.38
Each arch was made with rigid metal strips of equal length, or with angle pieces set edgewise;
each piece was equally bent during the assembling process. The most interesting example of a
vaulted lattice shell was the covering for the Viksa Works built in 18971898. It was the first
time in the worlds building practice when double-curved spatial vaults were created with singletype rod elements.39
Shukhovs lattice-suspended and vaulted structures represented a carrying surface, which could
be shaped in any form. It was made of intercrossing rods and combined the function of trusses
(the main floor structural system) and purlins. The density of the grid made it possible to put it
on the shell without additional structures. Due to the rational distribution of material along the
shape, the grids were 2 to 3 times lighter than roofs with conventional frames.40 The difference
was proportionate to the span of the construction.
The final and most unusual of the grid-shell structures presented at the All-Russian
exhibition was the 32-meter-tall lattice hyperboloid water tower.
35
Kovelman, Works of Honorary Academician engineer Vladimir Grogorevich Shukhov, 94.

AA, .
(1853-1939), 44.
37
38
39
Khan-Magomedov, Vladimir Shukhov, 43-45.
40
AA, .
(1853-1939), 54.
36
20
Everything amazed in that first Shukhov tower everything in it was some

structural and geometric puzzle: straight rods and the external silhouette double
curvature, the openwork lightness below and the solid heaviness above.41
It was a unique structure at that time, which had an unprecedented shape and construction
properties. According to Elizabeth Cooper, the idea of such a new structure came directly from
imaginary geometry, or hyperboloid geometry, which was invented by the Russian
mathematician Lobachevski in 1829. 42 Shukhovs biographer Grigory Kovelman writes that
Shukhov told him he had been thinking about the properties of hyperboloid structures for a long
time, and that he had studied hyperboloid forms at the Technical School. Yet apparently the
moment of truth occurred when he saw an upside-down wicker paper basket with a ficus on top
at the office; Shukhov claimed that was when he clearly understood the hyperboloid structure
with its curved surface generated by straight rods.43
As well as grid-shell coverings, the structure of the lattice tower was a spatial system, where the
load was equally spread along the surface. It was formed with angle rods and horizontal hoops
embracing the structure. The dense intersections between elements and wide cross-sections
granted the tower stability. Aiming to optimize the design process, soon after building the tower,
Shukhov presented the standardized elements of the tower structure in a table format. (Appendix
2) With the aid of the table, it became possible to design a new water tower, in keeping with a
clients requirements, in 25 minutes.44 Despite the standardized approach, each tower had an
individual character because the method was based not as much on unification as on
optimization.
After the exhibition Shukhov continued developing hyperboloid towers, trying to increase their
height. The tallest hyperboloid structure made by Shukhov was the ComIntern Radio Tower on
Shabolovskaya Street in Moscow, a construction built to celebrate the international collaboration
of Communist parties. It consists of several blocks and is 150 m tall.
The exhibition received international recognition, as testified by gold medals at the 1900 Paris
World Fair. In March 1897 the influential British magazine The Engineer wrote that the
41

Cooper, Arkhitektura I
i osti: the origi s of o iet A a t-Garde Rationalist architecture in the
Russian mystical philosophi al a d athe ati al i telle tual traditio , .
43
AA, .
/Op. / , G. N. o el a , The great ussian engineer Vladimir Grigorevich Shukhov
(1853-1939), 3-4.
44
AA, .
(1853-1939), 55.
42
21
exhibition brought to the annals of achievements some radical engineering inventions and that
Russian engineers quickly [claimed] their place among the best engineers of Europe.45
Shukhovs structures materialize the 19th century engineering efforts to create
original metal buildings, whilst simultaneously paving the way for 20th century
engineering. These structures express a significant progress, as the core lattice of
the then-traditional spatial trusses leaning on basic auxiliary elements is replaced
with a net of equal structural elements.
Christian Schadlich46
4.4 Vladimir Shukhov and Constructivists
Khan-Magomedov, an expert in Russian avant-garde, writes that no Constructivist was a
follower of Shukhov. This was because the information exchange between the fields of
engineering and architecture in the early 20th century was limited: the new generation of Soviet
radicals felt suspicious of anything coming from the Tsars Empire and declined to see the
advantages of even the most promising construction solutions.
Nevertheless, the ComIntern Radio Tower was accepted as a prominent achievement of the
young Soviet Republic. Indeed, Shukhov-style forms can be seen in the projects by some of the
most important Russian avant-garde architects.
Figure 14. Tatlin
Figure 15. Melnikov
Figure 16. Leonidov
One example is the world-famous Tatlin Tower, the Monument to the Third International built in
1920. Another example is Aleksandr Melnikovs 1929 competition entry proposal for the
45
46
The Engineering, The Nij i-No gorod hi itio , 293.

22
Christopher Columbus Memorial in Santo. Melnikov worked with Shukhov in 1927, when
Shukhov advised Melnikov on roofing solutions for the Bakhmetevsky Bus Garage.
However, the impact of Shukhovs ideas is most apparent in the projects of Ivan Leonidov, a
prominent Russian architect. In his proposal for Narkomtiazhprom (The Heavy Industry
Commission) Leonidov presented the first inhabited hyperboloid tower. During his life Leonidov
designed a series of modern architectural forms called the Sun city, a city of the future, where
he also used Shukhovs suspension structures and hyperboloid towers.
Figure 17. Sun city by Leonidov
Unfortunately, Leonidov did not get the chance to put his ideas into practice. His most active
creative period occurred when Constructivism was already in decline; eventually Stalin's
totalitarian Neo-Renaissance, modernism and standardized buildings completely replaced
Constructivism. Originally built as a revolutionary symbol of the new world and technological
achievement, Shukhovs Radio Tower became a symbol of Soviet television, and the innovation
it embodied vanished from peoples memory. In 1961, Kovelman, a former employee of
Shukhov, wrote, There are specialists who do not believe that it is possible to build a double
23
curvature covering with straight identical rods. Shukhovs ideas were shelved and became part
of the historical heritage of Russian architecture.
5. DEVELOPING GRID-SHELL STRUCTURES

