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Sulphuric Acid
Uses of Sulphuric Acid :1.
Sulfuric acid is used in manufacturing fertilizerslike ammonium sulfate, super
phosphate of lime, etc.2.
It is used in manufacturing of hydrochloric acid,nitric acid, phosphoric acid,
ether, plastics,metal sulfates, cellophane, dyes, drugs,perfumes, disinfectants
and even glue.3.
Sulfuric acid is used to manufacturenitroglycerin acid and tri-nitro-toluene(TNT)
inthe explosive industry.4.
Sulfur and tarry compounds in the gasoline areremoved by using sulfuric
acid.5.
It is used as an electrolyte in lead acidbatteries.6.
Sulfuric acid uses also includes removal of oxides from iron and steel before
electroplatingor galvanizing.

MANAFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID

Stages in Contact

Process :
Stage 1 :In the furnace, molten sulphur is burnt in dry air toproduce
sulphur dioxide. The gas produced is purifiedand cooled.

Stage 2 :In the converter, sulphur dioxide and excess oxygengas are
passed over a few plates on vanadium(V) oxidecatalyst at 450 C to
produce sulphur trioxide.

Stage 3 :In the absorber, the sulphur trioxide is first reactedwith

concentrated sulphuric acid to form a product calledoleum.

SULPHUR DIOXIDE AND

ENVIROMENTAL POLLUTION
Sulphur dioxide, is one of the by-products of the Contact
Process.It can cause environmental pollution. Almost all sulphur
dioxide in theair comes from the burning of fossil fuels containing

sulphur. Inhaling sulphur dioxide causes coughing, chest pain,

shortness of breath,bronchitis and lung diseases.
Sulphur dioxide can cause acid rain. Natural rainwater has a pH
of about 5.4. Acid rain occurs when pH of the rain is between 2.4
and 5.0.This is due to the reaction of sulphur dioxide with rainwater.

2SO2 + O2 + 2H2O
2H2SO4

Ammonia and Its Salts

Uses of Ammonia :
1.Most of the ammonia used in the world is used in fertilizer eitherin salt or liquid form.
2.Almost all synthetically derived nitrogen is made from ammonia.Nitric acid is used in
fertilizers
and explosives.

3.Household ammonia is used as a surface cleaner in a diluted form.It most commonly

used to
clean glass, porcelain and stainlesssteel as it leaves no streaks.
4.Ammonia is the main ingredient in most oven cleaners.
5.Ammonia is used in industrial refrigeration applications andhockey rinks as it has
favorable
vaporization properties.
6.It is used in geothermal power plants in an ammonia-watermixture that is boiled.
7.Ammonia is used to scrub Sulfur dioxide from the burning fossilfuels used in power
plants. It is
also used to neutralize thenitrogen oxide produced by diesel engines.
8.It is used in animal feed as an antimicrobial. It is also used todisinfect beef products
before
sale.
9.Liquid ammonia is used in textiles to treat cotton materials and inthe pre-washing of
wool.

Properties of ammonia
1.is alkaline.
2.is a colourless gas.
3.has a pungent smell.
4.is less dense than air.
5.burns in oxygen gas, but not inthe air.
6.is very soluble in water.

7.gives a white fume when reactedwith hydrogen chloride gas.

Manufacture of Ammonia through

Haber Process

Preparation of ammonium fertilizers

Ammonium fertilizers are one of the chemicalfertilizers added to soil to
replace the elements used upby plants. The major plant nutrients include
nitrogen,phosphorus, potassium and calcium. Ammoniumfertilizers can be
prepared from the reaction between ammonia and an acid.

Alloys
Pure aluminium is not enough tu withstand the greatstress put on the wings of
an aeroplane when it is flying.How can we combine the low density of
aluminium withthe strength needed to make the body of an aeroplane?Alloys
give us the answer.

Arrangement of atoms in metals

Most metals are solid. Pure metals are made up of the same type of atoms and
are of the same size. Thearrangement of the atoms in metals gives the

metalstheir ductile and malleable properties.The orderlyarrangement of atoms

in metals enables the layers of atoms to slide on one another when force is
applied, as shown in Figure 9.1.Thus, metals are ductile or can be stretched.
FIGURE 9.1:DUCTILITY OF METALS

There are some imperfections in the orderly arrangement of atoms

in metals that allow some empty spaces in between the atoms.
When a metal is knocked,atoms slide. This why metals are
malleable or can be shaped.

What are alloys ?

An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements with acertain fixed composition in
which the major componentis a metal. Most pure metals are weak and soft.
Theproperties of pure metals can be improved by makingthem into alloys. The
aim is to make the pure metalsstronger, harder, resistant to corrosion, have a
betterfurnish and luster. Alloys such as bronze, brass, steel,stainless steel,
duralumin and pewter are commonlyused in our daily life.

