Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Hv C H R I S T O P H E R D Y E R
T H I S P R E S I D F J T I I ' I L addres.,; or<qinal&entitled 'Is the Archaeolo,g o[S?nall 77)wn.s Wortfz
l'ur.cuincg?: .surv<ys the 1.e.5ult.sclf'numerou.~archaeological i?zterventions in medieval ~ m n l tozln.s
l
in Ergland and IVales,,li,cusing on work published .since an o71eroiez~[hat apf~taredin 1985. Its
puqose is to .dloru the value ($'research on .rites za~l~ich
me .sometimes spen as u?lrewarding. The
cumulative re.~ultsof sixteen years o[inve.u1igation have t h w n important new ligfzt on urban
orgins; charactel-i,stir.sand dffinitions;functions and diver.city; nizd lon,q-ternz develof~ment.
111the 1990s whcn writilig the chapter on srnall towns in thc period I 270-1540 for
the Camhridye 1Jrhan Hislory, 1 did not make much use of archaroloo-ical
evidence.'
?
Thcrc was no excuse lor this omission because of my simultaneous lnvolvcment in
a research project which had the specific aim of using both material and
documentary evidence to explore thc 1,atc-medicval urban hierarchy.' This paper
is dcsigncd to fill thc gap in the historiography of small towns, arlcl to cncouragc
urban historians to take more note of archaeological evidence. 1 am anxious to
reassure archaeologists who sometimes regard the excavation of small towns as
unrewarding, and to persuade thcm of thc value ofwork in these places."
Thosc who study small towns, from whichcvcr discipline they come, have to
overcomc a dcgree of prcjudicc. 'The largc towns havc attracted most research:
they providc historians with largc archives, from which many documcnts have
appeared in print; archaeologists are attracted by sites in city centres with thcir
deep deposits, substantial structures and numcrous snlall finds. It is also belirvcd
hy both historians and archaeologists that enquiries into the past of large towns is
,justified by their significance in the Middle Ages: they had a wide impact on thcir
region, their merchants contrit~utedto the international exchange, their political
influcncc was strong, and thcy rnairltainecl a sophisticated cultural life. Archaeologists have a particular reason for concentrating on large towns: the revolutionary
contribution of archaeology to urban studies has been to change pc:rccptions of'the
I
r. r j40
86
CHRISTOPHER DYER
period heSol-c I I oo. Tlie discovery of the prc-850 ernboria at Southampton, Ipswich,
London and York represents a grcat achievement. Excavation has also revealed
the scale, intcrlsity and complexity of the urban settlements of the period 850- I I oo
at Lincoln, London, Norwicll, Stamford, Tlietford, Winchester and York. Most
small towns, however, devclopcd in tllc I nth arid I gth centuries.
In fact while these early phases of large url->ancentres catch the licadlines,
nine-tcnths of medieval url~aiiarchaeolo,gy has hccn concerned with the period
after I 100, and illvcstigation of that period has the capacity to expand our
ktiowledge, dccpcn our understanding, and revcal ncw dimensions of medieval
towns. This is true of research in all towns, regardless of tllcir sizc. Excavators in
small towns oftcii complain that the matcrial culture which they e ~ ~ c o u n t e r
rescmhles that of villages rather than cities. In fact thc cornparison is difficult to
make hecausc the opporturiitics of small-town archaeology are iillerior to those in
most deserted villages. The continued occupation of many town sites rneans that
thc street froiitagcs, that is the main buildings, are often not available for
excavation, and modern intrusions have destroyed features, and riot just at the
front of the building plots.
A caricature can bc drawn o f a typical small town site as an area of a medieval
back yard, which has little stratigraphy and a scatter of pits, with a few postholes
that can occasionally be interpreted as a structure. '111~finds consist of sherds of
13th- and 14th-century pottery, with some residual Romano-British and Earlymedieval matcrial. Such sites have indeed heen excavated, but I will argue that this
rather aloomy view of poor quality deposits is exaggerated, and that even an
.
unpromising site can yield evidence useful for answering broad academic qucstio~ls.
A qrcat deal of' evidence has heen accumulated kom small towns. Whcrl
~ r c n v i l l ehstill gave an overvicw of tlre sut~jectin 1985, he cited in his footnotes
nineteen excavations and a dozen topographical ~ t u d i e s In
. ~ preparation for this
paper, with its fhcus on the publications of the years I 984-200 I , excavation reports
have been consulted on more than 60 towns in England and MTalcs, some of which
havc been the subject of three or more separate programmcs of invcstigatioti. This
new corpus of work has developed in sophistication, with more open-area
excavation, more eriviro~lmentalanalysis, and well-informed specialist reports on
pottery and other finds. After 1990 the implementation of Planning Policy
Guideline 16 has meant that a crcat number of small trenches havc hccn dug in
towns, which have yieldcd very limitcd information. Tlie dated pottcry from these
interventions can throw light on the cllronology of settlement (see pp. 93--4,
below), but the most valuable results come from larger excavations, which may
have diminished in num1,cr as the result ofthc ncw planning policy.
Astill was al~lcto refer to the very useful survcys of historic towns which were
produced for a numher of mainly southcrn counties, including his own exemplary
study oT Berkshire; English Heritage is now working on morc a~nhitiousand
detailed documents on each town." Already published are a numhcr of town plan
'
87
structure.'
Historians have similarly made advances in their studies of small towns. In
Hilton had just produced a serics of chapters and articlcs which showed that
they were an important dimension of urbanization, and were closely conrlectcd to
thc peasantry of the surrourldirlg countryside."ince
then historians have
contributed dctailcd studies of half-a-dozen well-documented places, and overviews
of small towns ill Britain and continental Europe.Io
In the last sixteen years the subject of small towns has beer1 pushed forward by
archaeologists, architectural historians, geographers and historians, and thc
purpose of this synthesis is to take account of work in these difl'ercnt fields, while
llighlighting the archaeological contribution. As always, the interdisciplinary path
is not an easy one, and sometimes coordinating written and material evidencc
poscsprol~lems.Defining a town is an old conundrum, which still causes difficulties
(see below), but to add to the dilemmas, how do we distinguish those which were
'small'? Historians use a rule of thumb that a small town has a population below
2 , 0 0 0 , which is not always easy to apply when we lack precise population figures,
and somc towns appear in diffcrent documents sometimes ahove the figure, and
somctimcs below. There is no agrecd way of defining smallness in tcrms of the
material cvidcncc, although a 'bundle of criteria' is suggested below.
The disciplines are fortunately not separated. Archaeologists who work on
urban sites with historical records of thc ~ r ? t l i ~ gcenturies
th
naturally take note of
documents. Historians of this sukject arc not so conversant with the material
I 985
88
CHRISTOPHER DYER
evidence, but they set the small towns in a context of urban developmcnt, and can
show thcir significance in later medieval society." Small towns wcrc numcrous,
with 600 in England at any one time betwee11 I 2 7 0 and 1525, and 7 0 at their pcak
of development in Wales. They account for about (iper cent of all nucleated
scttlcmcnts, hut because they cach gave a living to more people than most villages
(most of them had populations of at least 300) they contained almost a tenth of the
whole population. Thc 50 large towns together housed at least 400,ooo people,
with about the samc number in small towns. 'l'hcy provided points of contact
between country people and thc wider world, as marketing centrcs, as placcs of
employment, as venues for gatherings fbr religious dcvotiorl or entertainment, and
as magnets for migrants. Small towns provided the first stage on the path of those
hoping for social lxtterment. IT towns had an influcrlcc on the material culture of'
the countryside, for example by spreading the hshion for jctticd timl-~er-Sramcd
houses in thc I 5th century, the builders and tllcir employers would in many cases
have seen their modcls in small towns. The imported or rnarlufacturcd goods that
were hcirlg uscd in the countryside, such as dried cod, dyestuffs or copper-alloy
dress accessories, were obtained from market stalls or shops in small towns, or
pedlars based o n such towns.
We are dealing with small placcs with large consequences, for which there is
a11 abundance ol'archaeological evidcnce. 1 propose to discuss this material under
four themes: firstly, origins; secondly, definitions and characteristics in relation to
the urban hierarchy; thirdly, S~~nctions
and diversity; and fourthly, long-term
changes.