Further development of lattice structures and their wide implementation in architecture
started after the 1950s. The most famous example is a structure called the Biosphere that
Buckminster Fuller presented at the Montreal Expo in 1967. The construction was made with
tubular steel elements, was 60 m tall and had a diameter of 75 m. However, Fuller was not the
original inventor of this structure; he simply managed to put it to use on a greater scale than his
architectural predecessors, making the US pavilion stand out at the Expo.
Fuller valued grid-shell structures for their lightness. He believed that the weight of a building
reflected the extent of industrialization development, as well as of mankind. 47 Invested with the
problem of material consumption, Fuller employed geometry as a framework for designing large
structures with minimal materials. Long before the idea became commonplace, Fuller dreamed
of a sustainable planet, and speculated about putting Manhattan under a giant dome, two miles in
diameter, to protect it from pollution.48
A geodesic dome combines the advantages of a sphere and a tetrahedron. Due to its spherical
initial form, it encloses the most space within the least surface, whereas its tetrahedron qualities
ensure high resistance against
external pressure. A geodesic
structure is based on the
shortest line between two
points on a mathematically
defined surface.
49
As they
intersect, these lines form a

grid of interlocking polygons,
also known as chords, which
make
up
the
structures
surface.
In
geodesic
Figure 18. The Montreal Biosphre
spheres,
47
Otto, Frei Otto : complete works ; lightweight construction, natural design, 11.
Sudjic, Norman Foster: A life in architecture, 145.
49
Silver, Introduction to architectural technology, 62.
48
24
formula for calculating the chord factor
is:
Any load in a geodesic construction is distributed evenly across its surface along the ribs.
Because a dome is a symmetric structure, it is constructed using standardized prefabricated
elements. This ensures an efficient construction process.
The Biosphere was not the only lightweight grid structure at the Montreal Expo as Frei
Otto presented his grid construction, the German pavilion. In contrast to Fuller, who focused on
the potential of compressed lattice structures, Otto was interested in the various types of grid
surface, especially in tensile structures. Ottos unique form-finding method is presented in his
book Finding Form, written in collaboration with Brodo Rasch. The method was based on the
idea of a shape created naturally, by gravitation forces, its own weight, air pressure and so on. In
designing his grid-shell structures, Otto relied on chain models. A hanging chain mesh takes the
most optimal shape itself, according to the scope of external forces and internal interrelations.
Otto based his tensile membrane structures on models made using soap lye, a membrane-forming
liquid. The experiment would occur in a soap-film machine that served as a climatic chamber
creating special conditions that would preserve fragile structures for longer, so that Otto could
measure and photograph them. Soap lye models contracted to the smallest surface possible;
appropriately enlarged, they provided a precise shape for tent construction.50 Otto also came up
with a rope net construction, a variation of the tensile tent structure. Following extensive
experiments, Otto reinforced the tent structure with ropes, that way covering considerably larger
spans. Such a structure was presented at the Montreal Expo in 1967.
The height of the final structure was between 14 m to 36 m with an overall area of 8,000 sqm.
The net was made up of steel ropes 12 mm thick with a mesh width of 50 cm, which was
prefabricated in 15 m wide strips in Konstanz and shipped to Montreal in rolls. In
interconnection sites, ropes were fixed with rope nodes as clamps; reusing ropes was practical.
The pavilion was designed and built in 13 months. The rope net construction had a similar
structure to Shukhovs pavilions presented at the Nizhnii Novgorod Exhibition in 1897. Both
Shukhov and Otto were concerned with the issue of material consumption, and tried to simplify
manufacture and installation processes. Otto does not compare his and Shukhovs structures in
50
Otto and Rasch, Finding Forms: Towards an Architecture of the Minimal, 58-59.
25
his books; however, there are some pictures and references to the Russian engineer. Elena
Shukhova mentions that Otto visited Moscow in mid-1960s. He studied Shukhovs constructions
and was impressed with the vault lattice roof of the Gum passage that, as he said, eclipsed the
famous Chrystal Palace in London.51 Nonetheless, Otto and Shukhov's approach to design was
significantly different. Shukhov primarily relied on analytical investigation and calculations,
using models merely to prove ideas, whereas for Otto, models were fundamental for finding
forms and their parameters. For instance, the angle between metal strips in Shukhovs oval
pavilion was 34, because he calculated this angle would make the metal strips work most
effectively and minimize material consumption.52 In Ottos projects, the net grid had a squared
shape, reminiscent of his chain models. Otto was an advocate of architecture of self-formation
and self-optimization processing.53 His empirical design method made it possible to generate a
great amount of information in his models, but translating data into real-life objects was a
challenge. Therefore, since 1970, whilst not rejecting the striking physical models, all
constructions built by Otto had been computer-generated. 54 An example is the Mannheim
Multhalle, a multifunctional building designed for the National Plant Fair in Germany in 1975.
Its highly complicated shape is a 15.5 meter tall compressed grid-shell structure with a total area
of 3,600 sqm. Otto was invited to design the shell as a specialist in membrane structures. Of all
lightweight constructions, the lattice shell structure was considered the most appropriate because
it offered the required shape and complied with local building regulations. Otto made a chain
model of the structure and revealed the desired shape for the shell. Due to the structures highly
irregular form, the design process became overly complicated, so Over Arup & Partners took
over the task, finalizing and optimizing the shell with the aid of computational design
programmes.55
Since mid-20th century, grid structures have been increasingly attracting attention from engineers
and architects. These lightweight structures can be prefabricated, are easy to transport to the
construction site due to the relatively small size of the elements, and are easy to assemble. Since
engineers and architects have started using computer technologies in the designing stage, the
search of new architectural forms has become ever so active. Conventional constructions are
rigid, which means that usually they dictate the shape of the building, whereas grid structures
allow forming more complex shapes. Rooted in geometry, grid structures are easily transferred
51

53
Otto and Rasch. Finding Forms: Towards an Architecture of the Minimal, 14.
54
Otto and Rasch. Finding Forms: Towards an Architecture of the Minimal, 76.
55
Paoli, Past a d uture of Grid hell tru tures . Diplo a , MIT, -22.
52
26
to the virtual space as mesh models that the designer can control by varying certain parameters.
So what to do in order to realize a beautiful design, which includes a nonstandard shape? One
answer is to use meshes.56 Thus, nowadays grid structures are developed using computational
programmes.
6. DESIGN IN THE LANGUAGE OF THE MACHINE

During the Cold War, in the period between 1959 and 1967, the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology (MIT) hosted the pioneering Computer-Aided Design Project funded by the US
Air Force. Engineers, researchers and students were brought together to re-imagine design in
the language of the machine. 57 It was a time when specialists were starting to realise the
potential of computers and tried to formulate a new approach to the design process.
One should think of computer-aided design as producing not only graphical
outputs but also material lists; labour estimates; floor area computations;
heating, lighting, and ventilation simulations (to demonstrate the adequacy of
the design); as well as many other auxiliary outputs.58
Architects started to think about a building not as hard compositional object, but as a set of
principles that are digitally encoded like a sequence of parametric equations, which, by varying
the parameter values, can generate specific design instances.59 Designers do not just model an
external form. Rather, first and foremost, they aim to articulate an internal generative logic,
which, often in an automated fashion, then generates a range of possibilities for further
development. Because of such data-driven nature, the new approach was called parametric
design.
In the early 1990s, two projects heralded the new possibilities that digital technologies
had brought to architecture: Barcelonas Fish sculpture (1992), the first paperless project
created in Gehrys office, and Grimshaws International Terminal at Waterloo Station (1993)
that utilized the developmental benefits of the parametric approach. The former project is a
relatively simple steel structure with a cladding surface.
56
Pottmann, Architectural geometry, 381.

