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UnitUnit-III
UNIT-III
GENERATION OF HV AC DC IMPULSE VOLTAGE & CURRENT
22. INTRODUCTION
A fundamental knowledge about generators and circuits which are in use for the
generation of high voltages belongs to the background of work on H.V. technology.
Generally commercially available H.V. generators are applied in routine testing
laboratories; they are used for testing equipment such as transformers, bushings, cables,
capacitors, switchgear, etc. The tests should confirm the efficiency and reliability of the
products and therefore the H.V. testing equipment is required to study the insulation behavior
under all conditions which the apparatus is likely to encounter. The amplitudes and types of
the test voltages, which are always higher than the normal or rated voltages of the apparatus
under test, are in general prescribed by national or international standards or
recommendations, and therefore there is not much freedom in the selection of the H.V.
testing equipment. Quite often, however, routine testing laboratories are also used for the
development of new products. Then even higher voltages might be necessary to determine the
factor of safety over the prospective working conditions and to ensure that the working
margin is neither too high nor too low. Most of the H.V. generator circuits can be changed to
increase the output voltage levels, if the original circuit was properly designed. Therefore,
even the selection of routine testing equipment should always consider a future extension of
the testing capabilities.
The work carried out in research laboratories varies considerably from one
establishment to another, and the type of equipment needed varies accordingly. As there are
always some interactions between the H.V. generating circuits used and the test results, the
layout of these circuits has to be done very carefully. The classes of tests may differ from the
routine tests, and therefore specially designed circuits are often necessary for such
laboratories. The knowledge about some fundamental circuits treated in this chapter will also
support the development of new test circuits.
Finally, high voltages are used in many branches of natural sciences or other technical
applications. The generating circuits are often the same or similar to those treated in the
following sections. It is not the aim, however, of this introductory text to treat the broad
variations of possible circuits, due to space limitation. Not taken into account are also the
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V =
1
V (t )dt
T 0
2.1
Where T equals a certain period of time if the voltage V (t) is not constant, but periodically
oscillating with a frequency of f = 1/T. Test voltages as applied to test objects then deviate
periodically from the mean value. This means that a ripple is present. The amplitude of the
ripple, V, is defined as half the difference between the maximum and minimum values, or
V = 0.5(Vmax -Vmin)
2.2
The ripple factor is the ratio of the ripple amplitude to the arithmetic mean value, or V/V .
For test voltages this ripple factor should not exceed 3 percent unless otherwise specified by
the appropriate apparatus standard or be necessary for fundamental investigations. The D.C.
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=
=
=
0.1 0.5 A
0.51 A
1 A and above
The design of a test transformer is similar to a potential transformer used for the
measurement of voltage and power in transmission lines. The flux density chosen is low so
that it does not draw large magnetizing current which would otherwise saturate the core and
produce higher harmonics.
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Fig. 2.9 shows a basic scheme for cascading three transformers. The primary of the
first stage transformer is connected to a low voltage supply. A voltage is available across the
secondary of this transformer. The tertiary winding (excitation winding) of first stage has the
same number of turns as the primary winding, and feeds the primary of the second stage
transformer. The potential of the tertiary is fixed to the potential V of the secondary winding
as shown in Fig. 2.9. The secondary winding of the second stage transformer is connected in
series with the secondary winding of the first stage transformer, so that a voltage of 2V is
available between the ground and the terminal of secondary of the second stage transformer.
Similarly, the stage-III transformer is connected in series with the second stage transformer.
With this the output voltage between ground and the third stage transformer, secondary is 3V.
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The total short circuit impedance of a cascaded transformer from data for individual
stages can be obtained. The equivalent circuit of an individual stage is shown in Fig. 2.10.
Here Zp, Zs, and Zt, are the impedances associated with each winding. The
impedances are shown in series with an ideal 3-winding transformer with corresponding
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Zps = leakage impedance measured on primary side with secondary short circuited and
tertiary open.
Zpt = leakage impedance measured on primary side with tertiary short circuited and
secondary open.
Zst = leakage impedance on secondary side with tertiary short circuited and primary
open.
and Zst = Zs + Zt
2.19
Assuming negligible magnetizing current, the sum of the ampere turns of all the windings
must be zero.
N p I p Ns I s Nt It = 0
Assuming lossless transformer, we have,
Zp = jXp,
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Zs = jXs,
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and
Zt = jXt
Also let Np = Nt for all stages, the equivalent circuit for a 3-stage transformer would
be given as in Fig.2.11.
Fig. 2.11 can be further reduced to a very simplified circuit as shown in Fig. 2.12. The
resulting short circuit reactance Xres is obtained from the condition that the power rating of
the two circuits be the same. Here currents have been shown corresponding to high voltage
side.
