1

Introduction to Per Unit Calculations

Consider the simple circuit of Figure 1 in which a load impedance of

Z L 60 j70 92.249

is connected to a voltage source. The no load voltage

of the source is E S 1000V0 o . The internal resistance of the source is ZS

j10 .

The total impedance of the circuit is Z T 60 j80 . The load current through the

E S 10000 o
10A 53o
circuit is IL
60 j80
ZT

The apparent power produced by the source is

SS E S IL 10000 o 1053o 10,000VA 53o

ZS = j10

ZL =60+ j70

ES = 1000V

Figure 1 Basic Circuit: Example of p.u. calculations

In this circuit, we will designate the magnitude of each of these values as the reference
value for that quantity, i.e. the reference value will be one unit of that quantity. That is,
1000 V is equal to one unit for voltage (Vbase = 1000 V)
100 is equal to one unit for resistance (Zbase = 100 )
10 A is equal to one unit for current (Ibase = 10 A)
10,000 VA is equal to one unit for power (Sbase = 10,000 VA)
These basic units are called the base values. Therefore, the base values for our circuit are
1000 V, 100 , 10 A, and 10 kVA.

I L is the conjugate of the load current. In this case IL 10A 53o

2
Now we can refer any value of any quantity in the circuit to these base values. For
example, the magnitude of the voltage across the load is

VL E S

ZL
92.2
1000
922V
ZT
100

In terms of our chosen base voltage, the load voltage is the ratio of the actual voltage and
the chosen base voltage, i.e.

VL
922

0.922 of the chosen base voltage. We say

Vbase 1000

that the voltage is 0.922 per unit of volts. The designation is VLp.u. = 0.922 p.u. (V). We
can also say that the load voltage is 92.2% of the base voltage.
Similarly, in terms of our impedance base, the load impedance is
Z Lp.u .

ZL
92.2

0.922p.u.() .
Z base 100

Just like the magnitude of the load impedance, we can express any ohmic value in terms
of the base impedance. So the per unit resistance of the load is
R Lp.u.

RL
60

0.6p.u.()
Z base 100

The per unit reactance of the load is X Lp.u.

XL
70

0.7 p.u.()
Z base 100

Notice here that both, the resistance and the reactance are compared to base impedance.
The power dissipated by the resistance is P = RI2 = 60 102 = 6000W. Expressed as per
unit value on our base of 10,000 VA, the dissipated power is
Pp.u .

P
S base

6000
0.6p.u.( W )
10,000

The reactive power to the load is QL = XLI2 = 70 102 = 7000 VAr (ind). Expressed as per
unit value on our base of 10,000 VA, the load reactive power is
Q Lp.u

QL
7000

0.7 p.u.(VAr )
S base 10000

(ind )

Similarly as in handling the per unit values of ohmic quantities, both real power and
reactive power are compared to the apparent base power, usually called base MVA.
All base values are only magnitude. They are not associated with any angle. The per unit
values, however, are phasors. The phase angles of the currents and voltages and the
power factor of the circuit are not affected by the conversion to per unit values. The per
unit values can be written as phasors, and all calculations that can be done with the actual
quantities can be also done with per unit values. For example, in our circuit, the per unit
load impedance and the per unit load current are:

Z Lp.u . 0.92249 o p.u.()

and

IL 1 53o p.u.( A )

Thus the voltage across the load is

VLp.u . Z Lp.u . ILp.u . 0.92249 o 1 53o 0.922 4 o p.u.( V )

In general, the per unit value is the ratio of the actual value and the base value of the
same quantity.
per unit value

actual value
base value

Manufacturers give impedance of equipment in percent on own base. The percent value is
the per unit value multiplied by 100: Z% = Zp.u. 100%. The expression own base
means that the base voltage is the rated voltage of the equipment, and the base power is
the rated apparent power (in VA) of the equipment. The base current and the base
impedance are calculated from the base voltage and the base VA:

4
S base
Vbase

I base

and

Z base

2
Vbase

S base

The percent impedance is then

Z%

Z actual in
100%
Z base in

Generators and Per Unit System

A generator rated 1000 VA and 200 V has internal impedance of j10 .

