Chapter 1

Carrier-Based Pulse Width Modulation

for Two-level Three-phase
Voltage Inverters

1.1. Introduction
Two-level three-phase voltage inverters are very widely used for feeding
alternating current electrical machines serving as actuators with variable
input voltages (controllable for amplitude and frequency). However, they are
also increasingly being used as sinusoidal current absorption rectifiers. A
chapter from an earlier book [LAB 04] has already introduced these topics
from a modeling perspective. Figure 1.1 recalls the basic principles of a twolevel three-phase voltage inverter feeding a balanced three-phase load
connected in a star configuration with isolated neutral; the diagram
introduces the notations we will use; the input reference voltage is taken to
be the mid-point between the direct current bus rails.
We can present the problem of control via PWM in the following
manner:
starting with the reference voltages va ref , vb ref , vc ref to be imposed on
terminals of the different phases of load, the first step is to determine the
voltages Pa , Pb , Pc produced by the legs of the inverter, suitable reference
Chapter written by Francis LABRIQUE and Jean-Paul LOUIS.

Power Electronic Converters

Figure 1.1. Schematic diagram showing notations used

values Pa ref , Pb ref , Pc ref such that the actual output voltages Pa , Pb , Pc lead
to the desired values of the voltages v a , vb , v c ;
the next step is to transform the reference signals Pa ref , Pb ref , Pc ref
into binary (or PWM) signals x j [0,1], j [ a , b , c ] corresponding to switches
Sj being closed (if xj = 1) or Sj* being closed (if xj = 0), and to the production
of voltages Pj , j [a, b, c] taking the value +U/2 or U/2 depending on
whether xj = 1 or 0. Then, by dividing the time into intervals [tk 1 , tk ], k N
during each interval the fraction of the interval for which Pj is +U/2 (and
hence the fraction for which Pj is U/2) is altered in such a way that over
each interval the mean value < Pj > of Pj matches the value of Pj ref.
In case of carrier-based modulation, which is the subject of this chapter,
the transformation of the reference signals Pj ref into binary signals xj is
achieved by comparing these signals to a carrier wave vp (triangular or sawtoothed) whose frequency determines the intervals over which we want <Pj>
to match Pj ref (Figure 1.2). We have xj equal to 1 and therefore:

Carrier-Based Pulse Width Modulation

Figure 1.2. Sawtooth carrier modulation

PJ = U/2
if:

Pjref > vp
Alternatively, we have xj equal to 0 and therefore:

PJ = U/2
if:

Pjref < vp

Power Electronic Converters

Carrier-based modulation also refers to any sort of modulation where the

intervals where xj is equal to 1 and those where xj is equal to 0 are produced
by a microcontroller or FPGA [MON 08] using a computation that emulates
the intersection process between the reference and carrier as described
earlier.
We will show how the reference voltages va ref , vb ref , vc ref to be applied
to the load can be represented, and then describe the conversion of these
values to the reference voltages Pa ref , Pb ref , Pc ref for each leg, and finally
show how these values are transformed into binary control signals (PWM
signals) for the switches. We will see that this enables us to:
derive the various intersective modulation strategies described in the
literature (sine-triangle modulation, sub-optimal modulation, centered
modulation, and flat-top and flat-bottom modulation);
establish the similarities between certain types of intersective
modulation and other modulation strategies such as space vector modulation.
1.2. Reference voltages varef, vbref, vcref
Since we are assuming that the load fed by the inverter is a balanced
three-phase load connected in a star configuration with isolated neutral, the
constraint on the currents resulting from this connection pattern, which is
ia + ib + ic = 0 , leads to an equivalent constraint on the voltages
va + vb + vc = 0 . Since va ref , vb ref , vc ref are the desired values for the voltages

, it is convenient to impose the same constraint on these such that

; this implies that there are only two degrees of
freedom that must be set to determine the necessary reference values.
v a , vb , v c

v a ref + vb ref + vc ref = 0

Traditionally, when discussing intersective PWM [KAS 91, LAB 95,

MOH 89, and SEG 04] it is assumed that the reference values have the
form:
va ref

vb ref

vc ref

Vref sin ref

= Vref sin ref 2 / 3


Vref sin ref 4 / 3

(
(

)
)

[1.1]

Carrier-Based Pulse Width Modulation

where Vref is the desired amplitude for the voltages and ref is an angular
coordinate obtained by integrating the desired reference pulsation for the
voltages:
ref =

0 ref

[1.2]

dt.