Lla h, Algorith i te to i s: ho old ar era resear h shaped our i agi atio of desig , .
58
Lla h, Algorith i te to i s: ho old ar era resear h shaped our i agi atio of desig , .
59
Peters and Peters, Inside Smartgeometry: Expanding the Architectural Possibilities of Computational
Design, 51.
57
27
Figure 19. Barcelona s Fish sculpture
99
by Gehry Partner, LLP, 1992
Owing to its complicated initial shape, the design, fabrication and construction were all
coordinated using a computer model in CATIA, Computer-Aided Three-Dimensional Interactive
Application, the software originally used in the aerospace industry. The latter project is a 400meter-long roof structure at London Waterloo train station.
Figure 20.
Figure 21.
International Terminal at Waterloo Station by Grimshaw Architects, 1993
28
Because of the asymmetric geometry of the platforms, the roof consists of a series of 36
dimensionally different, but identically configured three-pin bowstring arches. Instead of
modelling each arch separately, computational engineers generated a parametric model based on
the correlation between the size of the span and the curvature of the individual arches.
Initially, the parametric design method was a new, integrated rational approach that helped
architects and engineers in the design and construction process. With the rapid development of
computational technologies and their extensive implementation in the design sphere, the impact
of parametric design on architecture had significantly increased. In 1999, one of the first
comprehensive books on digital architecture was published: Greg Lynns Animate Form
embraces the specifics of the computational design approach and defines its stylistic character. In
Animate Form, Lynn reveals parametric design as a new paradigm of thinking; sets out its core
principles and introduces some new terms to the architectural vocabulary, including blobs,
bodies, hypersurfaces and polysurfaces.
Figure 22. Blob forms. Embriological Housing by Greg Lynn
In addition, using his animation hypothesis, Lynn flags up the disadvantages of designing
architectural projects on the flat plane of a drawing desk, and stresses the necessity of simulating
a particular environment in virtual space, where hidden forces, which affect the construction, can
be predicted and calculated.
29
Traditionally, in architecture, the abstract space of design is conceived as an ideal

neutral space of Cartesian coordinates. In other design fields, however, design
space is conceived as an environment of force and motion rather than as a neutral
vacuum.60
The idea of constant change and transformation has led Lynn to topology as a new kind of
geometry for the computational approach. According to its mathematical definition, topology is a
study of inherent, qualitative properties of geometric forms that are not affected by changes in
size or shape and remain equal through continuous one-to-one transformations or elastic
deformations, such a stretching or twisting. This theory of form relationships and
interdependences fits in with the computational form-finding logic, where modelling one simple
object can generate numerous transformations.
What makes topology particularly appealing in architecture is the primacy over
form of the structures of relations, interconnections or inherent qualities which
exist internally and externally within the context of an architectural project.61
The behaviour of a topological form can be manipulated through construction lines. 62
Historically, architects have used such abstract elements to enforce an organising framework for
establishing positions and relations of line segments within and between shapes at a basic
compositional level. In parametric design, construction lines become key elements that are
linked to particular data as well as to each other. Together they form a mesh network system of
geometric relations and dependencies, where each point influences the position and orientation
of others.
Figure 23. Klein bottle

60
Lynn, Greg. Animate form ,10.

Design, 56.
62
Design, 57.
61
30
In computer modelling programmes a mesh represents a collection of points (vertices) arranged

into flat sides called faces, which are bounded by polygons. Polygons can have different shapes:
triangle, quadrilateral, or hexagon; however, usually one type dominates. All seemingly smooth
surfaces in animation or architecture visualizations are smoothly rendered meshes. The main
advantage of using a mesh surface is the potential of controlling and modelling a shape at any
level of complexity. Because architecture is invested with form-finding and because grid-shells
are complex structures, meshes are currently extensively utilized in parametric design.
Here the main driving force for the choice of a grid shell structure as a structural
scheme is the desire to follow the initial shape wanted by the architects and the
lack of a more performing structural system.63
However, the shift from the drawing board to relying on algorithms for capturing and
communicating designs in architecture has been slow, as many architects still do not have
sufficient computer modelling skills. As a result, most major architectural offices have been
establishing internal groups of computational specialists, who mostly work separately from the
design teams. The computational specialists act as internal consultants integrated with the design
process to varying degrees, depending on the needs of the project. Such groups exist in major
architectural companies including Foster & Partners, UNStudio and Herzog & de Meuron. 64 In
this set-up, development architects establish the initial characteristics of the building and its
shape; then they hand the information over to computational designers, who optimise the design
by simulating environments and loads. For instance, Robin Partington, the Director at Foster &
Partners responsible for developing the design of 30St Mary Axe, recalls that in the late 1990s
they did not have sufficient computer skills.65 Therefore, Foster & Co architects designed the
shape of the Swiss Re tower by producing hundreds of scale models, then invited Mark Burry, a
specialist from the Arup Group, to optimize the final shape according to aerodynamic
requirements.66 Additionally, since each grid structure is unique and no guides or design and
construction recommendations exist regarding these buildings, only large practices with the
Paoli, Past a d uture of Grid hell tru tures . Diplo a , MIT, 22

Peters a d Xa ier de estelier. The uildi g of algorith i , 15.
65
Powell, 30 St Mary Axe: A Tower for London, 63.
66
Burry, Mark. Scripting cultures: architectural design and programming, 108.
63
64
31
knowledge and research back-up available, for example, Buro Happold and Over Arup &
Partners, have agreed to take part in such projects.67
The gap between the conceptual idea and the skill set needed to operate computational
technologies contradicts the gist of the parametric approach. The parametric approach is based
on generated design principles that lead to a transformation from a method to a style. As a result,
in 2008, Patrick Schumacher of Zaha Hadid Architects wrote the Parametricist Manifesto68,
proposing that the parametric design method should be seen as a style called parametricism. Two
years later, he considered stylistic taboos and dogmas in the Architectural Journal.69
Figure 24. Beko Masterplan by Zaha Hadid Architects
Striving to understand the current situation in more depth, in the next chapter I will compare the
computer-generated grid structure design process with the most effective design and construction
methods from the pre-computational era.
Paoli, Past a d uture of Grid hell tru tures . Diplo a , MIT, .