ORIGINS
'lhc origins ofall towns present us with the same problems, regardless of their
size, and of course every town was small for at lcast a short time. Churches, local
centres ofpower (such as king's tuns and the centres of hundreds), and fortifications
havc a11 been identified as 'pre-url- an nuclei'. 'The Burghal Hidage, with its lists of
fortifications that had grown up in thc latc 9th century to protect the kingdom of
Mressex, includes the burhs which served as embryos from which m?jor urban
centres such as Winchester and Southampton grew. Axbridgc (Somcrsct), C;ric:klade (Wiltshire) and nlany more burhs reappear in later centuries as small towns,
a i d occasiorlally, as in rccent work at South Street in Wiltoil (Wiltshirc), there is
cxcavatcd evidcnce for occupation in tllc 9th or 10th centuries.12 'The list of small
towns associated with fortifications expands when the later phases of burh
foundations outside Mlesscx, such as Newark (Nottingharnshire) and Towcester
(Northamptonshire) are takcn into account, and wc need to remember the lesser
military sites which can he discovered mainly I'roin their topography, such as
''
T H E A R C H A E O L O G Y O F MEDIEVAL SMALL T O W N S
89
I ' ' 2 . I<ili\lc\, 'Exc.a\,;llion\ nn thr Snxo-Norrn'ln to\\n tlrfkncrh ;rc Slau~lilcsHou\c 1,arle. I\Tr\\.;~~-k-o~~-'l'r(.~lt.
E. I~I-O\YII
~ I I ,J.
C ~.\I
"llcx;~~icic~-,
~ o t t i l i ~ h ; ~ 1 n ~ l l i l7-rca' 1, 1 ~77~or(i/onSOI.., \ ~ J / / I ~ , ~ / ~ ~ L I I I . \ / I ~ I 97
~ ~ ~ , ( ~$)<):j).
I 1 63;
'Cxc;~\ations at 'l'owccstcs 1954: thc <:r;t~nniar School sitc , , \ ~ I I ~ / Z ~ L I ~ / I / ~ ~Alrr/in~o/.,
~ I J / ~ ~ I P 17 ( 1 9 8 2 ) . 24 59;
'\. Keyliolds. :A\ cl)~rs)-:
21 late .\nalo-Sax011 bu~.Il?'..'lt~/rrjiii!~~.
75 (.roar), 29 30.
l 4 J. Blair, 'Sr11;lll ~ O C V I ~000
S
1270'. 246 54 i l l Palliscl. (rtl.), o11.cit. i r ~notc I ; \Y. Kotl\~rll,?%12 O~(qitlcnt~dLar(1~
SIIU!~
111 S(>///PIIIP~I/
and ~ ~ J I - / L / I ( FJ>r/i~.\/otli
( I / ~ o ~ I . to .\l~~di~~zl(~/
(0xfi)r-d, I yyj).
I)~T'(~/O/I,IIPI~/
!f Il>//i(~ii~,
/<su,t:
90
CHRISTOPHER DYER
S ~ c y i i n gSushcx.
,
A p r r - ( : o ~ i t ~ ~ ~10\111
c . s t is i ~ l d i ~ ~ iby
~ ctlir
c i si~c.s~ I - ~ L I Ithr
I ( ~ ~ ~ i i l i s i(.hi~rcli,
cr
ivitli ;L IIC\V ~o\vii01'
thr I 2tl1 and 13th c.cniurira alo11g t l ~ Higli
r
Strrrt. So11rc.r~:hI. (;artiirler, 'Exc.a\~ttior~s
at 'I'(-s~rrs,White Ho1.h~
Sclunrc, Stcyning, 1985', L S u s s ~ x ~ 4 r(,'011.,
~ I ~ ~12G
~ ~(ISUU),
~ ~ / . 5 3 7 6 ; Gnrdincr a n d C:rcaiorcx, op. cir. in notc 1 5 .
houses was laid out along the High Street (Fig. ~).'"l'rowhridgc in Wiltshirc
devclopcd next to a I eth-century castle, but the castle was preccdcd by a manorial
site and stone church which functioned in the 10th and I 1t11 ccnturics."'
Apparently new post-Conqucst castlcs wcrc somctimcs foundcd on thc sites of
important pre-Conquest rcsidcnccs and ccntrcs of administration, so the towns
which arc conveiltionally assumed to have grown around the castle in the I sth
ccntury or later may have had an carlicr hcginning." The prc-urban settlement
could have had a primarily rcononlic function. The hcst explanation lor the thick
deposits of millions of oyster shells from the 10th and I I th centuries fourld at Poole
in Dorset is that the shellfish were being processed, probably by pickling, on the
' ~J.' H A ~ ~ : L:I~ hlirlrllr
TI,
S;IXUI~
iru11s ~ r ~ c l tsitc
i ~ ~atg 1<;~111st)i1ry.
IYilts11i1-r'.2\1~(/i(~z~u/
,Ai(li(i~,ul..
XXl\' (1<j8o),I (it]:
I. S o d r ~ ~sax
. or^ arrtl tnrtlirv;~l srttlrmcnt r r ~ n ; ~ i nat
s St. John's Srlilasr, l),rvc.~itry, Noi-tl~,~mptoiisl~irc.
,Jull
t<)g_~-Frl)ruary1<)<)5',
.\iirilmmn/1to71.Iirhnrol., 27 ( 1 y<)(i-7), jt-<)<);h1. Gardincl- ;rnrl C. G~.c.atorrx.:Isc.liacologiri~l
c\klc.nc.c.ill S t c b n i n ~ 10c)2-05:
,
lilr.tlr~rC \ ~ ~ C I I C C tlrc c \ , u I i ~ ~ i01c ~a~latr
i S;rson sm;~lllo\\ n', .Siissc\ Ai-i.11nuol.(,b//..
T H E A R C H A E O L O G Y O F MEDIEVAL SMALL T O W N S
91
shore before the town was foundcd.18 Other small ports developed near to
traditional coastal sitcs for extracting salt or catching fish.
At some places the prc-urban settlement cannot be fitted into the categories of
religious, administrative, military or economic centres. In Surrey at Godalming
8th- to 9th-century occupation, continuing until the 14th ccntury, has been located
on the edge of the later medieval town, at some distancc from the church.'" Perhaps
the town grew from a coalescence of early farmsteads or hamlets, or this early sitc,
in view of the relative abundance of pottery found, was a high-status scttlemcnt
that had some influence on subsequent urban growth.
A degree of discontinuity during the period 650-900 is suggested by the recent
discoveries of 'productive sites'. These concentrations of coins and metal work of
the 7th, 8th and 9th centuries are now often fbund in open country, remote from
medieval or modern towns. Their location sometimes at road junctions or river
crossings supports the suggestion that they were periodic markets or fairs, which
failed to establish themselves as centres of cxchange in the long term. At Riby
Cross Roads (Humbcrsidc, formerly Lincolnshirc) and Cottam (N. Yorkshire
formerly Yorkshirc ER) the productive sites proved to have been associated with
dwellings, though these were soon abandoned: they were as unstable as many rural
settlements of that period. A small port at Sandtun in Kent stands as an example of
a coastal trading settlement which was active from 700 to 875 and then declined."'
So alongside the small towns like Daventry and Steyning which had a long-term
role as 'central places' w h i c h have been called the 'primary towns' --- there were
also commercial venues of the 7th and 8th centuries which went out of use in the
9th century or soon afterward^.^'
Turning to the towns that appear to have been new in the 12th and 13th
centuries, the documcnts tend to tell an incomplete story because we learn from
thcm about the successful urban ventures. Many of the foundations however failed,
leaving traces in the ground but not in documcnts. At Ovcrsley in Warwickshire
the locally powerful Boteler hmily in the mid-12th ccntury laid out two roads
outside the gates of their castle with rectangular plots along thcm defined by ditches
(Fig. 2).22 The two roads joined the castle to Ryknild Street, a route with Roman
origins which connected the Cotswolds, the Avon valley and the woodland of the
Arden; a chapel was built beside this road. The animal bones suggest that this was
a centre of consumption rather than agricultural production. This initial planning,
on a small scale, was perhaps to be succeeded by further stages if it attracted
enough settlers. Some tenants built on their plots, and one was used for a malt kiln,
I. P. Horsry and J. hf. M'indcr, 'Late Saxon and Coriqucst-period oystrr rniddrns at Poole, Ilorsrt', 1 0 2 -1in
G . L. Good, R. H.Jotics and M. W. Potlsf'ord (eds.), LVatefronti11-rlza~olu~
(CBA Res. Rep., 74, r y l r ) .
"' R. Poulton, 'Excavations on thr Co-operative MTholesalcpremiso at Bridgc Strcc~.Godalming', L S i ~ : i - r ~ > ~ i l r ~ h i l ~ ~ ~ ~ l .
Coil., 85 (iggH), 187 2 0 7 .
"' K. Ulmschnridrr, 'Scttlernrnt, economy and tllc "productivr" sitc: Middle Anglo-Saxon 1.incolnshil-c A.11.