We will introduce the rotation matrices P() and the Clarke submatrix C32
[SEM 04]:
cos sin
P( ) =

sin cos
1

C32 = 1/ 2

1/ 2

+ 3 / 2

3 / 2
0

Equation [1.1] can then be written as:

va ref

vb ref

vc ref

0
= Vref C32 P ( ref ) = C32 P ( ref

0
)
Vref

[1.3]

or be represented by the diagram shown in Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3. Generation of reference waves v a

ref

, vb

re f

, vc

re f

from the desired amplitude V ref and pulsation ref

r
We can consider Vref and ref to represent a vector Vref rotating with
speed ref and whose projection onto three axes mutually separated by

2 / 3 gives the reference voltages

va

ref

, v b re f , v c re f (Figure 1.4).

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Vref

b
Figure 1.4. Vector representation of the generation of reference waves v a
vb

re f

, vc

ref

re f

In the steady state case Vref and ref have fixed values. In the transient
case they may vary as a function of time.
This classical approach takes the two degrees of freedom required to fix
the reference voltages v a , vb , v c to be their amplitude Vref and their
pulsation ref (equal to 2 times their reference frequency f ref ).
There are however many applications where the load is active and
includes sources of pulsation 0 . In this case, ref must be equal to 0 in
the steady state case, and the difference between that value and 0 in the
transient case [ ref = ( ref 0 ) ] can be treated, after the integration
relating ref to ref , as a phase shift ref added to an angle 0
equal to:
0 =

0 0 dt

[1.4]

This is equivalent to taking (Figure 1.5a):

ref =

0 0 dt + 0 (ref 0 ) dt = 0 + ref

[1.5]

Carrier-Based Pulse Width Modulation

It is then more helpful to consider Vref and ref as the control

parameters (Figure 1.5b) since, in contrast to ref , ref is not required to
be zero in the steady state regime but only to have a constant value.

a)

b)

Figure 1.5. Generation of reference waves v a ref , v b re f , v c re f when their steady state
pulsation is determined by the load; a) expression [1.4];
b) expression [1.5]

On the basis of Figure 1.5b we can write:

va ref

vb ref

vc ref

0
= Vref C32 P( ref ) = Vref C32 P( 0 ) P (ref

0
) ,
1

[1.6]

since a rotation by angle ref = 0 + ref is equivalent to a rotation by angle

0 followed by a rotation by angle ref .

Power Electronic Converters

Equation [1.6] can then be written as:

va ref

vb ref

vc ref

vd ref
+Vref sin ref
= C32 P(0 )
= C32 P ( 0 )
Vref cos ref
vq ref

[1.7]

so that finally:
va ref

vb ref

vc ref

Vref cos ref sin 0 + Vref sin ref cos 0

= Vref cos ref sin( 0 2 / 3) + Vref sin ref cos( 0 2 / 3)

Vref cos ref sin( 0 4 / 3) + Vref sin ref cos( 0 4 / 3)

Figure 1.6. Generation of reference waves va ref , vb ref , v c

from their components dq

[1.8]

re f

Equation [1.7] can be observed to be equivalent to the diagram in Figure

1.6, where the reference quantities are taken to be:
vd ref = Vref sin ref

and:
v q ref = V ref cos ref

instead of:
V ref

Carrier-Based Pulse Width Modulation

and:

ref .
since:
t
C32
C32 =

3
I,
2

where I is the 2 2 identity matrix, the voltages v d ref and v q ref can be
determined from the desired voltages v a ref , v b re f , v c re f if we leftmultiply both sides of [1.7] by:
2 1
t
P ( 0 )C 32
3

then:
vd ref

vq ref

va ref

2 1
t
= P ( 0 )C32
vb ref
3

vc ref

[1.9]

Substituting v d ref = v ref sin ref and vq ref = vref cos ref in [1.7] by their
values as given by [1.9], we obtain the following equation:
va ref

vb ref

vc ref

va ref
2

t
= C32 C32 vb ref
3

vc ref

which shows that the matrix:

2 / 3 1 / 3 1 / 3
2

t
C32 C32 = 1 / 3 2 / 3 1 / 3
3
1 / 3 1 / 3 2 / 3

[1.10]

10

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acts as an identity matrix on the vector va ref, vb ref, vc ref as long as the
constraint v a ref + vb ref + vc ref = 0 is met (the homopolar component is zero).
1.3. Reference voltages Pa ref, Pb ref, Pc ref
In contrast to the voltages va ref, vb ref, vc ref, the voltages Pa ref, Pb ref, Pc ref
are not required to have a sum of zero. We therefore have three degrees of
freedom in defining these voltages. If we introduce the homopolar
component of Pa ref , Pb ref , Pc ref :
P0 ref = ( Pa ref + Pb ref + Pc ref ) / 3

then the quantities:

Pa ref P0 ref = Pa h ref
Pb ref P0 ref = Pb h ref
Pc ref P0 ref = Pc h ref

sum up to zero, just like the voltages va ref , vb ref , vc ref do. Making use of the
definition of P0 r e f we can write:
Pa h ref

