UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CVE 696

GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY

TERM PAPER:
Evolutionary Algorithms for Modeling of Groundwater Development and
Management: Review and future Directions

Name: Daniel Olushola AKINDUNNI

Matriculation No: 05/30GB025
Date: Monday, April 07 2014

Abstract
Fresh water supply is naturally limited and sustainable management of groundwater resources
is of crucial important. Groundwater usage requires long term planning which requires a
computer based decision support tools. This helps to optimize the well pump operations such
as cost, efficiency and sustainability. The review of applications of Evolutionary Algorithms to
groundwater management is presented in this paper. Groundwater operation is a complex
multiobjective optimization problem with many conflicting objective and constraints. EAs are
stochastic search algorithms which have a lot of applications in water resources management.
Evolutionary Algorithms are good algorithms for solving complex, nonlinear, convex and
multidimensional groundwater problems which are shown in the literatures reviewed.
Keywords: Evolutionary Algorithm, Stochastic, Sustainability, Optimization.
1.0 Introduction
Water quality is of great concern to this generation as most of water resources are
contaminated by growing human population and urbanization (Adeyemo and Otieno, 2009).
The productive potential of surface water such as rivers or lakes is not sufficient to cover the
increasing demands of freshwater. Surface and groundwater resources are contaminated daily
from industrial and human activities, thus posing a serious threat to human health as many
rural communities rely solely on surface water supply. In this 21st century, technologies have
advance in so many ways such as pump and treat (PAT) systems which can rectify contaminated
water. Therefore, exploitation of groundwater resources has greatly increased on a worldwide
scale even in some part of Africa. In reality, water is available in appropriate quantity and
quality.
Due to over-abstraction, groundwater levels have declined regionally. In most cases of
groundwater having a very low yield or water table is lowered, it results into undesired
consequences in terms of cost due to energy requirement for water lift. Optimization models
are proving to be useful in water resources management. Management of groundwater is very
important to minimizing the total cost required and maximizes the total pumping from an
aquifer. Groundwater management problems are usually nonlinear mathematical programming
problems; many optimization techniques have been used in water resources management with
success (Karterakis et al, 2007).
The procedures of EAs are initialization, mutation, crossover and selection. Populations of
individual which are potential solution are first randomly generated. Each solution is assessed
by using fitness function. A selection process is applied in each iteration to form a new
population which will be better than the previous population. The selection is based towards
the solution that has better fitness function. In each iteration, the solution undergoes mutation

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and crossover to mimic the natural evolution technique. The iteration continues until
convergence is reached. Evolutionary Algorithm is a global optimization heuristics that search
for optima using a process that is analogous to Darwinian natural selection (Price and Storn
1997). Since their inception in the 1960s, EA have been used in a tremendous array of
applications. The ongoing popularity of EA stems from their ease of implication and robust
performance for difficult engineering and science problems.
A criticism of Evolutionary Algorithms might be the lack of efficient and robust generic
methods to handle constraints. The most widespread approach for constrained search
problems is to use penalty methods. EAs have received increased interest during the last
decade due to the ease of handling multiple objectives. The most popular EA is genetic
algorithm. Although many genetic algorithm versions have been developed, they are still time
consuming. In order to overcome this disadvantage, the evolution strategy called differential
evolution (DE) has been recently proposed by Price and Storn (1997). It has been applied to
several engineering problems in different areas.
This paper shows the evolution of evolutionary algorithm for groundwater management and
shows that it can be utilized as a decision support system for planners both now and for future
purpose.
2.0 Literature Review
2.0.1 Groundwater resources management models and optimization.
In the past years, there has been a major development in the field of optimization of water
resources management models. Groundwater resources management problems have always
been complex and not straight forward in terms of solving the problems, hence a better, faster
and accurate method have been developed over the years. Non-linear programming, dynamic
programming, simulated annealing, genetic algorithm and many other techniques have evolved
with time. Non-linear programming approach has been highly adopted for multi-reservoir and
multi-source water distribution systems. This method has been motivated by the desire to
reduce operational cost and provide more reliable operation; one of the greatest potential
areas of cost savings is in the scheduling of daily pump operations. The algorithm links a
minimum cost constraint identification methodology with a network model. This approach
has its constraints which have been overcome by developing other models with limited
constraints.
Simulated Annealing approach formulates the water distribution system problem as a
discrete time optimal control problem. Most approach requires the calculation of derivatives,
response functions, etc. Simulated annealing allows optimization for a variety of objective
function and can consider many modifications to operational conditions without