http://www.patrikschumacher.com/Texts/Parametricism%20as%20Style.htm
69
http://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/patrik-schumacher-on-parametricism-let-the-style-warsbegin/5217211.article
67
68
32
7. DISCUSSION
To assess the effectiveness of computer software in the design process I have chosen four
grid-shell structures with comparable parameters: 30St Mary Axe and the Great Court of the
British Museum designed by Foster & Partners, and the Radio Tower and Viksa Works by
Shukhov. The Radio Tower and 30St Mary Axe are examples of manual and digital metal gridshell tower design respectively. The Great Court and Viksa Works are metal grid-shell roof
structures with complex double-curved surface.
At the outset of this discussion, I would like to note some differences between the buildings
compared. The Radio Tower on Shabolovskaya Street is a utilitarian structure for storing radio
equipment, whereas 30St Mary Axe is an inhabited office building. The grid-shell of the Great
Court is part of a sophisticated restoration process of a historical monument, while Viksa Works
was a newly-built industrial building. These differences should be taken into account in the
course of the analysis, which is focused on four aspects: grid-shell structure, design process,
fabrication and assembling.
7.1. 30St Mary Axe Tower and Shabolovskaya Tower
Form and structural scheme

The Swiss Re building, later rebranded 30St Mary Axe, is a 40-storey office tower. It is
180 m tall and consists of 33 floors, with the external diameter of 56.15 m on the largest floor.
The building has an aerodynamic egg shape that reduces the wind load, the main challenge for
high-rise buildings. Foster & Partners developed the initial tower concept using card and plastic
scale models, then the final shape was transferred into a computer programme in order to explore
its performance in a simulated real-life environment.70 The curvature of the tower makes wind
flow around it and enables natural cross-flow ventilation due to the pressure difference on the
sides of the building. In addition, the reduced diameter at street level leaves more open public
space around the building, which improves its social sustainability.
The structure of Swiss Res building consists of a central core and a perimeter steel grid-shell
tightened to each other with rolled-steel radial beams. The diagonal lattice grid, also known as a
diagrid, developed by Foster & Partners in association with Arup, is fundamental to the
realization of the radical form of the tower. The grids interlocking horizontal hoops turn the
70
33
structure into a stiff triangulated shell with a lateral working load that resists wind force and
makes the whole construction stable. The interconnection between the diagrid shell and the core
alleviates loads on floor beams, which has made it possible to reduce their section size and keep
the occupied internal area free from columns.71
Figure 25. 30St Mary Axe hard models
Figure 27. Computer modeling of the air movement
71
Figure 26. Parametric early design study
Figure 28. Concept sketch
Architectural Record, 2004, p 222.
34
The Radio Tower in Moscow is a grid-shell structure with the base diameter of 40.3 m
and the upper diameter of 3.75 m. It consists of six hyperboloid blocks, 2530 m tall each. The
block-stacking approach has made it possible to build a tower as tall as 150 m. Also, the multilevel construction system creates additional intersections in the towers trunk, which reinforce
the structure with minimal material consumption.72 In the initial proposal, the towers height was
projected to be 350 m, 50 m taller than the Eiffel Tower, the tallest building at the time. The
proposal had to be altered because due to the difficult post-Revolution situation, the Soviet
Union suffered a metal shortage. Unlike the elliptical shape of the 30St Mary Axe tower, the
hyperboloid shape is less suitable for offices and residential buildings due to its low space
efficiency.73 On the other hand, its high load-carrying capacity makes it highly efficient as an
industrial tower. Its minimal surface and open lattice structure reduce the wind load, while the
wide base makes the tower stable. Stability and safety were particularly important because of the
lack of experience in building high-rise buildings at the time.
Figure 29. Original

proposal, 350-meters
high
72
73
Figure 30. Shabolovskaya Tower.

Reid, Esmond, "Understanding Buildings", 38
35
Grid-shell design
The Swiss Res diagrid system comprises of a series of steel two-storey A-frames. Each
frame consists of two tubular diagonal columns bolted with a node. Nodes play a crucial role in
the overall structure of the construction. They connect the diagrid shell to the radial beams of the
central core and govern the curvature of the building. Arup designers formed the complex
diagrid shape merely with two column types: 508 mm columns with the wall thickness of 40 mm
(used between Ground level and level 2) and 273 mm columns with the wall thickness of 12.5
mm (used on levels 36-38). However, because of the buildings elliptical shape, the connection
angle between each A-frame is different throughout the structure. 74 That means that the
geometry of each node is different. Instead of manufacturing individual end frames, designers
decided to use separate node pieces. Each of the two-meter-height nodes consists of three steel
plates welded together at varying angles to address the curvature of the tower. Since correct node
connections are fundamental to the success of any grid scheme,75 the Arup team designed them
in detail during the computer modelling stage. As a result, node connections were prefabricated
to the exact size, and the bearing surface was milled to a tolerance of 0.1 mm. 76
Arups structural engineers designed the inclination of the diagonal grid based on the architects
concept of having a helical path of atriums with a 5 twist.77
Figure 31. Steel central core
Figure 32. Steel perimeter grid
74

BM Depart e t of Ar hite tural eprese tatio , iss e s Buildi g, Lo do . A essed No e
12, 2013), 40.
76
77
Buildi g, Lo do ill e er look the sa e agai , 44.
75
er
36
Figure 33. Nodes installation
Figure 34. Assembling A-frame
Figure 35. Even-number floors are encircled by a hoop
37
The lattice mesh of the hyperboloid pylons in the Shabolovskaya Tower is made of two
layers of diagonal double 140 mm U-section rods aligned between two rings. These rings have a
truss structure comprising of two L-section rods, 100 mm x 100 mm x 10 mm, that are tied to
each other. Such a structure simplifies pylon connections and makes it possible to fix rods
securely. Intermediate U-section rolled metal holding rings fix the rods between the main
structural rings.
In the process of connecting the diagonal U-section rods to the rings, the rods were slightly
twisted along the whole length. Due to high material flexibility and because the rod section was
relatively small, it was easy to twist the rods during the assembling process. That granted
additional structural stiffness to the construction. The number of the rods in the six tower
sections varies. In order to stabilize the construction, the top hyperboloid pylon has almost twice
as few rods as the bottom one. All the elements were riveted.
In the patent document for lattice structures Shukhov mentions circular section tubes instead of
rods. However, when he attempted to replace rolled L-section metal rods with tubes in one of his
hyperboloid water towers, Shukhov found them economically unfeasible. He had hoped to save
even more material and lighten the structure, but circular section tube fabrication and assembling
process was too expensive and complicated. Therefore, he never used them again.78
The main idiosyncrasy of Shukhovs lattice towers was that he never used equal rings and
regular intersections: the intersection points between straight lines in the upper and lower parts
are not symmetrical. 79 Rod connections were also shifted from one rod to another, trying to
create as much small-scale intercrossing as possible, like in a knitted garment.
Shukhov had devised the method for assessing hyperboloid spatial systems in the process of
designing his water towers, a new type of construction with high redundancy levels. He would
take it upon himself to conduct any structural analysis on new constructions. The logic of his
calculations was based on exploring structural interdependences and embracing the most
important parameters in generative formulas. For instance, Shukhovs design equation for the
form of a hyperboloid structure is:
78
79