The composition, propertiesand uses of some

alloys
Alloy

Compositio Properti
n
es

Uses

90% copper
10% tin

Bronze

Hard and
strong
Does not
corrodeeasily
Has shiny
surface

70% copper

Brass

30% zinc

99% iron
1% carbon

Harder than
copper

Hard and
strong

Steel

Stainless steel

In the making of
medals, swords
andartistic
materials

In the making
ofmusical
instrumentsand
kitchenware
In the construction
of buildings and
bridges
In the building of
thebody of cars
and
railway tracks

74% iron

Shiny

8% carbon

Strong

18% chromium

Duralumin

In the building of
statues or
monuments

Does not
rust

93% aluminium

Light

3% copper

Strong

In the making of
cutlery
In the making of
surgical
instruments
In the building of
the body of aeroplane
sand bullet trains

3% magnesium
1% manganese

Pewter

96% tin

Lustre

3% copper

Shiny

1% antimony

Strong

In the making of
souvenirs

The arrangement of atoms in alloys

The presence of atoms of other metals that are of different sizes disturb the
orderly arrangement of atomsin the metal. This reduces the layer of atoms
from sliding.Thus, an alloy is stronger and harder than its pure metal.

Araggement of atoms in steel

Synthetic Polymers
What are polymers ?
Polymers are large molecules made up of manyidentical repeating sub-units
called monomers which are joined together by covalent bonds.

Monomers are joined into chains by a process of repeated linking known as

polymerization.A polymer may consists of thousands of monomers.Some
polymers occur naturally. Starch, cellulose, wool,protein, silk and natural rubber
are some examples of naturally occurring polymers.On the other hand,
synthetic polymers are man-made polymers.

Monomers in synthetic polymers

Synthetic
polymer

Monomer

Uses

Polythene

Ethene

Plastic bags,shoppingbags,
plastic containersand
insulation forelectrical
wiring

Polypropene

Propene

Piping,bottle
crates,carpets, car
batteries andropes

Polyvinyl chloride,PVC

Chloroethene

Artificial
leather,waterpipes and
records

Perspex

Methylmethacrylate

Safety glass,reflectors,
traffic signs and lens

Terylene

Hexane-1,
6-diol
Benzene-1,
4-dicarboxylic acid

Nylon

Hexane-1,6-diamine
Hexane-1,6-dioic acid

Clothing, sails and ropes

Ropes, clothing and

carpets

Should we continue using synthetic

polymers ?
Synthetic polymers are very stable and do not corrode or decay. However, this
also means that they are difficult to dispose. They are not easily
biodegradable.Hence, they may cause pollution, blockage of drainage systems
and flash floods. When they are burnt, they give out harmful and poisonous
gases which have a pungent smell.Although synthetic polymers pose
environmental problems, we can still continue using them but in a wiser
manner. We should reduce, reuse and recycle synthetic polymers as much as
possible. The use of biodegradable polymers should be encouraged. We should
also find alternatives to synthetic polymers.

Glass and Ceramics

Glass

-The major component of glass is silica or silicon dioxide, which found in sand.
- Properties of glass: Transparent, hard but brittle, chemically inert, heat
insulator,electrical insulator, impermeable to liquid.

Fused glass(SiO2)

-Highly heat-resistant glass

-High transparency- High melting point
-Resistant to chemical attack
Uses
-Laboratory glassware,lenses,telescopes,mirrors

Soda-lime glass (SiO2, Na2O, CaO)

-Good chemical durability
-High thermal expansion coefficient
-Easy to make into different shapes
-Low melting point
Uses
- Bottles, window panes, mirrors,electrical bulbs, flat glass and all kind of glass
containers.

Lead crystal glass (SiO2, Na2O, PbO,K2O, Al2O3)

-Soft and easy to melt
-High density
-High refractive index

Uses
-Lead crystal glassware, art objects,lens, prismsand chandeliers

Borosilicate glass(SiO2, Na2O, CaO,Al2O3,B2O3)

-Low thermal expansion coefficient
-Resistant to heat and chemicalattack
-High melting point
Uses
-Cooking utensuls,laboratory glassware,automobile headlights

Ceramics

Ceramics are made from clay, for example kaolin, a

hydratedaluminiumsilicate.
When the clay is heated to a very high temperature, they undergo
aseries of chemical reaction and are hardened permanently to
formceramics.
Ceramics are very hard, brittle, have a very high melting point,
chemicallyinert and do not corrode.
The are good insulators of electricity and heat.
Uses of ceramics: construction materials bricks,tiles, cement and pipes.
Ornamental articles bowls, cups, plates, vase and porcelain.
Electrical insulators spark plugs, fuses, insulators in electric iron
andoven.
Superconductors.

Composite Materials
-Composite materials is a structural material that is formed by combining two or
more
different substance such as metal,alloys,glass,ceramics and polymers.
-The resulting material has properties that are superior than those of the
original
components.
- Composite materials are created for specificapplication.