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reprogramming of the procedure. It is a combinational optimization method that uses the

metropolis algorithm to evaluate the acceptability of alternate arrangements and slowly
converge to an optimum solution.
Coulbeck and Orr (1982) and Coulbeck et al. (1987) used a dynamic programming and it is used
for optimal scheduling of pumps in a water distribution systems. Linear programming approach
was thoroughly discussed by Jowitt and Germanupolus (1992). Their research focused on
optimal pump scheduling in water supply networks on a 24-hr basis and both unit and
maximum demand electricity charges are considered.
Ostfeld and Shamir (1993) developed a water quality optimization model that optimized
pumping cost and water quality using steady- state and dynamic conditions using general
algebraic modeling system; mathematical in-core nonlinear optimization systems. The objective
was to minimize cost. Nitivattananon et al. (1996) developed an optimization model to
generate pump schedules in real-time operation for a complete water supply system by
considering factors as tariffs especially in demand charges, discrete pump discharge, etc.
Sakarya (1998) and Mays et al. (2000) considered a mathematical approach which solves
nonlinear optimization problems by using the generalized reduced gradient method for
scheduling pump operation to minimize energy and improve water quality. Biscos et al. (2003)
presented an approach for operational optimization of portable water distribution network.
3.0 Evolutionary Algorithm
Evolutionary Algorithm (EA) is a stochastic optimization techniques based on natural
evolution and survival of the fittest strategy found in biological organisms. EA have been
successfully applied to solve complex optimization problem in business, engineering and
science. The EA lack of reliance on domain specific heuristics makes it attractive for systems
that are highly nonlinear. Some commonly used EAs are Genetic Algorithm, Evolutionary
Programming, Evolutionary Strategy and Differential Evolution. Each of these methods has its
own characteristics, strength and weaknesses.
In general, an EA can generate a set of initial solutions randomly based on the given seed
and population size. Afterwards, it will go through evolution operations such as cross-over and
mutation before evaluated by the objective function. The wining entity in the population will be
selected as the parents (or seed) of the next generation. Its a robust search and optimization
method that is well able to cope with multimodality, discontinuity, time-variance, randomness
and noise.
Genetic algorithms a type of EAs were first conceptualized in 1962 by J. H. Holland in his
work Outline for a Logical Theory of Adaptive Systems (Holland, 1962). However, due to the
expense and limited capacity of the computers at the time, GAs was not widely used until the
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1970s. In the 1980s, improvements in computer technology allowed practitioners to apply GAs
and other evolutionary algorithms to real world optimization problems. Their application
became so common in the 1980s that by 1985, international conferences began being held on
the subject (Back et. al., 1997). For more than a decade, evolutionary algorithms have been
applied to a wide variety of groundwater modeling problems. They are especially useful for the
placement of wells in pump-and-treat well-field remediation systems, due to large possible
solution set for these problems and the difficulty of testing all possible variations by hand
(Chang and Hsiao, 2002). They have also been applied in parameter estimation in water
resource problems (Kalwij and Peralta, 2006).
While research continues to advance on this subject, the practical application of these
techniques is still hampered by resource limitations (Johnson and Rogers, 1995). These practical
constraints are mainly associated with computational limitations, (Wang and Zheng, 1997) but
they also include the human effort involved in properly setting up and coding the problem. The
uses of GAs are very broad in groundwater modeling applications, but they can generally be
categorized as either parameter estimation or optimization problems (Babbar and Minsker,
2006; Tsai et. al., 2003).
Real time performance is very important to engineers; unfortunately, no guarantee is
provided that the results of EAs will be of sufficient quality. Why? This is because EAs are very
computationally intensive, often requiring massively parallel implementations in order to
produce results within an acceptable timeframe. EA should be tested many times due to the
algorithms stochastic nature. Hence, on-line application to real-time control, especially
applications for safety critical processes is largely infeasible at present.
3.0.1 The Concept of Evolutionary Algorithms
A self-tuning PID controller is developed by Teng Fong-Chwee et al. Based on pole
assignment approach to overcome fractional dead time, constant and known dead time, plus
time-varying dead time. This method showed good results in handling dead time processes. (T.
Back et al) present an overview of Evolutionary Algorithms for parameter optimization.
Evolutionary Computation is developed by D.B. Fogel. In this literature covering, evolutionary
programming, evolution strategies, and genetic algorithms from a perspective of achieving
machine intelligence through evolution. Kalyanmoy Deb et al. proposed a generic parentcentric recombination operator (PCX) and a computationally fast population-alteration model
called G3 model. The performance of G3 model with PCX operator is found better in
consistency and reliability when compared to the differential evolution technique and the
quasi-Newton method. Corina Rato developed a new evolutionary algorithm for
multiobjective optimization which is inspired by endocrine system and uses the Pareto
non-dominance concept. A robust tuning method for disturbance rejection of PID controller