Pb h ref

Pc h ref

2 / 3 1/ 3 1/ 3 Pa ref

= 1/ 3 2 / 3 1/ 3 Pb ref

1/ 3 1/ 3 2 / 3 Pc ref

Pa ref
2

t
= C32 C32 Pb ref
3

Pc ref

[1.11]

t
The matrix 2 / 3 C32C 32
, which acts as an identity matrix with respect to

three quantities whose sum is zero (Equation [1.10]), acts to eliminate the
homopolar component when it is applied to three quantities that do not sum
up to zero. Using a process similar to that used for the quantities
va ref , vb ref , vc ref , we can represent the quantities Pa h ref , Pb h ref , Pc h ref in
terms of two reference quantities Pd ref , Pq re f (Figure 1.7):

Carrier-Based Pulse Width Modulation

Pa h ref

Pb h ref

Pc h ref

Pd ref
= C32 P ( 0 )
Pq ref

11

[1.12]

Pa h ref
Pb h ref
Pc h ref

Figure 1.7. Generation of reference waves Pa h ref , Pb h ref , Pc h ref

from their dq components

By defining the matrix:

1

C31 = 1 ,
1

[1.13]

we can express the reference quantities Pa ref , Pb ref , Pc ref as a function of

the reference quantities Pd ref , Pq ref , P0 ref (Figure 1.8):

Figure 1.8. Generation of reference waves Pa ref , Pb ref , Pc ref from their
d-q-0 components

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Pa ref

Pb ref
Pc ref

Pd ref

C
P
(

)
=

32
0

Pq ref

+ C31P0 ref

[1.14]

1.4. Link between the quantities va , vb , vc and Pa , Pb , Pc

Referring to the notations in Figure 1.1 we can write:
Pa Pb = v a vb
Pa Pc = v a vc

If

we

combine

these
two
equations
we
obtain
, with the final equality reflecting the fact

2 Pa Pb Pc = 2 v a vb vc = 3v a

that va + vb + vc = 0 . Similarly, we can proceed to obtain v b and vc as a

function of Pa , Pb , Pc , which leads to:
Pa
va 2 / 3 1 / 3 1 / 3 Pa

2
t
vb = 1 / 3 2 / 3 1 / 3 Pb = 3 C32 C32 Pb


P
vc 1 / 3 1 / 3 2 / 3 Pc
c

[1.15]

Equation [1.15] states that the voltages v a , vb , vc correspond to the

voltages Pa , Pb , Pc after their homopolar component P0 = ( Pa + Pb + Pc ) / 3
has been subtracted. We can therefore write:
va = Pa P0
vb = Pb P0

[1.16]

vc = Pc P0

Therefore, the difference between Pi and vi stems from the homopolar

component: the Pi values include a homopolar component while the vi values
do not.

Carrier-Based Pulse Width Modulation

13

1.5. Generation of PWM signals

In order to determine the states x j , j [ a , b , c ] of the switches of each leg
from the reference waves P j ref , we will consider sequentially:
the case where these waves are compared to a reverse sawtooth carrier;
the case where these waves are compared to a conventional sawtooth
carrier;
the case where these waves are compared to a triangular carrier.
We will assume that the carrier is normalized and varies between 1 and
+1, and that the reference waves also vary in this manner since they are
divided by U/2:
[1.17]

P j ref , n = P j ref / (U / 2)

1.5.1. Reverse sawtooth wave

Over each modulation period the carrier wave varies linearly from +1 to
1. It returns from 1 to +1 at the moment where one modulation period
ends and the next begins. If Tp is the period of the carrier, over the (k+1)
modulation period (from t k = kT p to tk +1 = ( k +1) Tp ) all the S ' j switches will

be closed at t k since at this moment the carrier takes the value of +1 and
therefore has a value greater than the value of all the reference waves,
implying that xa , xb , xc will be zero.
Each leg then undergoes a transition from

S 'j

closed to S j closed at time

when the reference wave Pj ref , n intersects the carrier and takes a value
greater than that of the carrier (Figure 1.9).
t jk

The order in which the switches commutate depends on the order in

which the carrier intersects the reference waves.
There are six possible sequences: a, then b, then c; a, then c, then b; b,
then c, then a; b, then a, then c; c, then a, then b; and c, then b, then a.