I 2 X res = (3I ) 2 X p + (2 I ) 2 X p + I 2 X s + I 2 X s + I 2 X s + (2 I ) 2 X t + I 2 X t
X res = 14 X p + 3 X s + 5 X t
2.20
Instead of 3(Xp + Xs + Xt) as might be expected. Equation (2.20) can be generalized for an nstage transformer as follows:
n
Xres = [(n i + 1) 2 X pi + X si + (i + 1) 2 X ti
i =1
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continuously
variable
high
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It has now been possible to manufacture high voltage continuously variable reactors
300 kV per unit using a new technique with split iron core. With this, the testing step up
transformer can be omitted as shown in Fig. 2.17. The inductance of these inductors can be
varied over a wide range depending upon the capacitance of the load to produce resonance.
Fig. 2.17 (b) represents an equivalent circuit for series resonance circuit. Here R is
usually of low value. After the resonance condition is achieved, the output voltage can be
increased by increasing the input voltage. The feed transformers are rated for nominal current
ratings of the reactor. Under resonance, the output voltage will be
V0 =
V 1
R C 2
L =
Therefore,
V0 =
1
C 2
V
L = VQ
R
Where Q is the quality factor of the inductor which usually varies between 40 and 80.
This means that with Q = 40, the output voltage is 40 times the supply voltage. It also means
that the reactive power requirements of the load capacitance in kVA is 40 times the power to
be provided by the feed transformer in KW. This results in a relatively small power rating for
the feed transformer.
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ADVANTAGES:
The following are the advantages of series resonance circuit:
(i). The power requirements in KW of the feed circuit are (kVA)/Q where kVA is the
reactive power requirements of the load and Q is the quality factor of variable reactor
usually greater than 40. Hence, the requirement is very small.
(ii). The series resonance circuit suppresses harmonics and interference to a large extent.
The near sinusoidal wave helps accurate partial discharge of measurements and is also
desirable for measuring loss angle and capacitance of insulating materials using
Schering Bridge.
(iii). In case of a flashover or breakdown of a test specimen during testing on high voltage
side, the resonant circuit is detuned and the test voltage collapses immediately. The
short circuit current is limited by the reactance of the variable reactor. It has proved to
be of great value as the weak part of the isolation of the specimen does not get
destroyed. In fact, since the arc flash over has very small energy, it is easier to
observe where exactly the flashover is occurring by delaying the tripping of supply
and allowing the recurrence of flashover.
(iv). No separate compensating reactors (just as we have in case of test transformers) are
required. This results in a lower overall weight.
(v). When testing SF6 switchgear, multiple breakdowns do not result in high transients.
Hence, no special protection against transients is required.
(vi). Series or parallel connections of several units is not at all a problem. Any number of
units can be connected in series without bothering for the impedance problem which
is very severely associated with a cascaded test transformer. In case the test specimen
requires large current for testing, units may be connected in parallel without any
problem.
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The absence of iron core in transformers and hence saving in cost and size,
(ii)
(iii) Slow build-up of voltage over a few cycles and hence no damage due to switching
surges, and
(iv) Uniform distribution of voltage across the winding coils due to subdivision of coil
stack into a number of units.
The commonly used high frequency resonant transformer is the Tesla coil, which is a
doubly tuned resonant circuit shown schematically in Fig. 6.13a. The primary voltage rating
is 10 kV and the secondary may be rated to as high as 500 to 1000 kV. The primary is fed
from a D.C. or A.C. supply through the condenser C1. A spark gap G connected across the
primary is triggered at the desired voltage V1 which induces a high self-excitation in the
secondary. The primary and the secondary windings (L1 and L2) are wound on an insulated
former with no core (air-cored) and are immersed in oil. The windings are tuned to a
frequency of 10 to 100 kHz by means of the condensers C1 and C2.
Fig. 6.13 Tesla Coil equivalent circuit and its output waveform
The output voltage V2 is a function of the parameters L1, L2 C1, C2 and the mutual
inductance M. usually, the winding resistances will be small and contribute only for damping
of the oscillations.