Khan-Magomedov, Vladimir Shukhov, 91
38
Figure 36. Lattice construction
Figure 37. Rods are a bit twisted
Figure 38. Assembling
Figure 39. Connection the diagonal rods to the rings
39
Figure 40. Accident at the project site
Galankin, Shukhovs former employee, writes that Shukhov used to make calculations in a
unique way: his calculations were so laconic that other specialists found them difficult to
understand. In spite of this briefness, if someone asked Shukhov for the specifications of load,
rod stress, rod profile and section, rivet quantity, material weight, temperature impact or any
other detail, he always had an answer, because his concise calculations covered all these aspects,
but nothing that was irrelevant.80
Figure 4 . Shabolovskaya Tower s calculation
AA, .
/Op. / , A. N. Gala ki , Vladi ir Grigore i h hukho the prominent Russian
inventor, engineer 1853. M rief e ories , 17-18.
80
40
Assembling
The main issue in assembling the grid-shell structure for 30St Mary Axe was that it depended on
accurate fabrication.81 With a triangular grid, theres nothing you can do if all goes wrong.82
The entire tower structure was designed for bolted assembly to eliminate the need for welding.
Bolted assembly reduced the potential of weld-induced defects and the need for adjusting
connections post-welding. On the other hand, bolted assembly caused certain difficulties. For
example, it entailed a step of forming a horizontal hoop, when all 18 nodes were in place around
the circumference, and tie-sections were added to link the nodes. To close the boltholes, all the
tie-sections would have to line up; the process demanded high precision. Building such a
structure was possible only with the aid of advanced 3D-modelling and modern computational
fabrication technologies that enable accurate calculation and construction element production
with minimum defects and errors. Adjustable connections on the radial steel members also
played a key role. They provided some flexibility in positioning the nodes and allowed them to
be eased in or out until the tie-section bolts dropped into place. 83 Although Arups design
allowed leeway for the structure to be built with its apex 40 mm from the dead center, usually
the deviation did not exceed 3 mm.84
The nodes were fabricated in the Netherlands and Belgium according to Arups computer
models.85 A-frames were pre-assembled on-site by bolting two steel columns to a node, and then
craned into place. Three tower cranes of different lifting capacity were used in the construction
process. Their primary role was to lift the steel sections into place to form the structure. Also,
one main hoist was used for bulky goods, whereas three ancillary hoists carried people and
materials up and down the building. The most important thing about building a high-rise is
getting men and materials to the workface as quickly as possible, explains Gary Clifford,
Skanskas project director.86
In building his tower, Shukhov implemented the highly original telescopic assembly method
whereby each consecutive hyperboloid section was lifted in large blocks inside the structure.87
Shukhov preferred to assemble the structure in large blocks because such a method guaranteed a
81

Buildi g, Lo do ill e er look the sa e agai
83
84
85
86
87
Khan-Magomedov, Vladimir Shukhov,107.
82
41
, .
, 48.
, 48.
,
fast and accurate construction process. The lower supporting section was assembled first; then,
five basic wooden cranes were installed on its top ring in order to raise the next section. The
second section was assembled inside the supporting pylon. While the second section was still on
the ground, the next set of cranes, required for raising the third section, was fixed to its top. Then
the second section was lifted to its position with pulleys affixed to the first section and fixed in
place. Shukhovs office would always prepare detailed assembly instructions complete with
illustrations and guidance notes, which included possible on-site assembly issues and solutions.88
The fabrication and assembly of this structure was quite simple due to the identical elements
throughout the building. The only issue was bending horizontal U-section rings according to the
structures diameter because it was an expensive process at the time. 89 The simplicity of the
design and the assembling method made it possible to build a complex structure using primitive
equipment and relying on low-skilled workers.90 The telescope assembly method was highly
accurate. In another famous hyperboloid tower that had similar structural features to the
Shabolovskaya Tower and was 128 m tall, the leeway from the dead center was only 24 mm.91
Figure 4 . Telescope method of assembling
AA, .
(1853-1939), 51
89
90
91
Kovelman, Grigori Markovich. Works of Honorary Academician engineer Vladimir Grogorevich
Shukhov, 215.
88
42
Shabolovskaya Tower
30St Mary Axe
Construction period:
19191920 (1 year)
20012003 (3 years)
Dimensions:
Dimensions:
Height: 150m
Height: 180 m
Weight: 240 tons
Diagrid shell height: 158 m
Base diameter: 40.3 m
Total steel structure weight: 8,358 tons
Top diameter: 3.75 m
Diagrid structure weight: 2,424 tons

Largest floor external diameter: 56.15 m
U-section rolled metal:

Horizontal hoops: 100 x 100 x 10 mm
Diagrid column sizes:
Rods: 140 mm height
Ground levellevel 2: 508 mm, 40 mm thick

Level 3638: 273 mm, 12.5 mm thick
43
7.2. The Great Court of the British Museum and Viksa Works
Form and structural scheme
Figure 43. The Great Court Roof
Figure 44. Viksa Works Roof
The Great Court of the British Museum and the Viksa Works represent two different
approaches to designing a double-curved roof. Shukhov used this complex covering for one of
the sections of a metallurgical plant in the town of Viksa. The rigid shell structure made it
possible to have no support columns in the internal space, maximizing the room for the
technological processes at the plant.
Three-pinned arches divide the roof surface into five segments that are covered with five
symmetrical double-curvature shells. Kovelman writes that at the time no one could imagine a
spatial structure made with straight rods. A polyhedron surface made more or less smooth by
polygons was more commonplace.92 The complex structure of the Viksa Works relied on further
development of vaulted grid-shell roofs built at the Nizhnii Novgorod Exhibition in 1986. The
single-curvature system was transformed to a double-curved surface by bending the longitudinal
beams.93 The elements of the shells were made with Z-profile rod steel strips (60.5 mm x 45.6
mm).
From the cross to the long sections, the curcular-cut dome edges have a bend size equal to 1/6 of
the span. Due to sufficient roof curvature, structural purlins could be installed in the same
direction lengthwise.