14

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Pa ref ,n
Pb ref ,n

Pa ref ,n

Figure 1.9. Modulation with a reverse sawtooth carrier

Carrier-Based Pulse Width Modulation

15

Each commutation causes one of the components of the vector

to transition from 0 to 1; the vector starts with the value (0, 0, 0)

( x a , xb , x c )

at the start of the period, with Sa' , Sb' , Sc' all closed; it ends the period with the
value (1, 1, 1).
The voltage P j , j ( a, b, c), is U/2 over the interval [t k , t jk ] ,
'
k = 1, 2,., where x j is zero and where S j is closed. It is U/2 over the

interval [t jk , tk +1 ] where x j is 1 and where S j is closed. The voltages

vj ,

j (a, b, c) can be determined from the voltages P j through equation [1.15].

The time t jk , where

following equation:
Pj ref ,n (t jk ) = 1 2

P j ref , n

t jk kT p
Tp

intersects with the carrier is the root of the

The mean value < P j > k of

t k +1 = t k + T p ) is therefore:
< Pj > k =

j (a, b, c)
Pj

over the modulation period

1 U
( tk +1 t jk ) (t jk t k )

Tp 2
1 U
U
2 ( tk t jk ) + T p = Pj ref , n (t jk ) = Pj ref (t jk )
=

Tp 2
2

[1.18]
(note:

[1.19]

(NOTE: Remember that P j ref , n is normalized using equation [1.17]).

Equation [1.19] shows that the PWM process, over which P j takes the
value U/2 and then +U/2, results in the mean value of P j over the
modulation period being equal to the value of P j re f at one particular point
within an interval of this period: the point where the carrier intersects
Pj ref , n . If the reference waves P j ref vary only slightly over a modulation
period, the sequence of samples P j ref , n (t jk ) will provide a good
representation of the reference waves. The same goes for the mean values
< P j > k of the voltages P j .

16

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Instead of the natural sampling of the P j waves that we have just

described, an alternative synchronous sampling is possible, where the values
of Pj ref , n for each period are based on their values P j ref , n k = P j ref , n ( kT p ) at
the start of the period (Figure 1.10). We note that this synchronous sampling
process for the reference waves will occur naturally if the modulation is
performed numerically within a microprocessor using a calculation
emulating the intersection process, or if the reference waves Pj ref , n are
obtained by digital to analog conversion at the output of a computation unit
whose sampling period is synchronized with the period of the carrier.

Figure 1.10. Modulation using a reverse sawtooth wave with synchronous sampling
of the reference waves

For the rest of this section we will assume that the reference waves are
sampled at the start of each modulation period, so that we have:
<

<
<

Pa > k
U
Pb > k =
2
Pc > k

Pa ref , nk

Pb ref , nk

Pc ref , nk

Pa ref k

= Pb ref k

Pc ref k

; k = 1, 2,...

[1.20]

Using equation [1.14] we can write:

Pa ref k

Pd ref k
+ C31P0 ref k ,
Pb ref k = C32 P(0 k )
Pq ref k

Pc ref k

[1.21]

Carrier-Based Pulse Width Modulation

17

where P(0k ) , Pd ref k , Pq ref k are the values of their corresponding

quantities at t k = kT p . Substituting [1.21] into [1.20] we obtain:
< Pa > k
Pd ref k

< Pb > k = C32 P ( 0 k ) P

< P >
q ref k
c k

+ C31 P0 ref k

[1.22]

Equation [1.15], which connects the voltages v a , vb , vc to the

instantaneous values of the voltages Pa , Pb , Pc can also be applied to the
mean values (over each modulation period) of these quantities. This gives
us:
< Pa > k
< va > k

2
t
< vb > k = 3 C32 C32 < Pb > k

< P >
< vc > k
c k

[1.23]

Substituting [1.22] into [1.23] we obtain:

< va

< vb
< v
c

>k
Pd ref k

> k = C32 P ( 0 k )
,
Pq ref k

>k

[1.24]

given that:
3
2

t
C32
C32 = I , where I is (as mentioned earlier) the 2 2 identity

matrix:
t
t
C32C32
C31 = ( 0 0 0 ) .

1.5.2. Conventional sawtooth carrier

Over each modulation period the carrier now varies linearly from 1 to
+1 and returns from +1 to 1 at the boundary between one period and the
next. Over the (k + 1)th modulation period from:
tk = kTp

18

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to:

t k +1 = ( k +1) Tp
every switch S j will close at t k since at this moment the carrier takes the
value 1 and therefore has a value smaller than that of each of the reference
waves, implying that xa , xb and xc are equal to 1.
Each leg then undergoes a transition from S j closed to S 'j closed at the
time t jk when the reference wave

P j ref , n

intersects the carrier

vp

(Figure

1.11). Each transition causes one component of the vector ( x a , xb , xc ) to

move from 1 to 0, starting from a value [1,1,1] at tk and finishing with a
value [0,0,0] at the end of the period.
The voltage