650-780', AlediPual d~c/ia~ol.,
XLIV (2000), 53-7?; J. D. Richards rt al., 'C:ottairi: a n Aiiglian and :\rigloScandinavian scttlcrnrrlt oil the Yorkshire wolds , ilrchueol. J., 156 (rylg), r I 10; M. Garditlcr, R. C:ross.
N. Macphrrson-Grant ant1 I. Kiddler, 'Corrti~irntaltradr arid non-url)an ports i11 mid-Anglo-Saxon F:ngland:
excavations at LSandtun,Wcst Hythr, Kent', ilrclzauol. J., 158,(200 I ), I 6 I -290.
" A. Everitt, '71'lic primary towns of Eridand', 9 3 1 0 7 in idem, I,czndtcap(,anrl Comnzunzty in E : i ~ ~ / a n d ( I , o ~ ~
1985).
doi~,
?' C:. Jones r t al., 'Excavations ill the outer cnclosurc of Rotcler's Castlr, O\rci-slry, Alcrslrr, 10g2-g3', fif172(.
Rilmiri,yharn Wam~ickrhi~r
Arclzacol. .Sue., CI ( I 997) 1-98.
CHRISTOPHER DYER
92
a
'0,
1-1
Castle
\
\
\
'.
Conjectural reconstruction
- Cropmarks of ditches
Building
t
- - - -- - --
Boundaries of tenements
Burial
0
100
200m
FIG. 2
Botelcr's Cztstlr, Ovcrslry, \/\Tarwickshire. A planned s c t t l r m r n ~ol'thc I 2th century adjoining a castle. a) depicts
the cxcavatrd ant1 ohscrvrd cvidcncr. h) is a c:o~ljrcturalreconstruction ol'tllc boundaries ol'tllc s c ~ t l c r n ~ ~ l t
c . I 180. Source:,Jonrs al., op. cit. in notr 22.
but not all of them have evidence for occupation, and the settlement was
abandoned in the early I gth century. Alcester, I .5km to the north, developed into
a successful markct town near a small monastery, and at the junction of roads with
Ryknild Street, with two river crossings.
In the same county at Dassett Southend a new town was founded at the end of
the I :jth century, which achieved a modest g r ~ w t h . 'Houses
~
were closely set along
a street called Nrwland in urban style, and a smithy represents craft activity. It had
links with N. Warwickshire, from which roofing slates and pottery were brought.
The documents mention artisans and traders, and refer to a markct hall, but the
main evidence for its urban character comes from excavations. It was well sited
near a junction of main roads, at some distance from existing towns, but its
relatively late foundation, on the eve of the I 4th-century crisis, probably prevented
it from establishing its place securely in the urban network.
'3 C. Dyer, 'l'tic hidtlcr~tradr of'the Middle Ages: rvidrncc frorri the West Midlands of'Engl-land',J. IIzct. Geo~q.,18
(199')~141-57.
93
2 5 E. M. Carus-Wilson, 'Thr first Irall~ccnturyof the horouglr of Stratford-upon-Avorl', Econ. Ilict. Rra., 2nd scl-.,
XVllI (1g(i5),46-63, reprinted, 49-70, ill R. Holt and G. Rossrr (cds.), T h ~ h l ~ d i r u 'firon
a l (l.orrdotr, r 990).
", N. Palrner, 'Origins: the Romano-British and Anglo-Sax011 scttlrmcnts'; '1'. R . Slatcr., '1)onrcsday vill;~gcto
m r d i c \ ~ town:
~l
rhc topography ol'mcdicval Stratlhrd-upon-jlvon'; (:. Dyer, 'Mcdicv;rl Stratfi~rd:a suc.ccssfu1small
town', 13 -29, 30 42 and 43-61, will1 liotcs on pp. I 7 7 85, in K. Bcann;irr (cd.), 7111~Hittog' oran En~clithUoruuyh.
,S/'lra~ford-upon-AuonI rg6 19.96 (Stroud arrd Stratfbrd, I 997).
P. Woodward, S. M. Davies and A. H. Graharn, Exraua~ionsa/ Cr~vhoundIkrtl, l)oithr~/ei;1981 4 (Ilorsct Nar.
Hist. Archacol. Soc. Mon. Srr., no. 12, ryyg), 87 8; C. Haylirld and '1'. Slatcr, Th ~\lrdier~al' f i w n uf Ife(1un:
Excauation,~1975-~1976(Hull, rgGq), rq- 15;K. l\/lurphy, 'Excavatiot~si11three hurgagc plots irr thr mcdir\~altow11
of Ne\vport, Dyfrd, I 99 I ' , ~Cle(lztr~alArchaeol.,
38 (1994),63-6.
"
STRATFORD-UPON-AVON
----.Borough boundary
from metrological
Market cross
FIG. 3
Siratford-upon-Awl, \.\Tar\\-ickshirc.'Thc p1;inned io\vri of' I 196, sl~on,ingsites of'rxcava~ionsand observatio~is.
Sources: Bearman, op. cit. in notr 2 6 ; S. Crackncll, '"Eard's Walk", IVootl Street, Stratfi~rtl-upon-Avo11,
medieval structurch cxcavarcd in I 989', Tmns. Birmingl~amM/arre~ickshire
.~l~rIrauol.
Soi., 97 (19~1
I 2 ) , 57-75; idrm,
';\rchaeological exca\raiion at thc Rliriorics, Siratford-upon-A\,ol~',Trans. Birmin,~hamMurzuztk~hireArcl~aeol.,Sor.,
98 ( I $ ) C J ~ - ~ ) ,61 7 I : devrloper reports a1 \$'ar~vickshire Mtlscum Field Archaeology Unil.
T H E A R C H A E O L O G Y OF MEDIEVAL S M A L L T O W N S
95
smoothly as at Stratford. Firstly, as we have already seen, the planned town was
often preceded by a settlement which demonstrated an urban potential. At
Woottorl Kassctt in Wiltshire the borough was not mentioned in documents until
the i 3th century, but the first phase of occupatiorl dates from the I 2th century.28
Elsewhere the plan can be shown to have been an afterthought, notably at Bawtry
(S. Yorkshirc, formerly W. Riding), where in the late 12th century houses were
built on the Church Street site, but the strcct itself-withits orderly row of tenements
was not laid out until
A town plan with the usual narrow plots developed as
late as the I 5th century at Braintree in E~sex.~O
Stratford was unusual because it was planned on a large scale with a grid of
six intersecting streets from its inception. Most towns grew in stages, as Conzen
found by analysing the plan of Ludlow (Shropshire), and the same happened at the
smaller towns of Bewdley (Hereford and Worcester, formerly Worcestershire) and
Burton-on-Trent (Staffordshire)."' In the latter case the five plan units (groups of
tenements of similar size and shape, apparently laid out at the same time) can be
dated from records in the monastic chronicle to a series of monastic initiatives in
the 12th and 13th centuries. Excavations at Dorchester (Dorsct) show that the
town was extended to the south in a coordinated expansion on to agricultural land
in the I gth century (Fig. 4)."2In the same century at Taunton (Somerset) the town
took over land to the east of the High Street, when the boundary ditches of the new
plots overlaid I ath-century pits.33A suburb of Windsor, the Undcrorc on the river
bank, was developed in the I nth century.34Town plans were modified, such as the
road leading to the north gate of Cowbridge which was added aftcr the main
planning stage in the I gth century.35
All of these examples demonstrate that the authorities, usually the lords of the
towns, could manage growth flexibly, whether by boldly foreseeing the potential of
a site and laying out streets at a single creative moment which soon were filled with
tenants, or more gradually by imposing plans on existing settlements and adding
streets and suburbs, as the town outgrew its original allotted space.
The opposite of these stories of sustained growth is provided by the failure of
towns to fill the space designed for them. We have already noted that even a
spectacular success like Stratford, which gained a thousand inhabitants in only 50
years, had some empty plots on its fringes. Elsewhere excavation shows that plots
28 C. ti. Curric, 'Rescur excavations in the town of Wootton Bassctt, 1986'. 11ilt\hite .~lrrhaco/.hilt. H i ~ t .lcl,o.,
.
88
('995)>69-8 1.
2" J.4. 1)uriklry arid C:. C;. C:urnbrrpatch, Excrcauntiun.\ at 16-20 (,%z~nh
.Struul, Bnre'tly, .Youtlz l.ii,irc/~ii-r.(KAR Brit. Scr.,
248, Oxford, rgg(i), 13-18.
"' Astill, op. cit. i l l note 5,48.
'" T. K. Slatrr, 'English rncdicval Ilrw towns with composite plans: c\idrncc from thc Midlarlds', 63-6 in 'I'. R.
