Chapter 10 microwave heating: introduction, dielectric properties of foods, heat transfer and

mass transfer in microwave processing, microwave processing of foods.

Class
lass notes by Prashanta Pokhrel
History:

The idea of microwave oven was first conceived by Percy L. Spencer in 1946 and finally patented in
1950.
The early ovens are huge--weighted over 300 kg and measured over 1.5 metre in height--were mainly
used in large restaurants and food outlets.
The first home version was produced by Raytheon Corporation in 1965.
1 Introduction:
Microwaves are high frequency radio waves (radiofrequency fields) and, like visible radiation (light), are a part
of the electromagnetic spectrum. Microwaves are used primarily for TV broadcasting, radar for air and sea
navigational aids, and telecommunications including mobile phones. They are also used in industry for
processing materials, in medicine for diathermy treatment and in kitchens for cooking food.
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves which consists of both electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to
each other and propagates at the speed of light
The frequency band of microwave is from 300 MHz to 300 GHz. Microwave differ from other electromagnetic

radiations such as light waves and radio waves only in wavelength and frequency. For food application the approved
and most commonly used microwave frequencies are 2350 MHz and 915 MHz. The principle reasons these
frequencies are used in food industries are; availability of microwave generators at these frequencies at useful power
levels and at resonable cost, the fact that the wavelength at these frequencies is consistent with food products
dimension which result in somewhat more efficient heating than would obtain at higher or lower frequencies.
2 Microwave heating:

A volumetric heating mechanism which has the potential to deliver heat instantly throughout the product and in doing
so deliver the mildest treatment consistent with the required microbial lethality for the product. Microwaves penetrate
deeply into food materials and as they penetrate, the energy they carry is converted to heat, actually by the food
material itself mainly by the mechanism of polar and ionic orientation.
Materials containing water, for example foods, fluids or tissues, readily absorb microwave energy, which is then
converted into heat. Dielectric energy induces molecular friction in water molecules to produce heat. Dielectric
heating is determined in part by the moisture content of the food. Commercially, microwaves and radio
frequency energy are produced at specified frequency bands that are allocated to prevent interference with
radio transmissions. The depth of penetration into a food is directly related to frequency; lower frequency
dielectric energy penetrates more deeply. Thermal conductivity of food does play a important role.

Mechanism of heating:

Microwave heating in foods occurs due to coupling of electrical energy from an electromagnetic field in a
microwave cavity with the food and its subsequent dissipation within food product. This results in a sharp
increase in temperature within the product. Microwave energy is delivered at a molecular level through the
molecular interaction with the electromagnetic field, in particular, through molecular friction resulting from
dipole rotation of polar solvents and from the conductive migration of dissolved ions. The principal
mechanisms involved in microwave heating are therefore dipole rotation and ionic polarization. Water in the

food is the primary dipolar component responsible for the dielectric heating. In an alternating current electric
field, the polarity of the field is varied at the rate of microwave frequency and molecules attempt to align
themselves with the changing field. Heat is generated rapidly as a result of internal molecular friction.
The second major mechanism of heating with microwaves is through the polarization of ions as a result of the
back and forth movement of the ionic molecules trying to align themselves with the oscillating electric field. .
The accelerated particle collides with an adjacent particle, sets it into more agitated motion and heat is
generated. Microwave heating is also affected by the state of the constituents, whether they are bound or free,
e.g., bound ions have much lower microwave absorptivities.
The volumetric heating rate (Q) of microwave at a particular location is related to the electric field strength by;
i
where f is the frequency of microwaves in Hertz, E the strength of electric field of the wave at that location,

 the permittivity of free space (a physical constant), and
" the dielectric loss factor (a material property called
dielectric property) representing the materials ability absorb the wave. In addition to
", there is another
dielectric property parameter called the dielectric constant (
), which affects the strength of the electric field
inside the food.

4. Microwave Generation
The magnetron is the heart of the microwave oven. Microwaves are generated by a magnetron, which is
attached to the applicator controlled by a waveguide. The magnetron consists of the two elements of an
electron tubea cathode and an anodeeach of which is in a circular form with anode resonant cavities
(anywhere from four to eighty). A magnet (permanent or temporary) is placed around the anode to provide a
magnetic field. When the cathode is heated by means of an electrical filament, it gives off negatively charged
electrons, which are attracted by the positively charged anode. The magnetic field around the anode causes
the electrons to move in an orbital fashion rather than a straight line as they jump from the cathode to the
anode under an electrical pressure of 40006000 volts. As the electrons approach the anode, they pass by the
resonator cavities of the anode, and this causes the electrons to oscillate at a very high frequency (2450 or 915
MHz). The high-frequency oscillations of the electrons in the magnetron are picked up by a small antenna on
the top the magnetron tube. These oscillations are transmitted through a waveguide to a feed box from where
they are distributed into the oven cavity.