Pj

, j [a, b, c] is U/2 from tk to t jk over the interval where

x j is 1 and S j is closed. It is U/2 from t jk to tk +1 over the interval where

x j is zero and S 'j is closed. The voltages u j are linked to the voltages Pj

by equation [1.15].
The time t jk when

intersects the carrier is the solution of the

Pj

following equation:
Pj ref n (t jk ) = 1 +

The mean value of

< Pj >k =
=

2(t jk kT p )

Pj

Tp

j (a, b, c)

[1.25]

over the (k+1) th modulation period is therefore:

1 U
t jk tk (tk +1 t jk )

Tp 2

1 U
U
Tp + 2 t jk tk = Pj ref n (t jk ) = Pj ref (t jk )
2
Tp 2

[1.26]

If we adopt a synchronous sampling scheme for the reference waves, we

obtain:

Carrier-Based Pulse Width Modulation

Pa ref ,n
Pb ref ,n
Pc ref ,n

Figure 1.11. Modulation by a conventional sawtooth carrier

19

20

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< Pj > k = Pj ref k = Pj ref (kT p ); k = 1, 2,...

[1.27]

When the reference waves are sampled at the beginning of the

modulation period, equations [1.20] to [1.24] apply equally well to the case
of a conventional sawtooth carrier as to the reverse sawtooth carrier.
1.5.3. Triangular carrier
Modulation by a triangular carrier can be considered as equivalent to
repeated modulation, first by a reverse sawtooth wave and then by a
conventional sawtooth wave.
The period of the carrier is twice the duration T p / 2 of each of the ramps
(first decreasing and then increasing) that constitute the carrier (Figure 1.12).
If the period starts with modulation by a decreasing ramp, at the start of
the period all the switches S 'j are closed since at this point in time the
carrier has a value greater than that of every reference wave.
Each leg then undergoes a transition from S 'j closed to S j closed at the
time when the corresponding reference wave crosses the carrier wave; by the
end of the decreasing ramp all the switches S j are closed.
During the increasing ramp each arm undergoes a transition from S j
closed to S 'j closed, such that at the end of the period the situation is once
again when all the S 'j switches are closed.
There is no longer, as was the case with sawtooth waves, a moment
where all the legs commutate simultaneously at the point between one
modulation period and the next.
If the reference waves are sampled, this may occur:
at the start of each modulation period, as was the case with sawtooth
carriers (Figure 1.13);

Carrier-Based Pulse Width Modulation

Pa ref ,n
Pb ref ,n
Pc ref ,n

Figure 1.12. Modulation by a triangular carrier

21

22

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Figure 1.13. Modulation by a triangular carrier with synchronous reference sampling at the
start of each carrier period

at the start of each sawtooth component of the carrier, which means that
the waves P j match the mean values of their reference waves P j re f on the
scale of every half-period of the modulation (Figure 1.14).

Figure 1.14. Modulation by a triangular carrier with synchronous reference sampling at the
start of each half-period

Depending on the way the sampling is performed, we have either:

from t k = kT p to tk +1 = ( k +1) Tp ,

k = 1,2,

< P j > k = P j ref k = P j ref [ kT p ]

or from

t k = kT p / 2

to tk +1 = ( k +1) Tp / 2 ,

[1.28]
k = 1,2,

Carrier-Based Pulse Width Modulation

< P j > k = P j ref

= P j ref [ kT p / 2]

23

[1.29]

Over each half-period of the carrier we have, as with sawtooth carriers,

six possible switching sequences, depending on the values of Paref k , Pbref k ,
and Pc ref k over this half-period.
For a half-period consisting of a decreasing ramp, the transitions from
S 'j

closed to S j closed occur first on the leg whose reference voltage is

largest, and then on the leg with the intermediate reference voltage, and
finally for the leg whose reference voltage has the smallest value. Thus, if
Pa ref k > Pb ref k > Pc ref k the commutations will occur first on leg a, then on
leg b, and finally on leg c and the vector [ xa , xb , xc ] representing the states
'
of the switches on each leg ( S j closed for x j = 0; S j closed for x j = 1 )

moves from (0,0,0) to (1,0,0), then to (1,1,0), and finally to (1,1,1). A similar
process can be used to determine the sequence of values of the vector
( xa , xb , xc ) and hence the states of the switches for each of the five other
cases.
For a half-period consisting of an upward ramp, the vector ( xa , xb , xc )
moves gradually from (1,1,1) to (0,0,0) with the transitions from S j closed
'

to S j closed, acting first on the leg whose reference voltage is smallest, then
on the one with the middle reference voltage, and finally on the leg with the
largest reference voltage.
It can be seen that the twelve switching sequences we have just defined
are identical to those that are obtained using space vector modulation
(Chapter 2 and reference [LAB 98]).
Modulation by a triangular carrier has the property that it is indiscernible
in terms of the switching sequences from space vector modulation.
1.5.4. Note
A modulation based on a random carrier is sometimes used, selecting in a
non-deterministic manner for each period, either a conventional or a reverse
sawtooth.