Slatcr (rd.), 'file Huilt R177n q/' IVfststcrr~(;itistc.s.. Esrny$for hl.R. .C; Conzun (I,ricrstcr, ~yc)o);idem, 'ILIctlieval tomilIbunding on tlic cstatcs of thr Kciiedictine Clrdcr in Erigla~id', jy j in F.-E. Eliassc.11aiid G. I\. Ersland (ctis.),
I'o'oroer, Prvfih and 1 M a n /*in& I.nndoze~n~nh$ in .Muclierlul clnd Eurb :bfoclern .l'urt/~e?nE7~roppunX~zl?zr(12ldrrsho1, r 996).
j2 Woodward, Davics and C:raham, op. cit. in note 27, 85-106.
-" I. Burrow, 'Excavatio~isat 5-8 Wrc Strrrt, 'l;lrrnton, 1 9 7 9 ' ~Somurtrl .-ln./zacol. Nut. H i ~ t . ,1 3 2 (rgHX), $j5-1(i.~,
csprcially p. $1j.
34 1. \V. H;rwkrs and M..j. Hcaton, A (:/o.rrd-thg/li Gnrrln-ohe at~drl.~.toriuted,i~ludieon/
Sti-urlur~t~ ~ , ~ P I ~ I ~ ?L h, z~Jd. Itindtur,
,
B e ~ k ~ h(Salisbury,
ir~
I cjg3):
" J. Parkhouse and FA,.E~lrans(rds.), Excnuntiunc irt (,'oz~~hizNge,ISoutIz G l ~ m o ~ y u i z1977,
88 (BAR Brit. Scr., 245,
Oxcord, ~y~(i),
106 aiid nqo-r.
$5
C H R I S T O P H E R DYER
FIG. 4
Dorchrstcr, Dorhct. Exca\ration in (>rcyhound Yard showrtl that a group of'tenrmcnts facing o ~to
i Uurrlgatr
wcrc 1;iid our c. 1 2 0 0 . T h e town hat1 developed in the prc-(~oiicluestestate ofFi~rdington,with housrs initi;llly
built alonx TIigli Stsrrt and South Street. 'I'he Uurrlga~cdrvrloI)~rlr~it
was a planned cxtrrlsion oftlrc 13th
crntury. Source: Wood\vard, Davics and Graham, 011. cit. in note 27; K. Penrl, Historic 7ui~jn.sin Uorret
(L)orchester, 1980).
were filled quite slowly. A site near St Mary's church on thc edge of another famous
I ath-century plantation, Dcvizes in Wiltshire, produced no material carlier than
the late I gth century. At Hcdon plots in tllc southcrn part of thc town were taker1
up gradually in the I ath and I $11 ccnturies, and then abarldoncd after a century
or so. Of the thrcc plots excavated at Newport (Pcmbrokeshire)which was fbunded
in c. I 197, two werc occupied at an early stage, but a third (building 3) was
corlstructcd some decades after its neighbours, though still within the I gth ccrltury
(Fig. 5).";
The chequered history oP the new towns suggests the complexity of the
dialogue between the lord and the inhabitants. The lord saw an opportunity at a
site where roads mct, near a church or some othcr point of attraction, preferably at
'"' hl. IZussrll, 'Exc.;r\-a~ionsat New Park Stl-cct, I)cvizcs, rogo', CISl/shirr il~rl~(1~01.
.NuI. his^. Atla~y.,8fi
8 8 l o r ; Habtirld ant1 Sl;rtcr, op. cit. ill notc. 2 7 , 16 rg; Murphy, op. cik. in notc 27.
(I~DR),
T H E A R C H A E O L O G Y O F MEDIEVAL SMALL T O W N S
97
Excavated site
FIG. r)
Ncwport (Pcrnhs.). A srrni-schcmatic plan I)asecl on a rer~t;~l
of' 1-134.Tl1c, town plan datcs from t 1 ~latr
. I ntli
c.cr1Lur.y. T h e dr\~elopnicntofl)uildings o n the thrce cscavarcd plots, will1 f m ~ ~)hascs
r
witliiri tllr I 3th century,
is also shown. Sourcc: Murpliy, op. cit. ill notc- 2 7 .
g8
CHRISTOPHER DYER
DEFINITIONS AND C H A U C T E R I S T I C S
Thc theme oP definitions can be introduced now that origins have been
considered, as the characteristics of a town cannot be recognized until it had been
established.
How can small towns be distinguished from large villages? Historians
emphasizc occupational diversity, so that even the 60 or I oo households of a very
small town would have made their livings from twenty separate occupations. Such
a variety of trades and crafts would not be apparent from the archaeological
evidence. Even after a number of excavations and observations at Farnham in
Surrey traces were found of only four different craft^.^' The material evidence can
reveal occupations which do not appear in the documents: bone-working, flaxprocessing and the making of stone artehcts such as mortars, but many common
urban trades, like thosc of the tailors and the mercers, usually leave no trace in the
ground. In others, such as baking and brewing, production for the market cannot
always be easily distinguished from domestic preparation of food and drink.
Perhaps the best way to identify towns in terms of material culture is to
recognize a distinctively urban use of space: high densities of buildings; rows of
houses closely packed along street frontages; narrow plots behind the houses;
peculiar strcct patterns including the accommodation of market places in front of
church doors, at the convergence of streets, or in deliberately widened main streets.
The character of the town becomes even clearer if buildings survive, because they
crcatcd a thrce-dimensional space which must have made entering a town a special
experience. Certainly in the Midlands and north until the end of the Middle Ages
towns were the only communities with large numbers of two-storey houses. The
wcaldcn house with its combination of open hall and two-storey end bays,
commonplace in Kent and the adjoining counties in both town and country, in the
W. Midlands was concentrated in t~wns.~"ome small-town buildings arc identical
with those in larger centres: a corner shop of three storeys with both upper floors
jetticd, which can be seen facing the market place at Axbridge in Somerset, would
have been incongruous in anything hut an urban context.3g Excavations and
Sui-~PJI
Arrl~arol.Cull., 85 (!998), 97- 157.
S. K. Joncs alidJ. '1'. Smith, 'Thr wraldrn lrousrs of War\.vickshirc and their sigr~ifica~lce',
J?C17~.5. Birmznglzam
.-lrchnunl. S'ni.. 79 (1900 I ) , 24-35.
"",1. c;r.cn\~illr,hfedi?r,ul fIi~u.\~u,y(I.eiccstcr, I 9~97j, 181 6.
"H
99
documents tell us ahout a negative cffcct of the high density of urban scttlemcnts,
the occasional catastrophic fires. The closely packed timber buildings adjacent to
many hearths, kilns and ovens in towns nladc thcm more vulnerable than villages
to this typc of d i ~ a s t c r . ~ "
Towns can be con~paredwith other scttlcments with potcntial town-like
qualities, such as the industrial village of Lyvedc1-1 in Northamptoiist~ire.~~
The:
houses werc associated with pottery and tilr kilns, workshops anci iron Surnaces,
hut tllc ljuildings were of peasant typc, and werc widcly spaced as would be
expcctcd in a rural settlement. Thc craIis were being combincd by the inhabitants
with agriculture, and the trnant of one excavated house was apparcntly committed
solely to agriculture for part of the 15th century, which would not have been an
easy option i11 many small towns. I11 short, 1,yvcden lacks urban characteristics.
More problematic arc the trading settlements scattered around thc countryside,
some of thcm villages with chartered markets and market places, which t ~ c a ra
topographical similarity to small towns, though their houses are often not arranged
with urban compactness. At King's Norton (West Midlands, formerly Worccstcrshire) in tllc latcr Middle Ages an unofficial market was hcld on land to the south
of the large chapel, now called the Green, which was surrounded by houses
recorded as substantial in the early I 6th century (Fig. 6).'% number of timberframed houscs were still standi~lginto the 20th century. One house facing on to the
Green which did not survive has bccn excavated. It was occupied in thc I 3 t h 1 4 t h
centuries, and its plan and construction resembled that of a rural dwelling, but the
pottery used by the inhabitants came from a wide variety of production centres,
and included an unusual range of forms, suggesting close contacts with marketing
networks.
O n the edge of some small towns were concentrations of irldustrial activity,
almost industrial zones. At Rrcwood in Stafliordshire a timher and stone platform
in use between the I 3th and I 5th ccrlturics next to a stream was associated with
t~arrelsset in the ground containing remains of hark and hemp, presumably from
tanning and thc procrssing of fihres for roprs or coarse liner^."^ Near the Wiltshirc
town of Malmcsbury finds of slag, at1 intensively used hearth, a channel for a mill,
and bones apparently discarded by tanners suggested to thc excavators that the site
had l ~ c c nused for different industries from the I 0th ccntury until recent times.-"
Urban industries were bascd on the houscs, yards and outbuildings of the artisans,
but the more noxious tradcs, such as tannino
tended to hc grouped on the edge of
?,
the town, near water, and somc processes sp~ltover into suburban open spaces.