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using Evolutionary algorithm is proposed by Dong Hwa Kim et al. which tunes the gain of PID
controller using fitness value of immune algorithm.
3.0.2 Components of Evolutionary Algorithm.
1. Representation (definition of individuals)
The first step in defining an EA is to link the real world to the EA world, that is to set up a
bridge between the original problem context and the problem solving space where evolution
will take place. Object forming possible solutions within the original problem context are
referred to as phenotypes, their encoding, the individuals within the EA, are called genotypes.
The first design step is commonly called representation.
2. Evaluation function (or fitness function)
The role of the evaluation function is to represent the requirements to adapt to. It forms the
basis for selection, and thereby it facilitates improvements. Technically, it is a function or
procedure that assigns a quality measure to genotypes. Typically, this function is
composed from a quality measure in the phenotype space and the inverse
representation.
3. Population
The role of the population is to hold (the representation of) possible solution. A
population is a multi-set of genotypes. The population thus forms the unit of evolution.
4. Parent selection mechanism
The role of parent selection or mating selection is to distinguish among individuals based
on their quality, in particular, to allow the better individuals to become parents of the next
generation. An individual is a parent if it has been selected to undergo variation in order to
create offspring. In EA, parent selection is typically probabilistic. Thus, high quality individuals
get a higher chance to become parents than those with low quality.
5. Variation operators, recombination and mutation
The role of variation operators is to create new individuals from old ones. A binary variation
operator is called recombination or crossover. As the names indicate, an operator merges
information from two parent genotypes into one or two offspring genotypes. A unary variation
operator is commonly called mutation. It is applied to one genotype and delivers a
(slightly) modified mutant, the child or offspring of it.

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6. Survivor selection mechanism (replacement)

The role of survivor selection or environmental selection is to distinguish among individuals
based on their quality. In that it is similar to parent selection, but it is used in a different stage
of the evolutionary cycle. The survivor selection mechanism is called after having created the
offspring of the selected parents.

3.0.3 Classification of Evolutionary Algorithm

A. Multi-objective Optimization
Multiobjectives problems due to their complexity are suitable for evolutionary approaches. In
real world optimization applications, it is often hard to formulate the optimization goal as a
scalar function. Typically, there are several criteria or objectives, and not unusually, these
objectives stay in conflict with each other. In this classification researcher focus on the study of
evolutionary algorithms for solving multiobjective optimization problems with a large number
of objectives. In this optimization developed a new dynamic multiple objective evolutionary
algorithm (DMOEA) and some modern algorithms, such as the indicator-based evolutionary
algorithm; multiple single objective pareto sampling; and non dominated sorting genetic
algorithm; is presented by employing the convergence metric and relative hyper volume metric.
Multiobjective optimization another important term used is ENDOCRINE PARADIGM. In this
approach researcher propose new evolutionary technique, which is related by the behavior
of the endocrine systems and uses pareto non-dominance concept (Corino Rato, 2003). In
evolutionary algorithm populations number are called chromosome and even if they evolve
according to the genetic principles (selection, crossover and mutation) and in this classification
a supplementary mechanism based on the endocrine paradigm. Endocrine paradigm based on
MENDA technique. (Xiufen Zou, et al).

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B. Control P, I and D parameter by Robust tuning for disturbance rejection

PID controller is a very important term for industry because PID controller used in
almost all field of industry. In this classification researcher focused on control of P, I and D
parameter using gain margin and phase margin for tuning an optimal controller that can be
operated on robust control. Here P, I and D parameter compared in antibody are randomly
allocated during selection process to obtained and optimal gain for robustness. (Teng FongChwee, 1988)
C. For Real parameter optimization
In this classification researcher propose generic parent centric recombination operators
(PCX) and a steady state, elite preserving, scalable and computationally fast population
alternation model (called G3) Performance of G3 model with the PCX operator is investigated
on three commonly used test problems and is compared with a number of evolutionary
and classical optimization algorithms. This classification uses the proposed G 3 model with PCX
operator for more complex problems and to real-world optimization problems. (Kaly Moy Deb.,
et al., 2002)
D. Design of Robot using EP
This classification is also known as evolutionary robotics (ER). There are three main category of
evolutionary robotics (ER) presented:1- ER as an automatic parameter tuning system which is the very mature and punctual
application and is used to solve real robotics problems.
2- EAD (Evolutionary added design) in this category the main benefit the designer as an
efficient tool, equipment to build robotics systems.
3- EAS (evolutionary automatic synthesis) in this category EAS corresponds to the automatic
design of mechatronic device in robotic field. (Stephane Doncieux, et al., 2009)
E. 3D Reconstruction
In this classification researcher focused on construction field using evolutionary algorithm.
When reconstruction a scenario, it is necessary to know the structure of the elements present
on the scene to have an interpretation. In this work we link 3D scenes reconstruction to
evolutionary algorithms through the vision stereo theory. Vision stereo theory gives us an idea
about three dimensional characteristics of the world. This theory basically requires two
cameras. In this work we employ only a camera, which is translated along a path,
capturing images every certain distance, here evolutionary algorithm to partially