24

Power Electronic Converters

1.6. Determination of the reference waves Pa ref k , Pbref k , and Pc ref k

from the reference waves va ref k , vbref k , vc ref k
As we saw in section 1.5, with PWM, P j will only match P j re f when
averaged over a given period of modulation. The same clearly applies to the
voltages v a , vb , vc with respect to the reference waves va ref , vb ref , vc ref .
Here again, the problem is to determine over each modulation period the
values of the waves Paref k , Pbref k , Pc ref k (or the Pd ref k , Pqref k , P0 ref k components of these waves) such that we obtain:
< va > k va ref k

< vb > k = vb ref k
< v >
c k vc ref k

[1.30]

Substituting [1.30] into [1.24] we obtain the equation that must be used to
link the reference values for the voltages of each phase and the reference
values for the dq components of the voltages in each leg:
va ref k

vb ref k

vc ref k

Pd ref k
= C32 P ( 0 k )
Pq ref k

[1.31]

If we multiply both sides of [1.31] by:

2 1
t
P (0 k )C32
3

we obtain:
va ref k

Pd ref k 2 1
t

= P ( 0 k )C32 vbref k .
Pq ref k 3

vcref k

[1.32]

Carrier-Based Pulse Width Modulation

25

We then substitute [1.32] into [1.21] to obtain:

Paref k
va ref k

t
Pbref k = C32C32 vbref k + C31 P0 ref k .

Pcref k
vcref k

Since the matrix

2
t
C32C32
is equivalent to an identity matrix for the
3

quantities varef k , vbref k , vcref

reduced to:
Paref k

Pb ref k

Pc ref k

[1.33]

va ref k

= vb ref k

vc ref k

that sum up to zero, equation [1.33] can be

+ C31 P0 ref k

[1.34]

Equation [1.34] shows that the reference values va ref , vb ref , vc ref fix the
values of Paref k , Pbref k , Pc ref k except for their homopolar component P0 ref k ,
which is a remaining degree of freedom, which can be manipulated to
optimize the modulation to match some desired quality criterion. This result
is consistent with the statement given at the end of section 1.4.
1.6.1. Sine modulation
Sine modulation is obtained if in equation [1.34] we take the
homopolar component P0 r e f of the reference waves P j re f to have a value
zero, which makes these waves equal to the reference waves v j ref :
Paref k

Pb ref k

Pc ref k

va ref k

= vb ref k

vc ref k

[1.35]

In the steady state case the P j re f waves then form a balanced three-phase
system of sinusoidal voltages, just like the waves v j ref , and therefore the
term sine modulation is given (Figure 1.15).

26

Power Electronic Converters

Figure 1.15. Sinusoidal modulation with triangular carrier

The amplitude of the P j re f waves, and hence the amplitude of the

sinusoidal waves that can be produced in the steady state case at the threephase terminals of the load, cannot be greater than U/2 if we wish to avoid
the emergence of an effect known as overmodulation1.
Compared to full-wave control, which gives voltages at the three-phase
2U
terminals of the load whose fundamental component has amplitude
,

sine modulation incurs a reduction in amplitude of:

U /2
= /4
2U /

[1.36]

or a reduction of 21%. This reduction in amplitude is known as voltage

drop due to pulse width modulation [LAB 95].

1. This effect represents the absence of any intersection between the carrier and a reference
wave for one or more modulation periods, because the value of a reference wave is greater
than the maximum value of the carrier (or less than its minimum value). The voltage Pj is thus
equal to +U/2 (or U/2) over the entire interval. When overmodulation occurs, the equality
<Pj>k = Pjref k is not maintained. For a detailed analysis of overmodulation see Chapter 3.

Carrier-Based Pulse Width Modulation

27

1.6.2. Centered modulation

Centered modulation is when a value for the homopolar component in
equation [1.34] is taken to be equal to + minus half the sum of the largest
and smallest of the reference waves va ref k , vb ref k , vc ref k .
If max( v j ref k ) denotes the operation of selecting the largest of the
reference waves va ref k , vb ref k , vc ref k and min( v j ref k ) the operation for
selecting the smallest of the waves, we obtain:
Paref k

Pb ref k

Pc ref k

va ref k

= vb ref k

vc ref k

1
C31 max( P j ref k ) + min( P j ref k )
2

[1.37]