Botanical research provides another means fbr assessing the role of a town in
relation to its rural surroundings. 'lhis has been den~orlstrixtcclfi-orn environmental
E.g. a t K;nvtr): I)unklcy :untl C:~~~irljc~-~jatc.h.
o p . cir. in nolc 2 0 , 18.
' , J . 11. S t r a n c ;LIICI C;. I". I%r.);~nl.
' B ~ c , i \ a t i o n s'11 tlic rlcsc~.~ccl
rncclicv;tl sc~ttlcmrnla t I,!\cclc~t', ,7.
.l'it/i~nitt,/)/oii
211~~wiirrt>
.I11 (i(i//rr~'.I 2 ( I 75).
'%.,Jo~ics. S. R,ltk,~i :inel P. Ellis, 'Rxca\.;rti!~li.; ;LL n o . 1 5 , T h r (;I-rcn, Kings No] (011. 1cjy2'. '11(1n>. Hi,~~iir~,yiirmz
11 kt7r,i!h,1/~it~
2 ~ l i ~ ~ l i,SOI
( ~ ~.. oI /04
. (2000). I I) I 2 I
' I. I
I
I l i t i l l i
I t ~ r t i l .B o o t o / i : l i r o / i i l , y / . I
2000
(Uil.mi~igli;t~r~
Llni\,rrsi~! 17ic.ld ~ l ~ - c . h a c oLTnit,
l o ~ post-rxc;~\ration asc.stiirll( atit1 l.c\carcli dvsigli, 2001).
" (:. I(.C:u~-l-ic,'F,u!.;~\;~tionsar th(. Postrrn nlill i t r . h l ; ~ l l n c \ l ~ ~11)8(i
~ r - y X i ' . Ili/t.thiu~.Irtiii~~~o/.
.,Yo/. IIi\/. .\In,.., 80
4"
(1<)5):3)?
58 74.
I00
CHRISTOPIIEK DYER
THE GREEN
T H E A R C H A E O L O G Y 01' M E D I E V A L S M A L I , T O W N S
I 01
.~I(/II~(,II/.
102
CHRISTOPHER DYER
(srr~all~ O \ V I I ~ )
Sizr of l~uilt-uparea;
suburljs; plan units;
ofstr-ceta
Houbcs of'varyi~lg
size arltl qualit?.:
artefacts indicative
of ~ i r i c cweal111
l
a11t1
statur, ir~cludingelite
iZ
5. Hinterlauds
1listril)ution of
pottery, I)uildi~lg
rr1atcria1a rtc.
A range ofcontacts of
li~nitctlscope c.g. f'rw
ovrrscas imports
6. C:cntr;ll place
func.tio~l\,govrrnnient, religious
institutions
7. S(~lf-governrncnt,
civic. consciousnc\s
C:;lstlrs, catlrccirals,
rnollastcrirs, cl~urcllcs,
scl~ools,hospitals,
Giarics
Public buildings,
fiaternity Ijuildir~gs,
watrr supply, bridges,
rubbish disposal
I.
Populatior~sizr
2. Social structure,
C.S.mrrcllants,
grnlry, artisar~s,
scrvarlts
,3. Occupations
q. Markets, outlets,
custonicrr
LICCOII~~S
k \ v liousrs ant1
artcf~ctsof high
status
Most small towns contained between 50 and qoo houses, but discovering the
I.
number depends on medieval documents or counting the plots visible on early
maps. Topographical analysis will reveal a limited number of 'plan units',
sometimes only onc, and rarely more than five. A small town sometimcs stimulated
thc growth oSa suburb, either a new settlement, or a village which developed townlike characteristics like Rellgeworth near Evesham (Hcrcford and Worcester,
formerly Worcestcrsllire), to mention one oS the few wherc excavations havc taken
place.47This is a rather technical way of making the obvious point that small towns
had a limited capacity Sor physical growth.
2. Small towns did not have a large number of high-status houses appropriate Sor
merchants or gentry. A fcw havc been rccogni~ed in excavations, at Altorl
103
I 04
CHRISTOPIIEK DYER
and a snlallcr proportion oS w'lrcs c anlc from cx distance. Occasionally a few dlerdj
oSimportcd pottery can be found in cvcn ,t minor inland market
7 . Civic government was a feature of small towns, though on a lesser scalc than
in the largc centres. As well as guildhalls, market halls, toll booths and other
structures associated with tnurliciyal administration, small towns equipped tliemselvcs, or were ecluippcd with, the infi-astructure on which their trade dcpendcd.
Poole's warehouse, the Town Cellars, is said to h a w bccn used to store wool. Marly
towns wcrc resporlsible for tllc construction and maintenance of bridges and roads.
Excavations of bridges arc rare, but tllosc at Kingston-on-Than~esin Surrey
demonstrate the succession ofrebuildings and rcpairs that a major bridge required.
At Towccster- in Northamptonshire the surface of the nlairl street was paved with
limestone, perhapfin thc mid-15th century. A number of small towns reccived
royal permission to collect tolls in order to Surld the paving of strccts, and this is
one of the few indications of the quality and scale of thcsc public works.""
rcmarkahlc modification of the urban space at Monmouth in the mid l a t e 1:3th
ccntury was the dumping of clay I m dccp over a number oftcncrncnts, raisirlg thc
level of thc buildings. 'l'his rnay have I~ccna rcsponsc to Hooding.57Excavators in a
number of towns note the dinlinishing quantities of material datal~lcto the cnd of
-1'4.
"' Horse), 01). cir. ill 11o~c52, :{+ 48; (;. Pottcl., "l'lic rnc,tlic\;~lI x i t l ~ cand \\a(cr.liont at liings~o~l-u~~r~~i-Tl~iiriics',
j
I!) ill Gootl,,joncs ;rntl I'o~rsli~l.tl.
op. tit. ill 11otc 18;(:. \Voocllicltl ;rncl K. C:onlon, 'T,atc tnctlic~\;il;ititl c;II.I!
T.u.d o r \Vatlitrg St1 cct. 'l'n\\c e\te~-'.. \ u I ~ ~ ~ I I I ~ / ~ ~ ~ I I ~ / I ~1 Ij ~ (1<)t1.'/,
~ ~ ~ I ~ 85
/ I ~ I<)o.
~ ~ I ~ . ,
" hIii~\cll,01'.
( it. in 1101c2 '7. I +
I(;.
1.9
05
the Middle Agcs, which rnay rrflcct the morc systematic disposal of rubbish in that
period.
'l'hcsc hc.rlchn~arksdepend on the com1)ination ofhistoricnl, geographical and
,trchac.ological appronchcs to urban (ommunities, structures, spaces and nrtefactj.
For many archaeologists thc mo5t important c h'lrnc tcristic of small towns is thcir
lack of high-cluality archaeolog-ical cleposits. 1his is true. of many sites, but wnle
exca\ ations hnvc locatcd deep and well-prcjcrs~edstructures, like thc Still site at
Peterhorotrgh (Cambridgeshire) and C:hurch Street, Rawtry."" Excabntors should
not nppronch small-town sit- with unrealistic cxpcctations, because thcy wcrc
often occupicd lor ~i relatively short time, by not very alllucnt people pursuinq
mundane occupations. Mnily cxc abations producc small quantities of inforniation,
but cumulati\~elythey can throw light on the de\ clopment of n particular town,
and everltually on url-,an jcttlcmcnts in gcncrnl.
FUNCTIONS AND DlVERSTl'Y
Attempts to characterize small towns are made dillicult by thc variety of thcir
fornls and functions. The majority had a role as the market centres for thcir
hinterlands, where a variety of produce could bc sold, and wide rarlgc of tradcd
and manufactured goods purchased. As most people who came to market werc
relatively poor peasants arid wage earners, they were requiring low key, everyday
and cheap goods and services. 111 consequcncc the townspeople could not hope to
accumulate great wealth, llencc the insubstantial structures and limited range or
pottery and artcficts on small town sites. A few placcs specialized in some local
resource, such as salt at Droitwicll (Hereford and Worcester, fbrmerly Worcestershire) and Nantwich (Cheshire),iron at Trelecll (Gwent, formerly Monmoutl~lshire)
and alabaster at Burton-on-Trent."" Some towns devclopcd a speciality ~hrough
irlgcnuity and enterprise, such as the knives of Thaxted in Essex, for wllich tllc
town had no obvious advantage in terms of access to iron, fuel or bone fix
handl~s.~'
Ports were a distinct type of small town which has attracted much archaeological attention at Hartlepool, Pcvenscy (Sussex),Poolc, and Seafbrd. In such places
shipmild 1,oats were huilt and rcpaircd, resulting in finds of prepared boat tirnhers
of c. I qoo at Poolc and a dock of the I 2th-I 4th centuries at Hartlepool (C:leveland,
formerly Co. Durham). At the same placcs ships were victualled, as inclicatcd by
the intensively used and plentiful ovens at Hartlcpool (Fig. 8), and cattle hones at
"I P. S l ~ ) c r r y
;llrtl R 1. Ililirnal~,' l i i p ,Stti/. IJrtrrhnroii,yI~:.lli~i/i~~i~n/
li~iiio~i~c
h~tri,~~i~ii
(,ll~iiih~i,y(i/~
I I ~ I II ~l i'\(qii/~
(C:~i~~ll>~.icI~c.