5. Some terms:
Dielectric heating:
heating A generic term that includes heating by both microwave and radio frequency energy. (two
waves; electric and magnetic).

factor: A measure of the amount of energy that a material will dissipate when subjected to an alternating
Loss factor
electric field (in microwave and dielectric heating). (Also termed the dielectric loss or loss tangent.)
Mimetics: Low calorie fat substitutes.
Mimetics

6. Dielectric properties of foods

The electrical properties of materials in the context of microwave and radiofrequency heating are known as
dielectric properties, which provide a measure of how food materials interact with electromagnetic energy.
Biological materials may be viewed as nonideal capacitors in that they have the ability to store and dissipate
electrical energy from an electromagnetic field and the properties can be expressed in terms of a complex
notation. The complex notation is characterized by dielectric permittivity with a real component, dielectric

constant, and an imaginary component, dielectric loss. The dielectric properties of materials are governed by
the following equations:

=

"..ii,
"

tan=
 ..iii


Where
is the dielectric constant,
" is the dielectric loss factor of the material, and j the complex constant.
The dielectric constant is a measure of a materials ability to store electric energy, and the loss factor is a
measure of its ability to dissipate the electrical energy in the form of heat. Complex permittivity is a measure of
a materials ability to couple electrical energy from a microwave power generator(magnetron). The dielectric
properties of materials mostly govern the heating behavior of food materials during microwave heating. The
power dissipated per unit volume in the dielectric field is directly related to loss factor (Equation i); however, it
may also be dependent on the dielectric constant subject to geometry and field configuration. The ratio of the
dielectric loss to the dielectric constant, defined as the loss tangent (Equation iii), is related to the materials
susceptibility to be penetrated by an electrical field and dissipate (attenuate) electrical energy as heat. Materials
are classified on the basis of loss tangent. Those that are highly lossy absorb microwave energy efficiently, while
highly transparent materials, such as Teflon, glass, and kerosene, have low loss factors.

6.1 Factors affecting the dielectric constant

Moisture
I.
The moisture content significantly affects the dielectric properties of the food product and consequently the
penetration depth of the microwave. Uneven heating rate is observed in high-moisture foods because of
low microwave penetration depth. Low-moisture foods will have more uniform heating rate because of the
deeper microwave penetration. Microwave penetration increases dramatically when water changes phase
to ice, possibly because the molecules are less free to move or absorb energy from the alternating electric
field. Ice therefore has a lower loss factor than water and this has important implications for microwave
thawing and tempering applications.

II.

Mass
A direct relationship exists between the mass and the amount of absorbed microwave power, which should
be applied to achieve the desired heating. For a smaller mass, batch oven is suitable, while a larger
throughput would often be better in large capacity conveyorized equipment. Such equipment have the
added advantage of providing greater heating uniformity by moving the product through the microwave
field. Each microwave oven has a critical (minimum) sample mass for its efficient operation. It is usually
around 250 mL water load in a 1 kW oven. Below this level, significant amount of microwave power is not
absorbed into the product, and at very low loads they may damage the magnetron.

III.

Temperature
Microwave heating is significantly affected by the level of sample temperature. Dielectric properties may
vary with temperature, depending upon the material. Both temperature and moisture content can change
during heating and, therefore, those may have a combined effect on the dielectric constant, dielectric loss
factor, loss tangent, and subsequently on the heating behavior. Freezing has a major effect on a materials
heating ability because of the vastly different dielectric properties of ice and water. Water has significantly
higher magnitudes of dielectric constant and loss as compared to ice, and these properties are also
dependent on the microwave frequency.
The initial temperature of the food product being heated by microwaves should either be controlled or
known, so that the microwave power can be adjusted to obtain uniform final temperatures. If the
microwave oven is preset to increase the product temperature from 20C to 80C, it will practically reach a
target temperature of 95C with an initial product temperature of 35C. To compensate the effect of higher

initial temperature, the power of MW oven should be reduced or a higher sample mass should be used or
the product should be heated for a shorter duration.

IV.

Geometry and location of food

The shape of the food product does play an important role in the distribution of heat within the product
heated in a microwave oven. It affects the depth of microwave penetration, and the heating rate and
uniformity. Irregular-shaped products are subjected to nonuniform heating due to the difference in product
thickness. The closer the size (thickness) is to the wavelength, the higher will be the center temperature.
Smaller particulates require less heat than larger ones. In addition, the more regular the shape, the more
uniform will be the heat distribution within the product. A food of a spherical or cylindrical shape heats
more evenly than a square. A higher surface-to-volume ratio enhances the heating rate. Therefore, the
heating rate for a sphere will be different from that of a cylinder with the same volume.

V.