It can be seen that the value of the homopolar component has the effect of
causing the largest and smallest of the reference waves P j ref k to lie
symmetrically on each side of the horizontal axis, and hence the term
centered is given. In the case where the reference waves v j ref form a
balanced three-phase system with sinusoidal values of amplitude V and
pulsation :
v a ref = V ref sin ref t
vb ref = Vref sin( ref t 2 / 3)

vcref = Vref sin(ref t 4 / 3),

equation [1.37] gives the following voltages P j re f (Figure 1.16):

between ref t = / 6 and ref t = /6, the voltage vc ref is the most
positive and vb ref is the most negative; we therefore have:
3
Paref = varef 1/ 2(vbref + vcref ) = Vref sin ref t
2

Pbref = vbref 1/ 2(vbref + vcref ) =

3
Vref cos ref t
2

28

Power Electronic Converters

3
Vref cos ref t
2

Pcref = vcref 1/ 2(vbref + vcref ) = +

between ref t = /6 and ref t = /2 , the voltage v a r e f

is the most

positive and vb ref is the most negative, such that:

Paref = varef 1/ 2(varef + vbref ) =

3
Vref cos(ref t / 3)
2

Pbref = vbref 1/ 2(varef + vbref ) =

3
Vref cos(ref t / 3)
2

Pcref = vcref 1/ 2(varef + vbref ) =

3
Vref sin(ref t / 3)
2

and so on.

Figure 1.16. Centered modulation with a triangular carrier

The amplitude of the reference waves Paref , Pbref , Pcref is never greater
than U/2 and there are no saturation effects as long as:
3
U
Vref <
2
2

Carrier-Based Pulse Width Modulation

29

or when:
Vref <

U
3

The voltage drop is not more than 9% [LAB 95]. We observe that the
increase in amplitude for Vref relative to U/2 when using this technique is
the same as with space vector modulation [LAB 98].
In addition, with synchronous sampling of the reference waves, centering
gives (over each period of the carrier in the case of sawtooth carriers or over
each half-period of the carrier in the case of triangular carriers) the same
duration for the time over which the vector ( x a , xb , xc ) is (0,0,0) and the
time over which it is (1,1,1), in other words, the time interval over which all
the switches S 'j are closed and the time interval over which all the switches
S j are closed.

As a result, centered modulation using a triangular carrier and

synchronous sampling of the reference waves over each half-period is
indiscernible from space vector modulation in the case of a two-level threephase voltage inverter [LAB 98].
1.6.3. Sub-optimal modulation
This method can produce a result close to that of centered modulation in
terms of maximum amplitude that can be achieved for the reference waves
when they form a balanced three-phase system of sinusoidal voltages. It
takes the homopolar component of the voltages P j re f to be a sinusoidal
wave of amplitude 0.09 U whose pulsation is three times that of the
reference waves [LAB 95] (Figure 1.17):
Paref

Pb ref

Pc ref

Vref sin ref t

= V ref sin( ref t 2 / 3) + C31 0, 09 U sin 3 ref t

Vref sin( ref t 4 / 3)

[1.38]

30

Power Electronic Converters

Figure 1.17. Sub-optimal modulation with a triangular carrier

Vref can then achieve amplitudes of up to 1.15 U/2 without introducing

any overmodulation effects [LAB 95].
1.6.4. Flat top and flat bottom modulation
Flat top modulation involves setting the largest of the reference waves
to be equal to 1, by requiring the homopolar component to have a
value equal to:
P j re f

P0 ref = 1 max( P j ref )

[1.39]

This strategy (Figure 1.18) is intended to reduce switching losses by

avoiding any switching from taking place in a given leg over the time period
where its reference voltage P j ref n is largest.
Setting the voltage P j ref n equal to 1 over this interval is equivalent to
keeping S j constantly closed, since we must have:

Pj =

U
U
Pj ref n =
2
2

Carrier-Based Pulse Width Modulation

31

Figure 1.18. Flat-top modulation with a triangular carrier

Similarly, flat-bottom modulation sets the most negative of the reference

waves P j re f equal to 1 by setting the homopolar component equal to:
P0 ref = 1 min( Pj ref ),
'

[1.40]

which means that S j is kept constantly closed for each leg over the intervals
where P j re f is most negative (Figure 1.19).

Figure 1.19. Flat-bottom modulation with a triangular carrier

32

Power Electronic Converters

Flat-top modulation (or flat-bottom modulation) implies an unequal

distribution of current between the two switches of each leg, since current
'
flows in switches S j (or S j ) over an interval equivalent to one third of the

period of reference waves u j re f in the case of a balanced sinusoidal threephase system.

This drawback can be addressed by combining these two types of
modulation: the most positive (largest) of the reference waves P j re f is set to
1 when this wave is greater than the absolute value of the smallest of those
waves, and the most negative (smallest) of the reference waves is set to 1
when its absolute value is greater than that of the largest of the reference
waves (Figure 1.20).