19911);Dullklc? ;LIICI C : I I I I I ~ ) C I . I > ; I ~ C(01).
~ ~ .ril. ill II(>(C 2:).
I!'
j. D. IIurht, .I A l / ~ ~I'cli~oil
/ ~ i ,SII// I'~o(/rir/ioriSitc 01 I)n~i/ic'ciIi:I<~~iiz~ii/~oli\
ii/ 1;l,rc'zt/i(C:K,\ Kc\. Kc[,.. H I 7. 1 997):
l i . ' R l c ~ c i l ,- I ' \ \ o I ~ ~ I I - ( ~ . T\vie11
I ~ LIIOIISCY
I ~ ) ill N ; ~ t l ( \ \ i c IC:hc.shil-c',
~.
.\lo(li~r'cr/Alichi~~jo/..
X X l ' l l (111111;). +o-><f<;
:i',
L \ ~ i ~ ~ ~ i i ~ lAlilfii/..
t h ~ / i iXwI ( I O $ ) ~ ) . 7 I I\(;: h l . H,rriiiltotr ,111cl
K. Ho\\.cll, .Kuc;l\.,rtion\ at Trclcrh, (hvrnt, 1!)!)1
R. ITo\vcll, -1'rrIc~c.ll:(Ire zcophy.;i~.;llbur\ (%y o l pos\il>lc
~
rnctlicv;~l11oq1ic.r site'. .\li.il~n~c~l
.li(/ii~~ol..
X I l l l r (9ooo).
PX) y j ; C:. Dyer, ''I'll(> i l r I ) ; ~ t l io~l i' S
~~~~~~ l l i ~ ~ - c ltlrc
s l ~fii~n -( c1111;1sc\',
.:
lS/~i/oi~L\/iii~~
Stiiil\.. I 4 ( 2 0 0 2 ) . I ri I .
"" 1). F;cc.lr(.. 'Slriall lo\\n\ allel ~hc.n~ctropoli\:thc. c.xpcl-ic.nc.co r m(~clic.\.;rlEngl,tlrel'. 1?2:3 :;ti ill,].-hl. I)~~\,o\rlrtcl
21rlcI F,. TII,ICI~
(?CIS.),l'f(l\ii~l/\ I~III/'fi111,/7
~iii1~11
zii '1 It~(11t~~iiI
E/LIII/II~
(C;lirtil, I 9q5).
I 06
CHRISTOPHER DYER
Poolc."' Goods were carried to these ports along thc coast or frorn overseas, as is
cvident from the exotic pottery and small finds which are Sound in greater
quarltities than in inland towns.
River ports car1 also have distinctive assemblages of pottery, like the wares
represented at Hcnley-on-Thames (Oxfordshire), which iiicluded the predictably
high proportion of' Oxfordshire wares, but also a good deal of pottery which had
come 1111 the rivcr from Surrey and somc from the capital. Bawtry's role as an
inland port is reflected in finds of pottery from overseas, includirlg Sairltongc
ware." Many towns relying mainly on roads scrvcd as 'gatcway' markets, by
~~rovidiiig
a channel of communication hetwccil contrasting rural rcgions.
l'eter1.1orough had such a role on thc cdge of the fens and near the frontier bctween
woodcd and arable landscapes, and its pottery in thc period I 2 5 0 1450 was
supplied mainly from the kilns of S. Tincolnshire and from Northamptonshire, arid
with some warcs from fenland sources, such as Ely (Fig. 7a). Pottery Srom more
distant centres in East Anglia (such as the Grimston kilns) and abroad also came
along the fcnland waterways."" Inns hclp us to identily the 'thoroughfare' towns
which dcrived part of their living by servicing thc travellers on rnajor roads.
Small towns also varicd from rcgiorl to region, and bcttcr understanding of
these differences will tell us about the towns in relation to the local landscape and
settlement pattern. 'Types of town plan may form clustcrs in particular regions, and
further work on house types, builcliirg materials, and timber framing may rcvcal
local peculiarities, such as the wealdens of the W. Midlands already mentioned
(p. 98). Excavations at Tynemouth in Northumberland showed that k~uildii~g
construction using earthfast posts persisted in the I gth and 14th centuries when it
was being rcplaccd by stone foundation walls and timher framing further to the
south, even as near as H a r t l e p o ~ l . ~ ~
A remarkable local diversity emerges from distribution maps of small towns,
which wcre cspecially numerous in the south-west and in particular in Dcvon, but
rather sparse in the East Midlarrd counties, such as Nottinghamshir~.~"
Towns
should be recognized as part ofthe wider pattern of settlement, so they stand out in
arcas of dispersed settlement in the south-east and west, but are not so distinct
among the rluclcated villages in the 'feldon' or 'champion' country of central
southern England, the Midlands and the north-cast. The formation of many towns
came later than the prcsumcd period of village nucleation, but the two processes
were not completely scparatc, and both types of scttlement formation inr~olvedan
element of planning.""
"'
R. Daniels, 'l\lcdicv;il IIartlcpool: cvidr11c.r o S anrl li-or11its \\atcl.fi.ont', 43-50 in Good, Jones anrl PonsL)rcl.
or,. c i ~ in
. nore 18, 4.3 50: D. R. ILttkins,
' ~ / I PI+~)III~(/T~.:
E.x((17,il/iori\ o ~ Po'
i oolc, I I i~/r!/iun/.1!186-7 (I)orclic~icr..r$)c)+),
23-43. 8"11"'191
'" C : . hlolonc), 'Rxca\ a i i o n ; ~ r ~l~uilclirlg
cl
sur\.cy .I( Bell SLI-vet,
Hc111~~y-on-Th:11rics.
I<)$):; 1994', Oxonirt~\ici.1,MII
1e)07), I ~ O - 3 3Uullklcy
;
;rnrl C:urnl)crpatc.l~.op. cii. in note 2:). 86.
S ~ J O ~ I T a11rI
>
1Iil111l:i11,<>I>. cit. in l ~ o t c58,50-82.
( i . R. H ~ I I L'F,xca\
.
,ltir)r~\; I ( ' l ' y ~ i c ~ r l o ~1yj5'.
~ ~ l l ,2-lri/i(~(,o/..,Idio~i(i.,>[II scs., 25 ( l y ) 7 ) .87 I 08.
I . l.al1~11to11:irlcl C . 1)vcr..
in III(- l ; ~ i cAli~lrllc
~"wcs: <I r01111xiriso11..
. , ' S ~ I I ; It Io~\ \ ~ l sin the r2isi 21r1cl\vest ~~li(ll~iliri\
Llli;j/i~iidh;;.,~..
S X I V (lay,). 24-52.
"" (:. Lr~vis,t'. h l i ~ c l ~ c l l - F,111~1
~ ~ xC . l ) y ( ~ 17//i<yr.
,
FIait~/r/~ I I fi('//l:
I ~
(,'/ii~~i,yiii,y
L l l ~ ~ ( / i (LSr///(,ri~i,ri/\
~ ~ ~ i i / 171 (,>,7ili.o/ Ei~,$(l~iil
(2nd cd., hlacclcsficld, 2oo1). I 11 1 (i.
('I;
BULKINGTON
(trade contacts)
+ Verwood
10
20km
10mls
a) Pc~crtjoronxl~
((:a~iil)i-itlgcst~irc).
\till1 c.cr;rtiiic e\ itlcncc fhr 11.,itlcI)ct\\cc.n tli\-crsc I-rgions.I)) Rulki~~gtoli
(IViltsllirc), 511o~tin: potlrry nlaliirig \ i t w aritl towlls likrl) lo 11;t\.c~jl;rycda rolr in di\tl.il)ution. Solll.cc.s:
Spocrry
i ~ ~ i ITillllia~~,
cl
01). (it. i l l
08
HARTLEPOOL
CHRISTOPHER DYER
Stone foundations
or robber trenches
Hearths, ovens, kilns
10
20m
T H E A R C H A E O L O G Y O F M E D I E V A L SMALL T O W N S
'09
otters may have sold thcir warm from village to village, but the distances between
Bulkington and the production sitcs (from 15 to 50 km) nlakc it rrlore likcly that
products wcre taken to the markct towns within a Sew kilornctrcs of each centre of
at Warminstcr, hlarlborough, Salisbury and R;lalrnesbury (Fig. 7b).
manufacture
'l'hc pots would have hecr~distributed throtrgh the market system by middlcrneii
who visited Trowbridge and Dcvizes markets, where tllcy would have 1)cerl
availak~lcto the Kulkington peasants.