Figure 2 Basic Circuit: Example of p.u. calculations for generators

The ratings of the generator are chosen as the base values. In this example,
S base 1000 VA
Vbase 200 V
I base

S base 1000

5A
Vbase
200

Z base

2
Vbase
200 2

40
S base 1000

The generator impedance is stamped on the nameplate together with the other ratings.
This generator has impedance of j25%. This means that the per unit impedance is
Z p .u .

Z%
j25

j0.25 p.u. ()
100 100

The actual impedance in is Zactual = Zp.u. Zbase = j0.25 40 = j10

Example: The generator above is short circuited at its terminals. Find the short circuit
current and the short circuit power delivered by the generator in p.u., in %, and in the
actual units.

Solution:

Figure 3 Example: Short Circuit on Generator Terminals

E G p. u .
1
Isc p.u .

j4.0 p.u.( A )
j0.25
Z S p. u .

Isc % Isc p.u . 100% j400 %

*
Ssc p.u . E G p.u . Isc
j4.0 p.u. ( A )
p. u . 1 ( j4)

Ssc % Ssc p.u . 100% j400 %

The actual values calculated from the per unit values are:

Isc Isc p.u . I base j4.0 5.0 j20.0 A

Ssc Ssc p .u . S base j4.0 1000 j4000 VA

Transformers and Per Unit System

A transformer is rated 2000 VA, 200V/400V, and has an internal impedance of j4.0 as
seen from the low voltage side.

(a)

(b)
Figure 4 Basic Circuit: Example of Per Unit Calculations for a Transformer
(a) Transformer Impedance Referred to the Low Voltage Side
(b) Transformer Impedance Referred to the High Voltage Side

The internal impedance of the transformer as seen from the high voltage side is

V
Z HV Z LV 2
V1

400

200

j4.0

j16.0

The rated values for power and voltage are used as the bases for the calculations. It
means that the voltage base is different on each side of the transformer. Comparison of
the bases and the per unit value on both sides of the transformer is in Table 1

Sbase

low voltage side

2000 VA

high voltage side

2000 VA

Vbase

200 V

400V

Ibase

S base
10A
Vbase

S base
5A
Vbase

Zbase

2
Vbase
20
S base

2
Vbase
80
S base

Z LV
Z LV
j16
j4.0

j0.2p.u ()

j0.2p.u ()
Z base
20
Z base
80

Zp.u.

Table 1 Bases for transformer low side and high side

Notice in Table 1 that the transformer per unit impedance is the same, regardless of to
which side of the transformer it is referred. In the transformer equivalent circuit the
different voltage levels disappear and the transformer equivalent circuit is reduced to a
single impedance:
Zp.u.

Figure 5 Equivalent Circuit for a Transformer in Per Unit Analysis

Three Phase System and Per Unit Calculations

In three phase systems the total apparent power is given by S 3 3 VLL I L
where VLL is the line-to-line voltage and IL is the line current.
Similarly, S 3 base 3 VL Lbase I L base where

8
S3 base is the chosen three phase base power, usually the rated power of the equipment,
or the chosen base power used for all system calculation by the power utility
VLL base is the chosen line-to-line base voltage, usually the rated voltage of the equipment
or the nominal voltage level of a part of the power system
IL base is the line base current, usually calculated from the base power and the base
voltage.
and Y Connection in Per Unit Calculations
IL
I
Z
ZY

Figure 6 - - Y Conversion

The base values are related through the same relationships as the actual quantities:

Z base

VLL base
I base

3 VLN base
VLN base
3
3 Z Y base
I L base
I L base
3

ZY base
The per unit values of the connected impedances and the Y connected impedances are

Z p .u .

Z
Z base

Z Y p.u .

ZY
Z Y base

9
From that it is easy to show that the per unit value for the connection is the same as the
per unit value for the Y connection.

Z p.u .