The analysis of the output waveform can be done in a simple manner neglecting the
winding resistances. Let the condenser C1 be charged to a voltage V1 when the spark gap is
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1
di
di
V1 = i1dt + L1 1 + M 2
C1 0
dt
dt
(6.9)
1
di
di
0=
i2 dt + L2 2 + M 1
C2 0
dt
dt
And,
V1
1
= L1s +
I1 + MsI 2
s
C1s
(6.10)
1
0 = [Ms ]I 2 + L2 s +
I2
C2 s
And,
V2 =
1
i2 dt ;
C2 0
V2 (s ) =
1
C2 s
(6.11)
MV1
1
[cos 1t cos 2t ]
2
L1 L2C1 2 12
2 =1
Where,
(6.12)
M2
= 1 K 2
L1 L2
1, 2 =
1 =
12 + 22
2
1
L1C1
2 + 22
1222 1 K 2
1
2
And
2 =
1
L2C2
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V2 max = V1e
Where,
e=
L2
L1
(6.13)
2 (1 )
(1 + a ) 2 4a
L2C2 W12
a=
=
L1C1 W22
A more simplified analysis for the Tesla coil may be presented by considering that the
energy stored in the primary circuit in the capacitance C1 is transferred to C2 via the magnetic
coupling. If W1 is the energy stored in C1 and W2 is the energy transferred to C2 and if the
efficiency of the transformer is , then
1
1
W1 = C1V12 = C2V22
2
2
From which
V2 = V1
C1
C2
(6.14)
(6.14a)
It can be shown that if the coefficient of coupling K is large the oscillation frequency
is less, and for large values of the winding resistances and AT, the waveform may become a
unidirectional impulse. This is shown in the next sections while dealing with the generation
of switching surges.
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Both full wave and half wave rectifier circuits produce a D.C. voltage less than the
A.C. maximum voltage. When higher D.C. voltages are needed, a voltage doubler or
cascaded rectifier doubler circuits are used. The schematic diagram of voltage doublers are
given in Figs. 6.3a and b. In voltage doubler circuit shown in Fig. 6.3a, the condenser C1 is
charged through rectifier R to a voltage of +Vmax with polarity as shown in the figure during
the negative half cycle. As the voltage of the transformer rises to positive Vmax during the
next half cycle, the potential of the other terminal of C1 rises to a voltage of +2Vmax.
Fig. 6.2 Input and output waveforms of half and full wave rectifiers
(a) Input sine wave
(b) Output with half wave rectifier and condenser filter
(c) Output with full wave rectifier and condenser filter
(d) Vmax, Vmean and ripple voltage and 8V with condenser filter of a full
wave rectifier
Thus, the condenser C2 in turn is charged through R2 to 2Vmax. Normally the D.C. output
voltage on load will be less than 2Vmax, depending on the time constant C2RL and the forward
charging time constants. The ripple voltage of these circuits will be about 2% for RL/r 10
and X/r 0.25, where X and r are the reactance and resistance of the input transformer. The
rectifiers are rated to a peak inverse voltage of 2Vmax, and the condensers C1 and C2 must also
have the same rating. If the load current is large, the ripple also is more.
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(1) A.C. input voltage waveform, (2) A.C. output voltage waveform without condenser filter,
(3) A.C. output voltage waveform with condenser filter
Fig. 6.3 Voltage doubler circuits
R1, R2, R3, R4 - rectifiers;
T1, T2 - H.V. transformers;
C1, C2, C3- condensers;
RL - Load resistance; T- Isolating transformer
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Loaded:
When
the
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1
n = 0 Ci '
2V = 1T
(2.6)
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insulation
systems,
especially
to
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As such single-stage generators may be used for charging voltages from some kV up
to about 1MV; the sphere gaps will offer proper operating conditions. An economic limit of
the charging voltage V0 is, however, a value of about 200 to 250 kV, as too large diameters
of the spheres would otherwise be required to avoid excessive inhomogeneous field
distributions between the spheres. The resistors R1, R2 and the capacitance C2 form the wave
shaping network. R1 will primarily damp the circuit and control the front time T1. R2 will
discharge the capacitors and therefore essentially control the wave tail. The capacitance C2
represents the full load, i.e. the object under test as well as all other capacitive elements
which are in parallel to the test object (measuring devices; additional load capacitor to avoid
large variations of T1/T2, if the test objects are changed). No inductances are assumed so far,
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1
C1 (V0 MAX ) 2
2
(2.22)
Within the discharge capacitance C1.As C1 is always much larger than C2, this figure
determines mainly the cost of a generator.
For the analysis we may use the Laplace transform circuit sketched in Fig. 2.25(c),
which simulates the boundary condition, that for t 0, C1 is charged to V0 and for t> 0 this
capacitor is directly connected to the wave-shaping network. For the circuit Fig. 2.25(a) the
output voltage is thus given by the expression
V ( s) =
Where
By Substitution we find
Where
V0 Z 2
,
s Z1 + Z 2
Z1 =
1
+ R1 ;
C1 s
Z2 =
R2 / C 2 s
.
R2 + 1 / C 2 s
V ( s) =
V0
1
2
k s + as + b
1
1
1
a =
+
+
R1C1 R1C 2 R2 C 2
(2.23)
1
;
b =
R
R
C
C
1 2 1 2
k = R1C 2 .
