General Chemistry Review

Chapter 1 - Matter and Measurement

I. Types of Matter
a. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
b. Matter exists commonly in three phases:
i. Solids rigid shape and fixed volume.
ii. Liquids fixed volume and not rigid in shape.
iii. Gases has neither fixed volume or rigid shape
- gases take on the volume and shape of its
container.
c. Matter is classified into two categories:
i. Pure substances
a.
fixed composition and unique set of properties
b. pure substances are either elements or compounds.
ii. Mixtures
a.
composed of two or more substances
b. are classified as either homogeneous or
heterogeneous.
MATTER

Mixtures

Heterogeneous
(Coarse)

Pure Substances

Homogeneous
(Solutions)

Elements

Compounds

iii. Elements
a) A type of matter that cannot be broken down into two
or more pure substances.
b) 112 known elements (115, if the three newly
discovered elements are confirmed1), of which 91
occur naturally.
iv. Compounds
a) A pure substance that contains more than one
element and has fixed composition.
b) Example: Water
-Water is a compound; composed from the
elements hydrogen and oxygen.
c) Example: Table Salt (Sodium Chloride)
1) The properties of compounds are very different
from the properties of the elements from which
they are made.

NaCl

2) Sodium chloride is formed from the elements

sodium (Na), a highly reactive metal and chlorine
(Cl), a greenish-yellow poisonous gas.
3) Sodium chloride, a crystalline solid, exhibits its
own set of properties, unique from those of either
sodium metal or chlorine gas.

See Supplement 1 New Elements Pop In

v. Mixtures
a.
Contain two or more substances combined in such
a way that each substance retains its chemical
identity.
b. Example: Copper sulfate and sand.
a) When copper sulfate and sand are shaken
together, the two substances do not react with
one another.
b) Each substance retains their original properties.
c.
Homogeneous Mixtures
a) Homogenous Mixtures are uniform, meaning
the composition is the same throughout.
b) Another name for a homogeneous mixture is
solution.
1) The solvent is usually the substance present
in the largest amount; solute is the substance
is lesser amount.
2) Solvents are usually liquids.
3) Solutes may be solids, liquids, or gases.
c) Examples of homogeneous solutions include
1) Soda water solution of carbon dioxide in
water.
2) Seawater, complex mixture of solids, one of
which is sodium chloride.
3) Metal alloys, such as
- brass (copper and zinc)
- sterling silver (92.5% silver and 7.5% other
metals, usually copper)
- steel (iron ~98%, ~2% carbon, or other
metal such as manganese or tungsten)
- rose gold (gold, copper)
- bronze (copper and usually tin)

d.

Heterogeneous Mixtures
a) Nonuniform mixtures; composition varies
throughout.
b) Examples
1) Most Rocks, such as granite (feldspar, quartz
and quartz)
2) Salad, trail mix, milk (before homogenized)
c) Heterogeneous mixtures can be separated by
physical means
1) Filtration used to separate a solid-liquid
mixture.
2) Distillation separates liquids (which are
vaporized, and re-condensed) from solids
that are left behind in the distillation flask.
3) Chromatography
- can be used to separate many types of
mixtures.
- uses the difference in solubility and/or
extent of adsorption on a solid surface.
- an analogy which is sometimes useful is to
suppose a mixture of bees and wasps
passing over a flower bed. The bees would
be more attracted to the flowers than the
wasps, and would become separated from
them.
4) Gas-liquid Chromatography
- emissions tests on auto exhaust are done
by
by GLC
- pollutants show up as peaks on a graph.
- a computer can analyze the area under
the peaks, translating into concentrations
- Drug and alcohol testing is typically
done by GLC.
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II.

Measurements
a. Scientific measurements are expressed in the metric
system.

Meaning

1,000,000 Xs larger
1,000 Xs larger
10 Xs smaller
100 Xs smaller

Metric Prefixes
Prefix Abbrev.
Factor
Prefix
1000 Xs smaller
megaM
milli1,000,000 Xs smaller
kilok
micro10 Xs smaller
decid
nano10 Xs smaller
centic
pico9

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Abbrev.
m

n
p

!
!
b. Uncertainty in measurement
i. Every time that you make a measurement, there is
some human error (uncertainty) inherent in the
measurement.
ii. The proper way to record a measurement is to
estimate one decimal place beyond the scale of the
instrument.

iii. Temperature
a) Temperature Units
- Celsius (oC)
a. Uses the normal freezing point (0 oC) and
the normal boiling point (100 oC) to set
this temperature scale.
- Fahrenheit (oF)
a. Water freezes at 32 oF and boils at 100 oF
on this scale.
b. The following formula can be used to
convert from oF to oC.

ToF = 1.8ToC + 32 o
- Kelvin (K)
a. Defined as 1/273.15 of the difference
between the lowest attainable
temperature (0K) and the triple point of
!
water (0.01 oC)
b. No degree sign is used for Kelvin.
c. The following formula can be used to
convert from oC to K.

TK = ToC + 273.15
c) Example: Conversion of Units/Temperature
Express normal body temperature, 98.60 oF, in oC and K.

III.