Notjust pottery was acquircd in this way, as we must assume that many of the
small finds on village sitcs came from urban traders. For example, tllc 2 1 tofis of
the rural settlcmcilt at Mlcstt~ui-y(Buckingharnshire), occupied from the ~ o t lto
i the
16th centuries, yiclded rnorc than a hundred bucklcs and buckle plates (some
fragmentary), pins, harncss fittings, a finger ring, a pendant, a thimhlc, mirror
case, seal matrix, and other copper-alloy ol~jects,together with an iron padlock
and spur that are tunlikely to have beer1 madc 11y a country smith, imported stonc
objects such as hones, a mortar and pieces of handmill, and oyster shells.""lhc
mist likcly source of such specialized artefacts and traded goods would have hccn
the towns of Fenny Stratfhrd, Stony Stratford and Newport Pagncll. Westbury's
peasants, like those at Bulkington and thousands of other rural cornrnunities, livcd
too far from largc towns to be aide to use their facilities rcgularly, though no doubt
some of the better quality metalwork or importcd goods that they l~oughtin a local
market had comc down thc conimcrcial network from a largc town.
We ought not to exaggcratc the cornnlcrcial role of towns in the period I 2001 g 0 0 We know that much exchange went on within the village, and that larger
producers would sell thcir corn, hay, animals and f i r c ~ ~ o odirectly
d
to the
consumers. In a fully urbanized system we rnight expect that pcasants would havc
sold animals to town butchers, arlcl bought joints oS meat from the butchers' stalls
as they needed thcm. This may havc happened, I)ut among the aninla1 bone from
the rural site at West Cotton in Northamptonshire were skulls and other parts of
the skelcton normally deriving from butchery waste, showing that the animals wcre
killed and the meat distributed in thc country by the peasants themselves, or
peasants who were also part-time butcl~rrs.~"
-
II 0
CIHRISTOPHER DYER
impressive evidence has come from excavations on the edge of the medieval builtup area. Work at Al~ingdon(Oxfordshire, formcrly Bcrkshirc), Crawley in Susscx,
Evesham (Hcrcford and Worcester, formcrly Worccstcrshirc) and Godalming havc
all produced evidence of medieval buildings and occupation at some distance Srom
the town centre."
Expansion may seem ot~viousbecause that is also the message of the writtcn
sourccs, above all the thousand markct charters of 1200-1350 and documents
mentioning hundreds of boroughs especially in the I gth century. But archacology
contributes a great deal to our appreciation oS this phase of urbanization, because
the documents orlly tell us about legal market privileges and the conferring of
l~urgagetcnure. The market and the town could have existed long before the formal
grant of privilege. O r the charters, if they were creating new institutions, might not
have succeeded in their aims, and the markct or town would not havc come into
bcing. The material evidence may lend occasional support Tor the existence of a
'proto-urban' scttlernent before the advent of a borough. At Hartlcpool the town
sccms to havc l~egunslowly, with scattcrcd buildings inhabited from the late I I th
century, but the really intensive occupation, with narrow plots crowded with
buildings used as dwellings and for crafts, appeared aftcr ahout I 250 (Fig. 8).72
Archaeology gives us a very useful corroboration of the reality of urban life. It
is often said that the rlcw borougl~sof the I gth century were no morc than villages
pretending to be towns. An example is Rrewood in Staflbrclshire, a borough of
apparently no more than 25 hurgages in the I gth century in the midst of a rural
estatc of the bishops of Coventry and T,ichfield. A wide range of crafis and trades
in the town is not documented until I 381, so it is very helpful to see material
evidcnce for industrial activities on the fringe of the town from the I gth century.
Together with newly discovered evidence that there were twice as many burgages
as previously thought, it has a strong case for being regarded as a fully [ledgcd
town.'" To I-~cmore corlfidcnt about thc chronolog,~of urbanization we need to
know morc of the archacology of the small towns of the 10th and I I th centuries,
such as the numerous early boroughs of the south-west. Similarly the so-called
'failed boroughs' of the I ath and I gth centuries deserve more careful investigation.
The false starts need not detract Srom our overall impression of an urbanizing I gth
century. The flourishing of a town Sor a few decades was a significant event at the
time: we sliould not regard such a temporary phase of urban growth as insignificant
hccausc the town did not survive into modcrn times. The casualties arose Srom
fierce competition fuelled by commercial growth, and the 'deserted towns', like
Oversley (scc pp. 91-2, above) were oftcn rapidly overtaken by successful
neighbours.
" B. IVilsoi~."l'ratlc. i ~ l t l u t r yant1 domrstic activi~)iit tlic Old C:Io~tiirigFactor.) sitc, iIl)ingtlotl', Oronlni~ia.I , I \ '
270p86: R1. K. Rol~crts,'Exc:n.atiorrs at hlr. Il:t~-trick's ,Irms Hotrl anti tllc C~.o\\n
pul~licI ~ o l ~ s83
c , 88.
Ock Street. .\l,ingrlon', O\onipii\in, IXII ( I ~ J C )1~(Y-78;
),
S. Ste\clrs, 'l:xca\ation\ at tlic (~)ltlPost O f i c r sitc, I 5-1 7
I-Iigh St1-rrt, (:~.anlcy.\ \ h t Sus\cx', , S I ~ ~ \lPl Yi - ( / i ( ~ ~(,'o//.,
~ ~ I . 135 (1907)~10'3 208; R. Etl\\;rr.tls ant1 I). Huryt, 'Iron
.Axe scttlcmrllt <r~ltl
a tnedic\ a1 ;r~itlI;rtcrIirt-n~stcatl:cxc,r\ irtiolr at $1:;
j High Street. E\,csharn', 71(lns. Tlbi(r.\tp~.\lii~p
~ ~ sthy
l ) cxca\.ators as a 'to\\n-rtlgc
.I~tlicico/. .So<., 3rd .;el., r j (.rooo), 7 3 1 1 0 (tliisis drscril)ctl ; i ~ ~ i l ) i g ~ l o11).
,;.r~~n\~c;rcl');
I<. I'otllton, 'C;otlaltning', .(bil-i.r ;Iic.lia~ol.(,"oil., 85 (1998). 1 59 20:).
R. Daniels, "l'lrc tlc\eloprncl~to f r ~ ~ c t l ialc \Hartlcpool: ~-\ca\atio~rs
at C:lrut-cli Close, 1<]8.1 85', .-lrt/int~ol.J.. I 17
(j;19"), 337 -110.
1))cr.. op. <it. in 11otc55). c) I o.
(I$~I).
"
T H E ARCI-IAEO1,OGY O F M E D I E V A L S M A L L T O W N S
I11
From around 1300, the 'crisis' of the later Nliddle Ages, there is a mixed
impression of decline, survival and growth. Some towns wcre sliding downhill by
c. 1:300. Kurgage plots fell vacant at Newport (Pcmbrokeshire) at the end of thc
I 3th century, and a sitc on the east side of Warcham in Dorset was occupicd in thc
I 2th century and abandorlcd in the I gth.'" Often houscs fell into decay in the 14th
and 15th centuries, for example at Brackley (Northamptonshire) and Cowbridge.
'Tenements at Hartlepool wcrc intensively occupied in the late 19th and 14th
9
centuries, but by c. 1400 one plot bccame a yard while on an adjolriing plot the
buildi~lgswere reduced in numl~cr.Later in the 15th century all of the houses on
the site fell into disuse (Fig. 8). Sometimes whole sections of towns wcre
abandoned.'" O n one sitc in Poole at thc end of the Middle Ages a layer of 'dark
earth' was recognized, comparable with thc evidence for thc phase of dcurbanization in Roman towns. The decline of the small port of Pevensey was
reflcctcd in the narrower ranwe
orimported pottery in the 15th c e n t ~ ~ r y . ' ~
?
To reflect the contrary vlew, sorne excavators havc expressed scepticism about
the apparent absence of 15th-century occupatiorl on thcir sites, when documents
suggest that the town was still a c t i v ~ . 'Was
~ the lack of material causcd by a new
patter11of rubbish disposal? O r did plots of land change function, with shifts in the
location of crafts, which did not necessarily mean that the town became poorer or
disastrously smaller?