Z
3Z Y
ZY

Z Y p .u .
Z base 3Z Y base Z Y base

Change of Base
When pieces of equipment with various different ratings are connected to a system, it is
necessary to convert their impedances to a per unit value expressed on the same base. The
base that we are converting from will be denoted by subscript M, the base we are
converting to will be denoted by subscript N. The base impedance for the bases M and N
are, respectively,

Z M base

VM2 base
S M base

Z N base

VN2 base
S N base

The per unit impedances on the bases M and N are , respectively

Z M p. u .

Z
Z M base

Z N p .u .

Z
Z N base

where Z is the actual ohmic value of the impedance of the equipment. It follows that
Z = ZM p.u. ZM base = ZN p.u. ZN base
Substituting for the base impedances we get

10

Z M p.u .

2
VM
base

S M base

Z N p. u .

Z N p.u . Z M p.u .

VN2 base
S N base

S N base
S M base

2
VM
base

VN2 base

Using the MVA and kV notation,

Z N p .u . Z M p. u .

MVA N base ( kVM base ) 2

MVA M base ( kVN base ) 2

Tan Delta, also called Loss Angle or Dissipation Factor testing, is a diagnostic method
of testing electrical equipment to determine the integrity of the insulation. This is
done to try to predict the remaining life expectancy of the equipment.
If the insulation free from defects, it approaches the properties of a perfect
capacitor. It is very similar to a parallel plate capacitor with the conductor and the
neutral being the two plates separated by the insulation material.
In a perfect capacitor, the voltage and current are phase shifted 90 degrees and the
current through the insulation is capacitive. If there are impurities in the
insulation,for example, moisture, the resistance of the insulation decreases, resulting
in an increase in resistive current through the insulation. It is no longer a perfect
capacitor. The current and voltage will no longer be shifted 90 degrees. It will be
something less than 90 degrees. The extent to which the phase shift is less than 90
degrees is indicative of the level of insulation contamination, hence quality/reliability.
This "Loss Angle" is measured and analyzed.
Below is a representation of an insulation. The tangent of the angle is measured.
This will indicate the level of resistance in the insulation. By measuring IR/IC
(opposite over adjacent the tangent), we can determine the quality of the
insulation. In a perfect insulation, the angle would be nearly zero. An increasing
angle indicates an increase in the resistive current through the insulation, meaning
contamination. The greater the angle, the worse is the insulation.

11

Insulation power factor is the angle 90-. If the insulation is excellent, the tan delta
or dissipation factor is equal to the power factor. Essentially, both tan delta and
power factor are just the same.

Breifly the following steps may be adopted for designing a transformer.

1- Determine the VA rating for which you intend to design the transformer.
2- Find out the Input/output Voltage.
3- Determine and calculate the Turn Ratio
4- Calculate the Primary and Secondary Current.
5- Select the conductor both for primary as well for the Secondary side.
6- Based on the number of turns, system frequency, permeability of the core
material,
type of core (shell/core Type), current , voltage and power factor determine
the Flux Density
7- Calculate the temperature rise due to circulating currents.
8- Choose heat dissipation method,through fins, ONAN, ONAF.
9- Select the type of insulation

12
10-Determine the efficiency of designed transformer.
11-Calculate the weight of Iron Core and Copper Winding
12-Determine the Cost/Benefit
13-Repeat the process till u get the most economical transformer.

What is Polarization Index? What is its significance? What is its minimum

value?
Please read this article, its taken from
Copyright Material IEEE Paper No. PCIC-2004-XX
Greg C. Stone IEEE Fellow Iris Power Engineering 1 Westside Drive, Unit 2 Toronto,
Ontario M9C 1B2 Canada
II. IEEE 43 INSULATION RESISTANCE AND POLARIZATION INDEX
IEEE 43 INSULATION RESISTANCE AND POLARIZATION INDEX