Significant Figures
a. The following rules determine how many significant figures are in a
number:

THE 3 RULES OF ZEROS

1. Leading Zeros (0.0001)
NEVER significant
2. MIDDLE ZEROS (209)
ALWAYS significant
3. Trailing Zeros
SOMETIMES significant
+ No decimal point, not
significant
Ex. 250

(2 sig figs)

+ with a decimal point, is

significant
Ex. 250.
(2 sig figs)
250.000 (6 sig figs)
0.0900
(3 sig figs)

i. Non-zero digits are always significant.

- Hopefully, this rule seems rather obvious. If you measure
something and the device you use (ruler, thermometer, triplebeam balance, etc.) returns a number to you, then you have
made a measurement decision and that ACT of measuring
gives significance to that particular numeral (or digit) in the
overall value you obtain.
- How many significant figures are there in the following
_____26.38

_____ 7.94 _____ 0.00980 _____ 28.09

ii. Any zeros between two significant digits are significant.

- Suppose you had a number like 406.
- By the first rule, the 4 and the 6 are significant.
- However, to make a measurement decision on the 4 (in the
hundred's place) and the 6 (in the unit's place), you HAD to
have made a decision on the ten's place.
iii. The leftmost nonzero digit is the first or most significant
figure. For example, in the number 0.02340, the first significant
figure is the 2.
- Leading zeros (0.02340) are never significant.
iv. If there is a decimal point, the rightmost digit is the last
significant figure.
- For example, in 0.02340 the first two zeros from the left are
not significant but the zero after the 4 is significant.
v. If there is no decimal point explicitly shown, the rightmost nonzero digit is the least significant figure.
- For example, in 3400 the 4 is the least significant figure since
neither zero is significant in this case.
- A decimal point can be placed an the end of a whole number
that ends in zero to override this rule.
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- The value 3400. , when written with the decimal point,

indicates to the reader that the measurement is certain to 4
significant figures, rather than 2.
b. Managing Significant Figures in Calculations
i. MULTIPLICATION or DIVISION
1. Keep the same number of significant figures as the factor
with the least number of significant figures.
2. Example: Report the following calculation to the proper
number of significant figures
1.2 x 4.56 = 5.472
ii. ADDITION or SUBTRACTION
1. Keep the same number of decimal places as the factor with
the least amount.
2. Example: Report the following calculation to the proper
number of significant figures
Round at the end
of your calculation
unless there is a
need to change
rounding rules.

1.234 + 5.67 = 6.904

iii. Combined Calculations
1. In calculations involving addition/subtraction and
multiplication/division, significant figure guidelines must be
applied before and after each calculation involving
addition or subtraction.
2. example:
(3.2 x 4 x 0.035 / 7) + (12 x 0.5) = 0.06 + 6 = 6

c. Logarithms
i. There are specific rules that are followed when determining the
number of significant figures resulting from logarithm
calculations, which will be discussed later in this class.

d. Focus on these rules and learn them well. They will be used
extensively throughout the remainder of this course.
i. Exam and homework questions are only considered to be
completely correct if they are rounded to the proper number of
sig figs.
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IV. Converting Units - Dimensional Analysis

a. A technique for converting units in chemistry that involves
cross canceling like units.
b. Example: Convert 2.5 atm of pressure into mmHg.

c. Metric System Conversions

Examples
Convert 23 cm to kilometers.

Convert 0.00357 kg to grams.

V.

Properties of Substances
a. Every pure substance has its own unique set of properties
that distinguish it from all other substances.
b. Intensive/Extensive Properties
i. Intensive properties (color) are independent of amount.
ii. Extensive properties (mass) depend upon the amount.
Extensive

Intensive

c. Chemical/Physical Properties
i. Chemical properties are observed when a substance
takes place in a chemical reaction.
Examples of chemical properties:

ii. Physical properties are observed without changing the

identity of a substance.
Examples of physical properties:

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d. Density
i. Density Formula
density =

mass
volume

or

D=

m
V

ii. Example
To determine
a student pipets a 5.00 mL
!
! the density of ethyl alcohol,
sample into an empty flask weighing 15.246 g. He finds that the mass
of the flask + ethyl alcohol = 19.171 g. Calculate the density of ethyl
alcohol.

iii. Density can be treated as a conversion factor to relate

mass and volume.
iv. Example
Mercury has a density of 13.6 g/mL. Calculate the mass of 2.6 mL of
mercury.

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e. Solubility
i. The process by which a solute dissolves in a solvent is
a physical process.
ii. The extent to which a substance dissolves is commonly
expressed as the number of grams of dissolved
substance per 100 g of water (H2O) at a given
temperature.
iii. At 20 oC, about 32 g of potassium nitrate dissolves in
100 g of water.
iv. Temperature is known to effect solubility. At greater
temperatures, more solute can be dissolved.
v. At 100 oC, about 246 g of potassium nitrate dissolves
in 100 g of water.
vi. Example
Taking the solubility of potassium nitrate, KNO3, to be 246 g per 100 g
of water at 100 oC per 100 g of H2O; and 32g per 100 g of water at
20 oC. Calculate
(a) the mass of water required to dissolve 100 g of KNO3 at 100 oC

(b) The amount of KNO3 that remains in solution when the mixture is
cooled to 20 oC.

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