Population was low and stagnant in both town and country for almost two
centuries after the Black Death of 1348-9, a period which contained a 'great
depression' in trade in the middle of the 15th century. In a remarkable tribute to
the vigour in sections of urban life some small towns grew in size, and a few ncw
towns emerged. Devon is famous for its prosperity in the I 5th century, and we find
a proto-town at Exmouth where cxcavations have revealed a chapel and a clustcr
of houses, apparently a settlement Sor fishermen and mariners which began in the
I eth century hut expanded in the I 4th and I 5th. On the edge of Newton Abbot,
plots which had been laid out in the 13th century were hcing subdivided and
occupicd more irltcnsivcly two centuries later (Fig. g).'"opography
and documents tell us that Pcnsford (Avon, formerly in Somerset) grcw in an unplanned
cluster of clothmakcrs' houscs straddling parish and manorial boundaries.'"
Within the small towns, whethcr they were growing or declining as a whole,
new timber-framed houses wcre being constructed. These may in some cases
reprcscnt the investment decisions oflandlords, who demonstrated thcir corlfidcnce
in the long-term future. In others, the houses would have hccn built 11y their
" h l u ~ l ~ l r 01'y. , (it. in note 2 7 ; 1'. A. Harding, L. hlrpham ;111d K . , J . C:. Srnitlr, "l'lic cxca\aliorl of ~ n t l r 1:;th
vclltury
deposits at Ho\vard's L ; I I I ~\\r;rrrhatn',
,
Dor\i~f
.\ill. Hi\/.
I I ~ I ~ ( ~So(.
~ u/'rut.,
l . I T j (IC):)~),
81 (JO.
.
' I R. Xthins, /I. Ctr;~prnan and 1\1. Holrncs, 'l'hc
cxca\.alior~ of a r ~ l c d i r n lI~:rkr/hrcwlrorrsc at 'l'ht- l*;lrns,
B1.aclilcy. Northarnptonslrirc,J;rll. I ygy', .\'O~t/lflnl/~to~l\/llr?11~t/1~1~11/..
28 ( 1 9 ~ 1 ~8 y )5, 2 1; P i t r k h ~ i ~;LIICI
s ~ EV;~IIS.
op.
cic. in nore 35, I 11) 2 3 ; I):tnicls, op. c'it. in nutc 72; Astill. op. cit. i r l ~ ~ o 1.t c1.5); C;. G. .lstill, :-\rc.hacolo~\iant1 11ic
l;,lc-rncdicbal urb;lrl decline', 2 1-1-34 ill '1'. l i . Slalcr (ctl.). ??~ic,ll.\iit ~ k 2 c / t r l el o. ~o~1 6 o o (.-\ltl~.rshot,2 ~ 0 0 ) .
Horse), up. c'il. ill 11otc 5% 2 9 ; ll;lrhcl., op. (.it. i r l ~ r o t c52, 1 I 3.
.
.
C:urric', 011. cit. in notc 2 8 , 75 6.
"' P.J. i\~cddcll,"l'llc cuca\-ation of'~nrdic\ala l ~ dI;ltcr Irouscs ant1 St. hl;ir-~;rrct'sclial~rlat I'xrnor~th,I 982-1 98.1',
firor. /)c.r'on dlrhnuol. .Sor., I. 1 (ISDO), 1 0j 1 I ; idrrn, 'The cxc;rvation ol'~nctlic\~nl
and 1atc.1.holrcs ;it \ V o l b o ~ ~ o u ~ h
Strcct, Nrwton Ahbor', Ptoc. 1)roon .-lnhnc.01.,Sir.. 43 (1985) 77-I"!).
ic' R. Idi-ccl~.
,Srr1/11/,\l(~li(,7'111
'filzt'n\ill /17'(171(Bri\rol, I 975). 45 -0.
~
"I
I I2
CHRISTOPHER DYER
50
NEWTON ABBOT
100m
FI(;. <)
K ~ \ \ ~ I: Jl lI~Il , o(Dc\.on).
~
(:ll;uinilrg plots ill \ \ ' o l l ~ o ~ - oStrc,c.i,
~ ~ d ~I : ~ ~ I I - Ilitl-1c.c.l~c~~ricc.
Sourcc: T\;lcltlcll, op. cit.
in 11011. 78.
DATED BUILDINGS
1300
1320
1340
1360
1380
1400
1420
1440
1460
1480
1500
1520
1540
1560
1580
1600
occupants, who mu5t habe heen enjoyirlg sonic prosperity. From dcndrochronologi ~ d research,
l
on tlle hasis of the I I I dated secular and norl-,~ri5totr ,ttic building5
in srnall towns from the pcriod I 300-1 600, the early 14th cciitury is quitc well
1-cpresentcd, cspecially considering the low chances ol'sur\i\~alfrom 5uch ,t11 c'trly
pcriod (Fig. I o). Tllc pcriod I 340- 1400 n1' s not \ cry actib e, whlcll diffcrs from tllc
pattern in larger town\, tllough thcrc was .ipp.trently a reductiorl in nri5tocratic
l~uildingnt this time. As in tllc cnsc of pcns'int houses, t l ~ eI 5th century, and morc
pal ticulnrly the pcriod 1430 yo, 5t,tnds out
n pcriod of house c o n s t r u c t i ~ n . A
"~
I13
CONCLUSION
Srnnll towns repay the eflbrts of archaeological in\ cstigation. Exc a\ldtioil,
work o n standing building3, analyiis of town plans and other interrogationi of tllc
rnatc~ialevidcnce can rcbeal new dimellsions of the u r h n past. Small toxvns wcrc
the meeting placcs and conllnercial hubs for the m'ljority of mcdieval people.
'l'heir origins c'tn bc traccd to the mnrkcts l~csidcrninitcr churches or in more
rcrnote places bcforc 850, to the estate centre5 of the inmc pcriocl, and to the burh
I>u~lding
oi thc pcriod 870-1020. Small towns were growing throughout the I ~ t h
and I eth centuries, hut in the largest numhcrs in c. I I 70- r 280. Archdcology ihows
that thii wn5 not just an illusion created by docurnrnts, as rriarly small towns made
a strorlg imprint in material term\. The proliferation ol small towni was an ciicntial
part of urbani~ation without the network of small market centres, the larycr
towns, the ports arid the lnrgc-scale international trade of the r gtll nrld subsequent
centuries could not hnbc exiited. In the uphc'tbal ol the rnushrootn growth of the
I ~ t l and
i
13th centuries, some towns [ailed. The sut15equent history of the small
towni rcflccts the rcality of thc shrink,tge in the fcttlerlicrlt pdttern as a whole after
the micl- 14th century. Exnmplcs of cxpdndirlg t~wiis,I ~ C Wtowils 'tnd ne\.v buildings
warn us from mnking too yloorny an asicssmcnt of ,t pcriod of much ccollornic and
culturnl vitctlity.
Thc archacolog-y ol the small towrrs givcs u\ ~ic\vway\ of lookiilg ,it the
countryside in which the town5 lay. 'Tllc towns take on varied 'tspccts in tliffcrcnt
l,tndscapes, appearing ill the 'champion' rcyions, or the 'Central Province' as
1drgc.r nnd functionall) specialii.ec1 nucleations among many cornpact villayes, but
in the south-cast and thc west t 0 ~ 1 1stand
i
out promirlerltly anlong the sc'tttcred
llanilets nntl farnmstcnds. h e markets of small towni helpcd to crente changei in
consuniption arid material culturc in the later hliddlc Aye\ which arc apparent in
thc flnds and buildings on rural settlement sit(,\. Town dild country ivcrc entwined
in nn exchange of yoods within liirltcr1,tndi nrld betwern regions. In rclntion to the
urban hierarc hy a bundle of char,tctcristics cnrr he ascribed to the imall towns, ns a
typc of ur hnn icttlement wliic 11 is distinguiihed from tllc highcr o r d c ~ccntrcs not
in tcrmi of tlicir cluahtics but by their smaller scale.
Srnnll towns a1 c revealed 'is diberse communit~es.rhcy include ports, gateway
towni, thoroughfar c toxvrls, and occasionally ccntr cs of spcciali/cd manuSacturc. A
fcw menltlly inlinhitnnts livecl in thcrn. They wcrc plnnncd in a Laricty ol forms,
and sul>scqucntlysome accluircd ncw plan units, nild a few ynthcrcd suburbs. They
-
14
CHRISTOPHER DYER
help up to dcfinc regional differences, not just in the dcn5ity of thcir distribution,
but in thcir material prosperity, architecture and religious institutions.
Rcscarch into the nrchacology of small towns has taught u5 much, and in thc
future will rcvcal much more.