(2.24)
For circuit Fig. 2.25(b) one finds the same general expression (eqn (2.23)), with the following
constants; however,
1
1
1
;
a =
+
+
R1C1 R1C 2 R2 C1
1
b =
R1 R2 C1C 2
k = R1C 2
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;
as Above
(2.25)
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V (t ) =
V0
1
[exp(1t ) exp( 2 t ]
k ( 1 + 2 )
(2.26)
a
a
1 , 2 = m b
2
2
(2.27)
The output voltage V(t) is therefore the superposition of two exponential functions of
different signs. According to eqn (2.27), the negative root leads to a larger time constant 1/ 1
than the positive one, which are 1/ 2. A graph of the expression (eqn (2.26)) is shown in Fig.
2.26, and a comparison with Figs 2.23 and 2.24 demonstrates the possibility to generate both
types of impulse voltages with these circuits.
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In order that the Marx circuit operates consistently it is essential to adjust the
distances between various sphere gaps such that the first gap G1 is only slightly less than that
of G2 and so on. If is also necessary that the axes of the gaps G be in the same vertical plane
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R1 = R1 '+ R1"
n
R2 = R2 '
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Fig. 3.11 shows a trigatron gap which is used as the first gap of the impulse generator
and consists essentially of a three-electrode gap. The high voltage electrode is a sphere and
the earthed electrode may be a sphere, a semi-sphere or any other configuration which gives
homogeneous electric field. A small hole is drilled into the earthed electrode into which a
metal rod projects. The annular gap between the rod and the surrounding hemisphere is about
1 mm. A glass tube is fitted over the rod electrode and is surrounded by a metal foil which is
connected to the earthed hemisphere. The metal rod or trigger electrode forms the third
electrode, being essentially at the same potential as the drilled electrode, as it is connected to
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The trigatron also has a phase shifting circuit associated with it so as to synchronise
the initiation time with an external alternating voltage. Thus, it is possible to combine high
alternating voltage tests with a superimposed impulse wave of adjustable phase angle.
The trigatron is designed so as to prevent the overcharging of the impulse capacitors
in case of an accidental failure of triggering. An indicating device shows whether the
generator is going to fire correctly or not. An additional feedback circuit provides for a safe
wave chopping and oscillograph release, independent of the emitted control pulse.
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The common impulse generator circuits discussed so far are well capable of
producing standard switching impulses with adequate voltage efficiency , if the circuit is
well designed and the ratio C2/C1 is kept adequately small.
Other methods, however, have taken advantage of utilizing testing transformers to
step up the amplitudes from impulse voltages also. One such circuit is shown in Fig. 2.31. An
initially charged capacitor C1 is discharged into the waveshaping circuit R1, C2 as well as into
the L.V. winding of the transformer. The elements R1 and C2 or other suitable components, in
the dotted rectangle, may be used to control the waveshape. The wave tail is not only
controlled by the resistive voltage divider included, but also from the main inductance of the
transformer equivalent circuit. The time to crest Tp is even without R1, C2 limited by the
series inductance of the transformer, LS, which forms a series resonant circuit in combination
with
C1
capacitance
and
the
load
C2 .
Neglecting
C=
C1C 2 '
C1 + C 2 '
In general, low values of Tp are difficult to achieve, as Ls is quite large and also the
capacitance of the H.V. winding of the transformer contributes to the load C2. Further
problems arise with transient oscillations within the transformer windings, mainly if cascaded
testing transformers are used.
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di
1
V = Rim + L m + im dt
dt C 0
(6.24)
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V
[exp(t )]sin(t )
L
90
(6.25)
Where
R
and =
2L
1
R2
2
LC 4 L
(6.25a)
The time taken for the current im to rise from zero to the first peak value is
t1 = t f =
sin 1
LC
tan 1
(6.26)
The duration for one half cycle of the damped oscillatory wave t2 is,
t2 =
1
R2
2
LC 4 L
(6.27)
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PROBLEMS
Q. 1
Q. 2
Explain and compare the performance of half wave rectifier and voltage doubler
circuits for generation of high D.C. voltages.
Q. 3
Define ripple voltage. Show that the ripple voltage in a rectifier circuit depends upon
the load current and the circuit parameters.
Q. 4
Explain with neat sketches Cockroft-Walton voltage multiplier circuit. Explain clearly
its operation when the circuit is (i) unloaded (ii) loaded.
Q. 5
Q. 6
Derive an expression for the voltage output under load condition. Hence, deduce the
condition for optimal number of stage if a maximum value of output voltage is
desired.
Q. 7
Q. 8
Q. 9
What is a cascaded transformer? Explain why cascading is done? Describe with neat
diagram a three stage cascaded transformer. Label the power ratings of various stages
of the transformer.
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Impulse ratio for flash over (vi) Impulse ratio for puncture
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