Shukhov, 104.
93 Graefe et al., Shukhov V.G. (1853-1939): Art of construction, 45.
92
44
The symmetric shape of the double-curved domes made it possible to form them with identically
bent rods.94 The lattice structure of the small arches forms an elastic system, which can bear
loads from any direction and does not need additional ties.95
Figure 45. Viksa Works drawings
The character of the Great Court covering structure is more complicated. The covering works as
a lattice-glazed canopy, which is connected to the domes drum at the Reading Room as well as
to the four sides of the Museums quadrangle. In the initial design proposal, the roof was almost
flat, only slightly inclined from the center. The shell was to be shaped as a torus. Due to its
double-curved surface properties, this shell would discharge the museums quadrangle facades;
as they were not built to support a lateral load, the shell would have made the structure
collapse.96 To prevent this, the roof rests on the sliding bearings of the quadrangle facades as

96 art, A Brillia t hell Ga e at the British Museu
, 150.
94
95
45
well as on 20 new concrete-filled tubular steel columns hidden behind the cladding of the
Reading Room.
According to the Architectural Record magazine, the roof is a computational and geometric
feat itself. 97 For this project, Foster & Partners collaborated with Buro Happold. Happold
engineers calculated the geometry for the initial roof design using standard static, or linear,
computer programming. Such programming considers structural integrity by examining the
effects of gravity alone. Chris Williams, a pioneer of design computation, was invited to study
the deformation of the structure. Using computer software, he designed a 3D simulation model
and optimized the mesh of the grid-shell structure.
Figure 46. Generated grid shell structure
Assembling
The final grid construction was formed of radial hollow steel sections (box beams), which were
welded to 1,826 structural nodes, each node having a unique design.98 The engineers were highly
concerned about the reliability of the structure. To reduce the risk of fracturing, Happold paid
great attention to the accuracy of the welding process. In addition, instead of using lower grade
steel that might contain impurities, they chose Grade D steel material, which is usually used in
marine and offshore applications.99 The grid size was determined by the maximum glass panel
size available; thus the structure consists of 3,312 unique double-glazed panels. The height of the
double-curved roof was restricted by the historical environment. In order to help the roof hold its
form, the steel members near the perimeter need to work in bending and compression. To
achieve this, the steel sections increase in depth from about 76 mm at the Reading Room to
art, A Brillia t hell Ga e at the British Museu , 149.
Anderson, The Great Court and The British Museum, 96.
99 art, A Brillia t hell Ga e at the British Museu
, 153.
97
98
46
about 178 mm at the corners of the quadrangle.100 The total weight of the steel structure without
glazing is 478 tons.
Cranes and scaffolds covering the entire courtyard were used in assembling the roof for the
Great Court.
Figure 47. Structural nodes of the grid shell structure
Figure 48. Process of welding
100
47
art, A Brillia t hell Ga e at the British Museu
, 153.
Figure 49. Three functions describe the transformation from a rectangle to a circular
48
Figure 50. Assembling the roof for the Viksa Works
In contrast to the canopy of the Great Court, the construction system of the roof for the Viksa
Works, while highly original, was relatively simple and used no extended scaffolds, which are
necessary in the assembling of complicated spatial shell structures.101 All that was built at Viksa
was an intermediate mobile supporting structure, used until each segment of the lattice structure
was locked.
This construction system was 40% lighter than other roof structures. Kovelman writes that
initially builders refused to climb on the roof because they could not believe that such a light
lattice structure could sustain their weight.102

Shukhov,107.
102 Kovelman, Grigori Markovich. Works of Honorary Academician engineer Vladimir Grogorevich
Shukhov, 109.
101
49
Viksa Works
Queen II Great Court
18971898 (1 year)
19982000 (2 years)
Dimensions:
Dimensions:
Length: 75 m
Length: 73 m
Width: 38.3m
Width: 97 m
Area: 2,795.9 sqm
Area: about 3,692.5 sqm
Span: 14.5 m
Nodes: 1,826
Minimum roof height: 6.8 m
Polygons: 3,312
Maximum roof height: 13.25 m
Total structure weight:

Rods:
800 tons
Z-section rolled metal: 60.5 mm x 45.6 mm
478 tons of steel

315 tons of glass
Budget:
40 568 roubles103
Steel beams:
Minimum steel section depth: 76 mm
Maximal steel section depth: 178 mm
Budget:
100 million
103
50
8. CONCLUSION
8.1. Overview of research findings on Shukhov and others
The history of prefabrication and standardization started with the Industrial Revolution when
iron and steel were introduced as new construction materials. The 300-meter tower in Paris was
one of the most remarkable precedents of that time, and one of the first examples of multi-layer
optimized buildings. Its construction parts were prefabricated, whereas its unprecedented height
heralded the potential of the new materials. However, it was a complicated building with
complex truss connections and multiple unique elements. In that regard, other constructions built
by the Russian engineer Shukhov seven years later attracted great attention due to their
simplicity. Looking for the most efficient rafters, Shukhov invented the lattice structure, a new
spatial construction type that greatly reduced material consumption and was remarkably simple
to assemble. The German architect and structural engineer Otto reinvented the lattice structure in
the mid- to late-20th century with physical models. He was also the first to have introduced grid
structures to computational architecture. Since the digital revolution grid structures have become
highly desirable due to their mathematical nature and ability to form complex surfaces.
8.2. Review of the discussion chapter

The form and the construction of both Shabolovskaya and 30St Mary Axe towers have been
chosen based on their purpose and form stability and wind load requirements. The industrial
Radio Tower is a highly stabilized construction to the detriment of space efficiency; the cigarshaped Axe building provides offices with large internal spaces, whereas the narrow footprint
leaves plenty of open space around the tower for the public. Computational technologies helped
to optimize the form of Swiss Res building, improving its aerodynamic qualities. Shukhov made
comparable calculations in the process of planning the form of the tower.
The grid-shell structures of the two towers were built following different principles. Modeled
with computational 3D programs, the Swisss tower has a freeform mesh surface. This has
predetermined its polyhedron shape, where diagonal columns work as edges, and nodes are
vertices of the geometry. During the design process, Arup optimized the structure, reducing the
number of unique details and creating the possibility of on-site adjustments. However, the
structure still consists of numerous unique elements that had to be fabricated and assembled very
accurately.
51
The structure of the Shabolovskaya Tower consists of six stacked hyperboloid pylons. Each of
them works as an integrated structural system formed with straight double U-sections rods,
which are fixed with horizontal rings. The installation process of this structure was very simple
due to the use of identical elements and the absence of complicated details. In addition, the largeblock telescopic assembling method allowed for pylons to be prepared on the ground; that
resulted in better work quality. Even though the structure was assembled with primitive
equipment, the final result was highly accurate.
The Great Court presents a similar situation. Chris Williams designed the highly complicated
shape consisting of thousands unique elements relatively easily. Yet although the grid-shell
details were successfully prefabricated following 3D models, the process of assembling such a
non-standardized structure was expensive and difficult. Engineers were concerned with the
safety of the grid-shell roof because even one faulty element could be fatal to the entire structure.
As a result, the structure was made with beams, which have relatively big sections and are made
from expensive D-Steel. In contrast, the roof of the Viksa Works is a lattice shell comprised of
crossed arches. These arches were assembled with identical rolled metal rods that work as a light
elastic lattice shell.
A crucial element of a computationally-generated grid-shell structure is a node. Nodes control