This is probably the most widely used diagnostic test for motor and generator rotor
and stator windings. It can be applied to all machines and windings, with the
exception of the squirrel cage induction motor rotor winding, which does not have
any insulation to test. This test successfully locates pollution and contamination
problems in windings. In older insulation systems, the test can also detect thermal
deterioration. Insulation resistance (IR) and polarization index (PI) tests have been
in use for more than 70 years. Both tests are performed with the same instrument,
and are usually done at the same time. The last revision to IEEE 43 was in 1974.
A. Purpose and Theory
The IR test measures the resistance of the electrical insulation between the copper
conductors and the core of the stator or the rotor. Ideally this resistance is infinite,
since after all, the purpose of the insulation is to block current flow between the
copper and the core. In practice, the IR is not infinitely high. Usually, the lower the
insulation resistance, the more likely it is that there is a problem with the insulation.
PI is a variation of the IR test. PI is the ratio of the IR measured after voltage has
been applied for 10 minutes (R10) to the IR measured after one minute (R1), i.e.:
PI = R10/R1
A low PI indicates that a winding may be contaminated with oil, dirt, insects, etc. or
soaked with water. In the test, a relatively high DC voltage is applied between the
winding copper and the stator or rotor core (usually via the machine frame). The
current flowing in the circuit is then measured.
The insulation resistance (Rt) at time t is then:
Rt = V/It

13
which is just Ohm's law. V is the applied DC voltage from
the tester, and It is the total current measured after t minutes. The reference to the
time of current measurement is needed since the current is usually not constant.
There are four currents that may flow when a DC voltage is applied to the winding.
These four are:
1. Capacitive current. When a DC voltage is applied to a capacitor, a high charging
current first flows, then decays exponentially. The size of the capacitor and the
internal resistance of the voltage supply, typically a few hundred kilohms, sets the
current decay rate. A motor stator winding may have a total capacitance of about
100 nF. Thus this current effectively decays to zero in less than 10 seconds. Since
this capacitive current contains little diagnostic information, the initial insulation
resistance is measured once the capacitive current has decayed. This time before
taking the current reading has been set as one minute to ensure that this current
does not distort the insulation resistance calculation.
2. Conduction current. This current is due to electrons or ions that migrate across the
insulation bulk, between the copper and the core. This is a galvanic current through
the groundwall. Such a current can flow if the groundwall has absorbed moisture,
which can happen on the older thermoplastic insulation systems, or if a modern
insulation has been soaked in water for many days or weeks. This current also flows
if there are cracks, cuts or pinholes in the ground insulation (or magnet wire
insulation in random wound machines), and some contamination is present to allow
current to flow. This current is constant with time, and ideally is zero. With modern
insulation, this current usually is zero (as long as there are no cuts, etc) since
electrons and ions cannot penetrate through modern epoxy -mica or film insulation.
Older asphaltic mica insulations always had non-zero conduction currents, since such
insulation systems absorb moisture. If this current is significant, then the winding
insulation has a problem.
3. Surface leakage current. This is a constant DC current that flows over the surface
of the insulation. It is caused by partly conductive contamination (oil or moisture
mixed with dust, dirt, fly ash, chemicals, etc.) on the surface of the windings. Ideally
this leakage current is zero. However, if this current is large, it is likely that
contaminationinduced deterioration (electrical tracking) can occur. This current can
be large in round rotor windings where
The polarization index (PI) was developed to make interpretation less sensitive to
temperature. PI is a ratio of the IR at two different times. If we assume that R10 and
R1 were measured with the winding at the same temperature, which is usually very
reasonable to assume, then the 'temperature correction factor' will be the same for
both R1 and R10, and will be ratioed out. Thus PI is relatively insensitive to
temperature. Furthermore, PI effectively allows us to use the absorption current as a
'yard stick' to see if the leakage and conduction currents are excessive. If these
latter currents are much larger than the absorption current, the ratio will be about
one. Experience shows that if the PI is about one, then the leakage and conduction
currents are large enough that electrical tracking will occur. Conversely, if the
leakage and conduction currents are low compared to the absorption current after 1
minute, then PI will be greater than 2, and experience indicates that electrical
tracking problems are unlikely. Thus, if we can see the decay in the total current in
the interval between 1 minute and 10 minutes, then this decay must be due to the