Thermal properties
The heating characteristics of foods are dependent to a greater or lesser extent on some thermal
properties such as thermal conductivity, density, and heat capacity. Thermal conductivity of food plays a
significant role in microwave heating. Materials with higher thermal conductivity dissipate heat faster than
the ones with lower conductivity during microwave heating. Food with high thermal conductivity will take
lesser time to attain uniform temperature during holding period. The thermal conductivity of frozen food is
higher due to high thermal conductivity of ice, while freeze-dried foods have lower thermal conductivity.
Heat capacity of food measures the temperature response of food as a result of heat input or removal.
Heat capacity can be raised by increasing solid content by adding components like salt and protein. Heat
capacity along with thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity constitutes thermal properties of the
material. Combination of heat capacity with thermal conductivity and density is represented by thermal
diffusivity, defined as the ratio of thermal conductivity to the products volumetric heat capacity, =

.iv
 

7. Heat and mass transfer in microwave processing:

The mechanism of microwave heating of foods can be categorized into two groups: dipolar rotation and
ionic conduction
8. Applications/microwave
Applications/microwave processing of foods
The high rates of heating and absence of surface changes to the food have led to studies of dielectric
heating of a large number of foods. The most important industrial applications are thawing, tempering,
dehydration and baking.
8.1 Tempering of Fish, Meat, and Poultry
Microwave tempering is the process where the temperature of the product is raised from storage temperature (generally below
_18C) to a temperature just below freezing point. In meat processing industry, the meat used is usually obtained in thick frozen
blocks below _18C. The first operation on the frozen meats usually is to dice, slice, or separate individual sections into smaller
pieces. The mechanical operation requires that the blocks be tempered from their solid frozen state to a point where cutting or
separation can be carried out easily without damage to the product. Conventional tempering techniques either with water or air,
subject the outer surfaces of the product bulk to warmer temperatures for long periods, for the heat to penetrate to the center. This
results in large temperature gradients. In addition, the conventional tempering process takes a long time (several days) with
considerable drip loss especially resulting in loss of protein, which represents an economic loss. Microwaves can easily penetrate
the whole frozen product, thus effectively reaching the inner regions within a short time. The microwave tempering can be
performed in few minutes for a large amount of frozen products (510 min for 2040 kg). The temperature to which a product
must be tempered depends upon the type of cutting, slicing, and chopping, and also upon product compositions such as the
combinations of water, salts, proteins, and fats.

8.2 Precooking of bacon

Precooking of bacon is the second-largest application of microwave heating in the food industry. Microwave heating is found to
be an ideal system for cooking bacon compared to conventional grilling. As two-component food, bacon loses the fat component,

and the desirable characteristics/quality, rapidly during grilling. Microwave heating of bacon produces better structure with less
shrinkage.

8.3 cooking sausage

In sausage cooking also, microwave processing is used to reduce drip lossloss of water, fat, nutrients, and flavor

8.4 Baking
Finish drying:
8.5 Drying
Microwave drying may be an alternative to reduce product degradation. It is suitable for products having a high
moisture content like carrot, mushroom and cabbage because of the high dielectric properties of water that can
quickly absorb the microwave energy. The physical mechanisms involved in microwave drying are different from
the mechanisms of conventional drying. The internal heat generated during microwave heating provides a vapour
pressure within the product and pumps the moisture to the surface. Case hardening does not occur in microwave
drying because of this moisture pumping effect. Thus, an increased drying rate without increased surface temperature
and improved product quality are obtained.
8.6 microwave pasteurization & sterilization
The heat generated by microwaves can significantly reduce the time required for commercial pasteurization and
sterilization. As a result, application of microwave heating for food pasteurization or sterilization provides better
product quality.
8.7 Microwave roasting of oil seeds.
8.8 Microwave blanching:
The advantages of microwave blanching over conventional blanching are minimizing the undesirable changes in
flavour and texture, minimizing nutrient losses and reducing The advantages of microwave blanching over
conventional blanching are minimizing the undesirable changes in flavour and texture, minimizing nutrient losses
and reducing.

9. Effect on food.
Microwaves and radio frequency energy have no direct effect on micro-organisms, in contrast with ionising
radiation, and all changes are caused by heat alone. In pasteurisation and blanching applications, the high
rates of heat transfer for a specified level of microbial or enzyme destruction result in reduced losses of
heat-sensitive nutrients (for example there is no loss of carotene in microwave-blanched carrots, compared
with 28% loss by steam blanching and 45% loss by water blanching) . However, the results for some foods
are highly variable and, for these, microwave heating offers no nutritional advantage over steaming.
10. Conclusions
Microwaves directly interact with food and heat is generated volumetrically. In addition to concentration gradients,
pressure gradients play an important role in moisture transfer during microwave heating. Short processing time in
microwave drying, sterilization and thawing is advantageous to reduce quality losses especially for perishable food
products. However, some quality problems are observed in microwave baked products because of insufficient time
for some biochemical reactions to occur. Development of new formulations or the use of halogen lamps in
combination with microwaves have been shown to improve the quality of baked products. Product quality and
heating uniformity in various microwave processes can be improved by changing the oven design such as phase
control heating, variable frequency ovens, cycling microwave power method, using continuous microwave power at
lower levels or combining microwaves with other heating methods.