Figure 1.20. Combined flat-top-flat-bottom modulation

1.7. Conclusion
In this chapter we have derived the equations connecting the desired
reference values for the phase voltages with the reference values for the leg
voltages in case of a two-level three-phase voltage inverter feeding a
balanced three-phase load connected in a star configuration when the legs
are controlled using carrier-based PWM.

Carrier-Based Pulse Width Modulation

33

In particular, we have shown that centered PWM with a triangular carrier

is indistinguishable from space vector PWM and that the flat-top and flatbottom strategies can be used to reduce switching losses at a given PWM
frequency by avoiding the need to switch for each leg during certain
intervals.
We have not considered issues such as harmonic content of the voltages
produced using these techniques and the influence on this content of the type
of modulation chosen (sine, centered, sub-optimal, or flat-top-flat-bottom) or
of the type of carrier wave used2 (conventional or reverse sawtooth,
triangular, or random). Discussion of these issues would require a dedicated
chapter on the topic.
1.8. Bibliography
[BOO 88] BOOST M.A., ZIOGAS P.D., State-of-the-art carrier PWM techniques: a
critical evaluation, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., 24(2), 271280, 1988.
[HAU 99] HAUTIER J.P., CARON J.P., Convertisseurs statiques: mthodologie
causale de modlisation et de commande, Edition Technip, Paris, 1999.
[HOL 93] HOLZ J., On the Performance of optimal pulse width modulation
technique, EPE Journal, 3, (1), 176, 1993.
[HOU 84] HOULDSWORTH J.A., GRANT D.A., The use of harmonic distorsion to
increase the output of a three-phase PWM inverter, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl.,
20(5), 1224-1228, 1984.
[KAS 91] KASSAKIAN J.G., SLECHT M.F., VERGHESE G.C., Principles of Power
Electronics, Addison Wesley, Reading, MA, 1991.
[KAZ 94] KAZMIERKOWSKI M.P., DZIENAKOWSKI M.A., Review of Current
Regulation technique for three-phase PWM Inverter, IEEE-IECON, Bologne,
vol. 1, p. 567575, 1994.
[LAB 95] LABRIQUE F., BAUSIRE R., SGUIER G., Les convertisseurs de
llectronique de puissance 4: la conversion continu-continu, Lavoisier, Paris,
1995.
[LAB 98] LABRIQUE F., SGUIER G., BUYSE H., BAUSIRE R., Les convertisseurs de
llectronique de puissance 5, Lavoisier, Paris, 1998.

2. In all cases we have taken the example of a triangular carrier wave.

34

Power Electronic Converters

[LAB 04] LABRIQUE F., LOUIS J.P., Modlisation des onduleurs de tension en vue
de leur commande en MLI, Chapter 4. In: LOUIS J.P. (ed.), Modles pour la
commande des actionneurs lectriques, p. 185213, Herms, Paris, 2004.
[LOU 04a] LOUIS J.P. (ed.), Modlisation des machines lectriques en vue de leur
commande: Concepts gnraux, Hermes, Paris, 2004.
[LOU 04b] LOUIS J.P. (ed.), Modles pour la commande des actionneurs
lectriques, Hermes, Paris, 2004.
[LOU 95] LOUIS J.P., BERGMANN C., Commande numrique des ensembles
convertisseurs-machines, (1) Convertisseur-moteur courant continu,
Techniques de lingnieur, D 3641 and D 3644, 1995, (2) Systmes triphass :
rgime permanent, Techniques de lingnieur, D 3642, 1996, (3) Rgimes
intermdiaires et transitoires, Techniques de lingnieur, D 3643 and D 3648,
1997.
[MOH 89] MOHAN N., UNDELAND T., ROBBINS W., Power Electronics, John Wiley
& Sons, Chichester, 1989.
[MON 93] MONMASSON E., HAPIOT J.C., GRANDPIERRE M., A digitalc Control
system based on field programmable gate array for AC drives, EPE Journal,
vol. 3, n 4, p. 227234, 1993.
[MON 08] MONMASSON E., CIRSTEA M.N., FPGA Design Methodology for
Industrial Control Systems-A Review, IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Electronics, vol. 54, n 4, p. 18241842, 2007.
[SEG 04] SGUIER G., BAUSIRE R., LABRIQUE F., Electronique de puissance, 8th
edition, Dunod, Paris, 2004.
[SEM 04] SEMAIL E., LOUIS J.P., Proprits vectorielles des systmes lectriques
triphass, chapitre 4. In: LOUIS J.P. (ed.), Modlisation des machines lectriques
en vue de leur commande: Concepts gnraux, p. 181246, Hermes, Paris, 2004.