Soil is the mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids, and the myriad of organisms that

together support plant life. It is a natural body that exists as part of the pedosphere and which
performs four important functions: it is a medium for plant growth; it is a means of water
storage, supply and purification; it is a modifier of the atmosphere of Earth; and it is a habitat for
organisms that take part in decomposition of organic matter and the creation of a habitat for new
organisms.
Soil is considered to be the "skin of the earth" with interfaces between the lithosphere,
hydrosphere, atmosphere of Earth, and biosphere.[1] Soil consists of a solid phase (minerals and
organic matter) as well as a porous phase that holds gases and water.[2][3][4] Accordingly, soils are
often treated as a three-state system.[5]
Soil is the end product of the influence of the climate, relief (elevation, orientation, and slope of
terrain), biotic activities (organisms), and parent materials (original minerals) interacting over
time.[6] Soil continually undergoes development by way of numerous physical, chemical and
biological processes, which include weathering with associated erosion.
Most soils have a density between 1 and 2 g/cm3.[7] Little of the soil of planet Earth is older than
the Pleistocene and none is older than the Cenozoic,[8] although fossilized soils are preserved
from as far back as the Archean.[9]
Soil science has two main branches of study: Edaphology and Pedology. Pedology is focused on
the formation, description (morphology), and classification of soils in their natural
environment,[10] whereas edaphology is concerned with the influence of soils on organisms. In
engineering terms, soil is referred to as regolith, or loose rock material that lies above the 'solid
geology'.[11] Soil is commonly referred to as "earth" or "dirt"; technically, the term "dirt" should
be restricted to displaced soil.[12]
As soil resources serve as a basis for food security, the international community advocates for its
sustainable and responsible use through different types of Soil Governance.

Soil is made up of distinct layers, called horizons. Each layer has its own characteristics that make
it different from all of the other layers. These characteristics play a very important role in what
the soil is used for and why it is important.
O HORIZON- This is the top layer of soil that is made up of living and decomposed materials like
leaves, plants, and bugs. This layer is very thin and is usually pretty dark.
A HORIZON- This is the layer that we call "topsoil" and it is located just below the O Horizon. This
layer is made up of minerals and decomposed organic matter and it is also very dark in color. This is
the layer that many plants roots grow in.
B HORIZON- This is the layer that we call "subsoil" and it is located just below the A Horizon. This
layer has clay and mineral deposits and less organic materials than the layers above it. This layer is
also lighter in color than the layers above it.
C HORIZON- This is the layer that we call "regolith" and it is located just below the B Horizon.
This layer is made up of slightly unbroken rock and only a little bit of organic material is found here.
Plant roots are not found in this layer.

1. Soil Type: Sandy

Sandy soil has the largest particles among the different soil types. Its dry and gritty to the touch,
and because the particles have huge spaces between them, it cant hold on to water.
Water drains rapidly, straight through to places where the roots, particularly those of seedlings,
cannot reach. Plants dont have a chance of using the nutrients in sandy soil more efficiently as
theyre swiftly carried away by the runoff.
The upside to sandy soil is that its light to work with and warms much more quickly in the
spring.
Testing what type of soil youre working with involves moistening the soil and rolling it into a
ball to check the predominating soil particle. When you roll the slightly wet sandy soil in your
palms, no ball should be formed and it crumbles through your fingers easily.

2. Soil Type: Silty

Silty soil has much smaller particles than sandy soil so its smooth to the touch. When
moistened, its soapy slick. When you roll it between your fingers, dirt is left on your skin.
Silty soil retains water longer, but it cant hold on to as much nutrients as youd want it to
though its fairly fertile. Due to its moisture-retentive quality, silty soil is cold and drains poorly.
Silty soil can also easily compact, so avoid trampling on it when working your garden. It can
become poorly aerated, too.

3. Soil Type: Clay

Clay soil has the smallest particles among the three so it has good water storage qualities. Its
sticky to the touch when wet, but smooth when dry.
Due to the tiny size of its particles and its tendency to settle together, little air passes through its
spaces. Because its also slower to drain, it has a tighter hold on plant nutrients. Clay soil is thus
rich in plant food for better growth.

Clay soil is cold and in the spring, takes time to warm since the water within also has to warm
up. The downside is that clay soil could be very heavy to work with when it gets dry. Especially
during the summer months, it could turn hard and compact, making it difficult to turn. (When
clay soil is worked while its too wet though, its prone to damage).
If moistened soil feels sticky, rolls up easily, and forms into a ball or sausage-like shape, then
youve got yourself clay.

4. Soil Type: Peaty

Peaty soil is dark brown or black in color, soft, easily compressed due to its high water content,
and rich in organic matter. Peat soil started forming over 9,000 years ago, with the rapid
melting of glaciers. This rapid melt drowned plants quickly and died in the process. Their decay
was so slow underwater that it led to the accumulation of organic area in a concentrated spot.
Although peat soil tends to be heavily saturated with water, once drained, it turns into a good
growing medium. In the summer though, peat could be very dry and become a fire hazard. (I kid
you notpeat is the precursor of coal.) The most desirable quality of peat soil, however, is in its
ability to hold water in during the dry months and its capacity to protect the roots from damage
during very wet months.
Peat contains acidic water, but growers use it to regulate soil chemistry or pH levels as well as an
agent of disease control for the soil.
When wet peat soil is rolled, you wont form a ball. Its spongy to the touch and when squeezed,
water could be forced out.

5. Soil Type: Saline Soil

The soil in extremely dry regions is usually brackish because of its high salt content. Known as
saline soil, it can cause damage to and stall plant growth, impede germination, and cause
difficulties in irrigation.

The salinity is due to the buildup of soluble salts in the rhizospherehigh salt contents prevent
water uptake by plants, leading to drought stress.
Its easy enough to test if you have saline soil. Youll probably see a white layer coating the
surface of the soil, your plants are growing poorly, and theyre suffering from leaf tip burn,
especially on young leaves.

The Ideal Soil Type: Loam

The type of soil that gardens and gardeners love is loamy soil. It contains a balance of all three
soil materialssilt, sand and clayplus humus. It has a higher pH and calcium levels because of
its previous organic matter content.
Loam is dark in color and is mealysoft, dry and crumblyin your hands. It has a tight hold on
water and plant food but it drains well, and air moves freely between soil particles down to the
roots.
The feel test for loam yields a smooth, partly gritty, partly sticky ball that crumbles easily.

Although loamy soil is the ideal material to work with, dont despair if you dont have it in your
garden. Thats because soil will always favor one particles size over the two others. Then again,
there are many ways to condition your soiladding beneficial soil inoculants, covering your soil
with compost, or simply spraying leaves and soil with compost tea

In geology, rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more minerals or mineraloids.
For example, the common rock granite is a combination of the quartz, feldspar and biotite
minerals. The Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock.
Rocks have been used by mankind throughout history. From the Stone Age rocks have been used
for tools. The minerals and metals found in rocks have been essential to human civilization.[1]
Three major groups of rocks are defined: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The scientific
study of rocks is called petrology, which is an essential component of geology.