the curvature of the geometry in the polyhedron form of the Great Court, and tie the structure in
30St Mary Axe. The issue with nodes is that node points are a locus of great tension. Shukhov
planned his structures in a way that minimized such tension points, trying to distribute loads
equally throughout the structure.
The logic of Shukhovs structures with their crossed rods, minimal asymmetry and displaced
detail interconnections is similar to the logic of a wicker basket structure. Thin fragile elements
joint together form a strong elastic spatial construction. On the other hand, parametric structures
look like polyhedrons made with beams. It is easy to trace this back to computer modelling,
where the most straight-forward way to design and calculate a smooth form is by using mesh,
where cells represent polygons. This discrepancy poses a question: do we use computer
technology as a supporting tool, or has it started dictating the design process?
52
Computational technologies make it possible to generate shapes of any level of complexity, but
Lynn stresses another issue:
The computer is not a brain. Machine intelligence might best be described as that
of mindless connections. When connecting multiple variables, the computer
simply connects them, it does not think critically about how it connects Even in
the most scientific applications of computer simulations it is argued that first an
intuition must be developed in order to recognize the nonlinear behavior of
computer simulations.104
Nowadays, architects and engineers design forms using the most convenient ways of
computation that lead to structures that are difficult to build. If the architecture generated by
computational logic is called smartgeometry, perhaps engineers and architects should strive for
wisegeometry, geometry based not as much on calculations as on optimal construction logic in
the physical world, such as that of Shukhovs structures? Perhaps wisegeometry would start
addressing Chris Williamss contemplation in Smartgeometry: Computers are no longer a new
technology, but their implications for the ways in which people will work are still unclear.105
8.3. In favor of Shukhovs architectural heritage

Today, the state of Shukhovs architectural heritage is at stake. Although the Bary office had
built thousands of constructions across Russia, only a few of them survived. In spite of numerous
discussions regarding the importance of Shukhovs constructions, one of his most famous
buildings, the Radio Tower in Moscow, is at the risk of collapse because it has not been restored
for 25 years. Following the international conference Heritage at Risk in Moscow in 2006, 170
specialists from 33 countries declared the Shabolovskaya Tower a masterpiece of Russian avantgarde architecture and proposed it should be on the UNESCO World Heritage list. Sir Norman
Foster also interceded for the structure as he said it was neglected and dying without faithful
restoration.
Out of the numerous lattice roof structures designed by Shukhov, only the Viksa Works with its
unique double-curved roof has survived. This historical monument of Russian architectural
Lynn, Greg. Animate form, 19.

Design, 131.
104
105
53
achievement is also in a poor condition as it has been left without a covering for years. If it is not
urgently restored, it will soon fall into decay.
In the light of these facts and having revealed the significance of Shukhovs contribution to
architecture, one of the goals of my paper is to draw attention to the problem of the state of
disrepair that some of Russias national architectural treasures are in.
54
APPENDIX 1
Patent on Lattice tower
55
APPENDIX 2
Table of standardized elements (publish for the first time)
56
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http://www.nasledie-rus.ru/podshivka/7009.php
The Shukhov Tower Foundation. Accessed January 18, 2013.