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reconstruct the scene in real time. (Monica Perez-meza, and Redrigo Montufar-Chaveznava.,
2007)
F. Hybrid evolutionary algorithms
In this classification for better result researcher added some specific algorithms with
evolutionary. Hybrids of EAs and other metaheuristics such as local search, simulated
annealing, tabu search, guided local search, variable neighborhood search, and variable depth
search. By this hybrid evolutionary algorithm primary responsibility is to take care of
diversification and coverage ao all major area of search space, while the embedded other
metaheuristic is mainly responsible for intensification of the search , thus the finetuning
of the most promising candidate solutions. (Gunther Raidl., 2011)
G. Estimation of distribution algorithm
This classification samples new solutions from a probability model which characterizes
the distribution of promising solutions in the search space at each generation. The simplest
form of an EDA is the univarite marginal distribution algorithm (UMDA). A particularly wellknown and often appliedvariant of EDAs are ant colony optimization (ACO) algorithms.
(Gunther Raidl., 2011)
H. Design of automated Antenna
This classification is very important for design best antenna using evolutionary algorithms. By
this using we save time and labor. Whereas the current practice of designing antennas by hand
is severely limited because it is both more require time and labor. Presently this classification
used in NASAs space technology. By exploring such a wide range of designs EAs may be able to
produce designs of previously unachievable performance. The faster design cycles of an
evolutionary approach results in less development costs and allows for an iterative what-if
design and test approach for different scenarios. (Gregory S. Horn., 2006)
4.0 Water Resources Management using Evolutionary Algorithm.
Water resources management is a multi-objective optimizations problem. Its a difficult task to
estimating groundwater operating policies that maximize all the benefits provided by
groundwater and also minimize their adverse impacts. It is a complex decision making process
which will involve a number of variables, risks, uncertainties and also conflicting objectives.
Groundwater serves many purposes. They can sustain rivers, wetlands and lakes, as well as
subterranean ecosystems within alluvial aquifers. Many optimization techniques have been
applied to water resources management in the past. These include Nonlinear Programming
(NLP), Heuristic Programming such as Genetic Algorithm, Shuffled Complex Evolution, Fussy
Logic and Neural networks, Linear Programming, etcetera.

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In (Nwankwoala 2011), (Ajayi et al.,2003), (Ajayi, 2006), (Ezeigbo,2003), (Goni,2006),

(Hanidu, 2003), (Nwankwoala and Mmom,2008), (Nwankwoala,2009), (Oyebande,2006), stated
that the major obstacles for sound groundwater management include: absence of or ineffective
legal/institutional and regulatory framework, poor maintenance culture, poor technical and
institutional capacity, lack of coordination, multiple programmes, lack of data and information
for planning, shortage of well-trained/committed manpower with appropriate local technology,
irregular recruitment and limited manpower occasioned by the civil- service structure and the
over-bearing bureaucratic control by supervising ministries.
Except in developed continents/countries, data on groundwater levels are not widely
published or made available outside government organizations. Extraction and recharge
estimates are also unreliable. As a result, discussions on groundwater over exploitation and
depletion are always based on unrealistic data (Nwankwoala, 2011). However, it is a fact that
falling water tables and depletion of economically accessible groundwater reserves will have
serious socio-economic consequences if adequate measures and solutions are not raised to
tackle this menace. Therefore, it is needless to point out that there is an urgent need for
conservation of this vital resource for sustainable groundwater development and management.
In the light of the fore going, it is highly likely that the future expansion in groundwater will
continue due to lack of freshwater and surface water. This is primarily due to the relatively high
population growth rate, combined with the unprecedented rise in industrialization and welfare,
which tends to increase the average per capita water use.
The largest single consumer of water is, and will continue to be agriculture with urban
and industrial uses on the rise. Though the generalizations made here may not be totally
justified, as differences exist in different parts of the country. Current groundwater use is
characterized, as earlier noted, by uncoordinated development and supply to all sectors: rural
and urban users, small and large scale users, industrial and agricultural users.
5.0 Conclusion
In conclusion, evolutionary algorithms are well suited for optimization tasks in the
context of groundwater resource management: mainly due to the model complexity, but also
because of the inherently multiobjective structure of the corresponding problems.
Furthermore, a key advantage of evolutionary approaches is the flexibility regarding model
extensions. Evolution algorithms provide a practical alternative to trial-and-error and
automated statistical calibration procedures, and can also be used for optimization.
Here, several future research directions arise.
The proposed approach combines a robust global search strategy with some numerical
approximation methods as well as heuristics; an important question is how to optimally exploit

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the available computational resources, e.g., by adapting the accuracy of the numerical
approximation methods over time.
Uncertainty is a fundamental property of the natural environment; taking uncertainty into
account with both model and optimization algorithm would be the next steps towards more
realistic applications.
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