14
absorption current (since the leakage and conduction currents are constant with
time), with the implication that the leakage and conduction currents are minor.
Table 1 Guidelines for dc voltages to be applied during
Winding rated voltage (V) * Insulation resistance test direct voltage (V)
<100

500

1000-2500

500-1000

2501-5000

1000-2500

5001-12 000

2500-5000

>12 000

5000-10 000

C. Interpretation
What constitutes a 'good reading' and a 'bad reading' depends on the nature of the
insulation system and the component (stator or rotor) being tested. Until 2000, the
minimum R1 and the acceptable range for PI was essentially the same for all types of
stator winding insulation. However, it has been recognized that the modern insulation
materials in random wound and form wound stators have essentially no conduction
current (as long as there are no cracks or pinholes).
Thus it is possible for a clean, dry, form wound stator winding to have an R1 that is
essentially infinite greater than 100 GW. With an R1 of infinity, calculations of a
realistic PI are dubious. Such high R1's are not likely in systems made before the
1970's. Consequently, the maintenance person needs to establish the type of
insulation used in the winding, or at least the approximate age of the winding, before
interpreting IR and PI results.
Table 2 summarizes how to interpret IR and PI results in stator and rotor windings.
The distinction between older and modern insulation systems was set at 1970,
although this is somewhat arbitrary. Of note in this table:
1. If R1 is below the indicated minimu m, the implication is that the winding should
not be subjected to a hipot test, or be returned to service, since failure may occur. Of
course if historical experience indicates that a low R1 is always obtained on a
particular winding, then the machine can probably be returned to service with little
risk of failure.
2. The minimum R1 is the value corrected to 40oC.
Unfortunately, any more than 10-20oC correction is unlikely to be valid.
3. The minimum acceptable R1 is much lower for old stators than new stators, and it
depends on voltage class. For modern stators, the minimum acceptable R1 only
depends on whether it is a form wound or random wound stator.
4. For modern form wound stators, if a very high R1 is measured (say greater than 5
GW), then PI is not likely to indicate anything about the winding. Thus, one can save
time by aborting the test after the first minute of testing.
5. If the IR or PI is below the minimum in a modern

15
stator winding, it is only an indication that the winding is contaminated or soaked
with water.
6. If a high PI result is obtained on an older stator winding, then there is a possibility
the insulation has suffered thermal deterioration. This occurs because thermal
deterioration fundamentally changes the nature of the insulation, and thus the
absorption currents that flow. The insulation has changed in an asphaltic mica
winding if the asphalt has been heated enough to flow out of the groundwall.
Table 2-Recommended minimum insulation resistance values at 400C (all
values in MW )
Minimum Insulation
Resistance
R1 min = kV+1
R1 min = 100

R1 min = 5

TEST SPECIMEN
For most windings made before about 1970, all field
windings, and others not described below
For most dc armature and ac windings built after about
1970 (form wound coils)
For most machines with random -wound stator coils and
form-wound coils rated below 1kV

In general, the IR and PI tests are an excellent means of finding windings that are
contaminated or soaked with moisture. Of course the tests are also good at detecting
major flaws where the insulation is cracked or has been cut through. In form wound
stators using thermoplastic insulation systems, the tests can also detect thermal
deterioration. Unfortunately, there is no evidence that thermal deterioration or
problems such as loose coils in the slot, can be found in modern windings

What causes insulation failure?

Some of the more common causes of insulation failure include: excessive heat or cold,
moisture, dirt, corrosive vapors, oil, vibration, aging and nicked wiring. What tests are
used to detect insulation deterioration? There are numerous maintenance tests for
assessing insulation quality. The three tests discussed here are used primarily to test
motor, generator and transformer insulation.
What equipment is necessary for conducting insulation resistance tests?

Megohmmeter with a timed test function

Temperature indicator

Humidity meter (not necessary if equipment temperature is above the dew

point)

Test Currents in Insulation

Total current in the body of the insulation is the sum of three components

Capacitance Charging Current

Absorption Current

16

Leakage or Conduction Current