www.shukhov.ru
63
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Academy of Science, F.1508/Op.1/88, 11.
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Accessed October 31, 2013.
http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%83%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B2,_%D0%92%D0%BB%
D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B
E%D1%80%D1%8C%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87
13. Suspension lattice structure above the oval pavilion at the Nizhnii Novgorod Exhibition,
Accessed October 31, 2013
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Shukhov
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http://family-values.ru/kuda_poyti/jizn/6_iunya_14_oktyabrya_vystavka_2431.html
64
15. Christopher Columbus Memorial in Santo Domingo by Melnikov. Accessed January 20, 2014.
http://www.forma.spb.ru/magazine/articles/7_01/main.shtml
16. Narkomtiazhprom (The Heavy Industry Commission) by Leonidov. Accessed January 20,
2014.
http://kak.ru/vimg/article/0899391025db200747caed18e01acec0.gif
17. Sun city by Leonidov. Accessed January 20, 2014.
http://www.flickr.com/photos/r-9/312012879/
18. The Mo treal Biosphre y Bu k i ster uller, 1967. Accessed January 20, 2014.
http://www.spatialagency.net/2009/08/24/buckminsterfuller_1-960x607.jpg
19. Bar elo a s ish s ulpture by Gehry Partner, LLP, 1992. Accessed January 20, 2014.
http://www.eikongraphia.com/wordpress/wpcontent/280015634_dd80c0bb98_o%20Flickr,%20Your%20Teacher%20small.jpg
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http://grimshaw-architects.com/project/international-terminal-waterloo/
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http://static.digischool.nl/ckv2/ckv3/kunstentechniek/lynn/greglynn.htm
23. Klein bottle. Accessed January 20, 2014.
http://www.map.mpim-bonn.mpg.de/2-manifolds
24. Beko Masterplan by Zaha Hadid Architects. Accessed January 20, 2014.
http://www.dezeen.com/2012/12/05/beko-masterplan-by-zaha-hadid/
25. 30St Mary Axe hard models. Powell, Kenneth. 30 St Mary Axe: A Tower for London. London:
Merrell Publishers Ltd, 2006,65
26. Parametric early design study . Burry, Mark. Scripting cultures: architectural design and
programming. Chichester: Wiley, 2011, 108.
27. Computer modeling the air movement. Powell, Kenneth. 30 St Mary Axe: A Tower for
London. London: Merrell Publishers Ltd, 2006, 80
28. Concept sketch. Accessed January 20, 2014.
http://www.buildingthegherkin.com/press/
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Shukhov V.G. (1853-1939): Art of construction. Translated by L.M. Glotova, and M.M.
Gappoeva. Moscow: Mir, 1995, 93.
65
30. Shabolovskaya Tower by Rainer Graefe, Graefe, Rainer, Otmar Perchi, and Fedor Shukhov.
31. Steel central core. 30 St Mary Axe: A Tower for London. London: Merrell Publishers Ltd,
2006, 121
32. Steel perimeter grid-shell. 30 St Mary Axe: A Tower for London. London: Merrell Publishers
Ltd, 2006, 137
33. Nodes installation. 30 St Mary Axe: A Tower for London. London: Merrell Publishers Ltd,
2006, 90
34. Assembling A-frame. 30 St Mary Axe: A Tower for London. London: Merrell Publishers Ltd,
2006, 85
35. Even- u er floors are e ir led y a hoop . 30 St Mary Axe: A Tower for London. London:
Merrell Publishers Ltd, 2006, 93
36. Lattice construction, Graefe, Rainer, Otmar Perchi, and Fedor Shukhov. Shukhov V.G. (18531939): Art of construction. Translated by L.M. Glotova, and M.M. Gappoeva. Moscow: Mir,
1995, 97.
37. Rods are a bit twisted, Graefe, Rainer, Otmar Perchi, and Fedor Shukhov. Shukhov V.G.
Mir, 1995, 112.
38. Assembling, Graefe, Rainer, Otmar Perchi, and Fedor Shukhov. Shukhov V.G. (1853-1939):
Art of construction. Translated by L.M. Glotova, and M.M. Gappoeva. Moscow: Mir, 1995, 99.
39. Connection the diagonal rods to the rings, by author. December, 2013.
40. Accident at the project site. Accessed January 20, 2014.
http://d3.ru/comments/341904/
41. ha olo skaya To er s al ulatio , Shukhova, E.M. Vladimir Grigorevich Shukhov: the first
engineer of Russia. Moscow: Bauman MGTY, 2003, 253.
42. Teles ope asse li g ethod, Archive of the Russian Academy of Science, F.1508/Op.1/86,
5;
Shukhova, E.M. Vladimir Grigorevich Shukhov: the first engineer of Russia. Moscow: Bauman
MGTY, 2003, 280.
43. The Great Court Roof, art, ara. A Brillia t hell Ga e at the British Museu
Architectural Record 189 (2001), 149.
44. Viksa Works Roof, Graefe, Rainer, Otmar Perchi, and Fedor Shukhov. Shukhov V.G. (18531939): Art of construction. Translated by L.M. Glotova, and M.M. Gappoeva. Moscow: Mir,
1995, 49.
66
45. Viksa Works drawings, Graefe, Rainer, Otmar Perchi, and Fedor Shukhov. Shukhov V.G.
Mir, 1995, 47.
46. Generated grid shell structure, art, ara. A Brillia t hell Ga e at the British Museu
Architectural Record 189 (2001), 151.
47. Structural nodes of the grid shell structure, a kes, Dea . Court ir ular . Ar hite ts
journal. 210 (1999), 25.
48. Process of welding, a kes, Dea . Court ir ular . Ar hite ts jour al. 210 (1999), 26.
49. Three functions describe the transformation from a rectangle to a circular, Peters, Brady,
and Terri Peters. Inside Smartgeometry: Expanding the Architectural Possibilities of
Computational Design. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2013, 24.
50. Assembling the roof for the Viksa Works, Graefe, Rainer, Otmar Perchi, and Fedor Shukhov.
Appendix 1. Patent on Lattice tower. Graefe, Rainer, Otmar Perchi, and Fedor Shukhov. Shukhov
V.G. (1853-1939): Art of construction. Translated by L.M. Glotova, and M.M. Gappoeva.
Moscow: Mir, 1995, 177
Appendix 2. Table of standardized elements. Archive of the Russian Academy of Science,
F.1508/Op.1/83, 19 and 20.
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Rethinking complexity: steel lattice structures,

past and present

Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree

Introduction of metal constructions

3.1. Iron as a new construction material

4.1. The Russian school of engineering

Developing grid-shell structures

Desig i the la guage of the

7.1. 30St Mary Axe Tower and Shabolovskaya Tower

8.1. Overview of research findings on Shukhov and others

The analysis in this paper is based on four core questions:

Matthias Be kh et al., Dis ussio , 1147.

a d A a thasuresh, Gusta e iffel a d is Opti al tru tures , 849-850.

Since computational technologies are so prominent in contemporary design, there have

Shukhov, Rafters, 105.

Brad et al, The uildi g of algorith i , .

3. INTRODUCTION OF METAL CONSTRUCTIONS

Wyatt, The Industrial Revolution, 11.

Figure 1. The Chrystal Palace

3.2. Prefabrication and optimization

Wyatt, The Industrial Revolution, xii.

a as a , Ale a dre Gusta e iffel: A gi eer ie tist ,

Figure 3. Eiffel Tower

Figure 5. Fractal structure of the tower

Figure 4. First drawing of the Eiffel Tower

Figure 6. Construction unit

Figure 8. Brodge above Oka River

constructred designed by Shukhov

Wyatt, The Industrial Revolution, 146.

4.2 The Russian Edison

Shukhova, Vladimir Grigorevich Shukhov: the first engineer of Russia, 34.

Shukhova, Vladimir Grigorevich Shukhov: the first engineer of Russia, 22.

4.3 Lattice structures and the first hyperboloid

Graefe et al., Shukhov V.G. (1853-1939): Art of construction, 28.

Kovelman, Works of Honorary Academician engineer Vladimir Grogorevich Shukhov, 94.

Everything amazed in that first Shukhov tower everything in it was some

Khan-Magomedov, Vladimir Shukhov, 72.

Figure 14. Tatlin

Figure 15. Melnikov

Figure 16. Leonidov

The Engineering, The Nij i-No gorod hi itio , 293.

Figure 17. Sun city by Leonidov

5. DEVELOPING GRID-SHELL STRUCTURES

intersect, these lines form a

Figure 18. The Montreal Biosphre

formula for calculating the chord factor

Shukhova, Vladimir Grigorevich Shukhov: the first engineer of Russia, 105.

6. DESIGN IN THE LANGUAGE OF THE MACHINE

Pottmann, Architectural geometry, 381.

Figure 19. Barcelona s Fish sculpture

by Gehry Partner, LLP, 1992

International Terminal at Waterloo Station by Grimshaw Architects, 1993

Figure 22. Blob forms. Embriological Housing by Greg Lynn

Traditionally, in architecture, the abstract space of design is conceived as an ideal

Figure 23. Klein bottle

Lynn, Greg. Animate form ,10.

In computer modelling programmes a mesh represents a collection of points (vertices) arranged

Paoli, Past a d uture of Grid hell tru tures . Diplo a , MIT, 22

Figure 24. Beko Masterplan by Zaha Hadid Architects

Paoli, Past a d uture of Grid hell tru tures . Diplo a , MIT, .

7.1. 30St Mary Axe Tower and Shabolovskaya Tower

Form and structural scheme

Powell, 30 St Mary Axe: A Tower for London, 63.