EXPANSION OF SOLIDS

CO-EFFICIENT OF LINEAR EXPANSION

May be defined as the increase in length which a bar of unit length
undergoes when its temperature is raised through 1C?
The Statement: - The Co-efficient of linear expansion of brass is 0.000019
may be interpreted as: - 1 metre of brass expands by 0.000019 metre per 1
C rise
1 cm of brass expands by 0.000019 cm per 1 C rise
Formula
L2 = L1 (1 + (t2 t1))
Where - Coefficient of expansion
Example: A straight piece of iron pipe is found to measure 10 metres at a temperature
45C. Find increase in length when steam at 105C flows through the pipe
= 0.000012 / C
L2 = L1 (1 + (t2 t1))
= 10 (1 + 0.000012 (105 45))
= 10 (1 + 0.000012 (60))
= 10 (1 + 0.00072)
= 10 (1.00072)
= 10.0072 metres
Increase in Length = 0.0072 m
= 7.2 mm
Example: A steel tape used for measuring distances is correct at 20C. If the tape is
used when the temperature is 15C and the measured distance is 1000
metres. What is a better estimate of the correct length? ( = 0.000012 / C).
L2 = L1 (1 + (t2 t1))
1000 = L1 (1 + 0.000012 x 5)
1000 = L1 (1.00006)
L1 = _1000_ = 999.94 m
1.00006

COEFFICIENT OF SUPERFICIAL EXPANSION B

This may be defined as the increase in area which a surface or plate of unit
area undergoes when its temperature rises through 1C (strictly, from 0C to
1C). It can be shown to be very nearly equal to twice the liner coefficient,
that is: Coefficient Superficial Expansion = 2 B = 2
COEFFICIENT OF CUBICAL EXPANSION C
Again, this is the increase in volume which a unit volume undergoes when
its temperature is raised from 00 C to 10 C
It can be shown to be very nearly equal to three times the linear coefficient,
that is
Coefficient of Cubical expansion = 3
C= 3
Example: A hollow brass vessel has a volume of 120 cm3 at 20C.
Find its volume at 65 ( for brass = 0.000019 / C)
V65 = V20 (1 + 3 x 45)
= 120 (1 + 3 x 45)
= 120 x 1.002565
= 120.3078 cm3
EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS
Liquids have no shape and therefore no fixed dimensions. Thus, we are
concerned only with their cubical expansion. Moreover, liquids have to be
contained in some vessel. Owing to the expansion of this vessel, the
apparent expansion of the liquid is less than the true value.
Two Coefficients are used. The Coefficient of apparent expansion is the
apparent increase of unit volume for 1 rise in temperature. As with solids
the coefficient is usually quoted for 1C rise from 0C to 1C. The
Coefficient of absolute or real expansion is the true increase in unit volume
for 1 rise in temperature. That means allowance is made for the expansion
of the vessel.
Coefficient of real expansion = Coefficient apparent expansion +
Coefficient cubical expansion of vessel

For most liquids the coefficient of expansion is not constant, varying

throughout the temperature range. Some liquids have a very small variation
and as in the case of solids it may be assumed constant for many practical
purposes. Formula using Y as the appropriate coefficient, real or apparent,
V2
= V1 [1 + Y (t2 t1)]
(very nearly)
Example: A tank is loaded at a temperature of 12C, the ullage giving a volume for the
liquid in the tank as 803m3. The discharging temp is estimated to be 31C.
At this temp the tank has a capacity of 815m 3. Calculate if the tank has been
overloaded.
Y = 720 x 10-6 / C
V2 = V1 (1 + Yt)
= 803 (1 + (720 x 10-6 x 19) m3
= 813.99 m3
Thus tank has not been overloaded.
Example
A glass vessel contains 9.12 cm3 of mercury which just fills the vessel at 200
C. What volume of mercury, measured at 500 C, would be expelled if the
temperature is raised to 500 C?
Co-efficient of absolute expansion of mercury = 0.00018
Co-efficient of linear expansion of glass = 0.000084
Since the quantity expelled will depend upon the expansion relative to the
glass vessel, we must use the apparent coefficient.
Abs. coeff of mercury = 0.00018
Cub. coeff of glass (3) = 0.0000252
And subtracting
App. Coeff of mercury = 0.0001548
We now have V50 = V20 (1 + Y (50 30) =
V50 = V20 (1 + 30Y)
V50 = V20 + V20 x 30Y
i.e volume expelled is 9.12 x 30 x 0.0001548,
which on reduction gives 0.0424 cm3, expelled

Exercise 1
1. An iron sphere has a volume of 120 cm 3 at 100C. Find its volume at
1000C. (Co-eff of linear exp. Of iron = 0.0000102).
2. The bulb and stem up to the zero mark on a mercury-in-glass
thermometer have a volume of 0.5 cm3. If the stem is 0.02 cm internal
diameter, find the length of a degree on the scale. (Co-eff abs. exp.
mercury = 0.00018, co-eff of linear exp. Glass = 0.000008)
3. A glass vessel holds 1000 cm3 mercury at 50C. if the temperature of
the whole is raised to 900C, what mass of mercury is expelled/ (Abs.
coeff mercury = 0.00018; linear coeff of glass = 0.000010, R.D of
mercury = 13.6)
4. A sheet of tin is 3 m square at 70C. Find its area at 520C. (coeff of
linear exp for tin = 2.1 x 10-7 /0C)
5. The density of a piece of metal alloy is 7.12 x 10 3 kg/m3 at 2870K and
7.09 x 103 Kg/m3 at 3130K. Calculate the coefficient of cubical
expansion of the metal.

EXPANSION OF DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES

The amount that different substances expand varies. Dealing with rods of
various metals: - for example, brass expands about 1 times as much as
steel; aluminium expands about twice as much as steel. An alloy of steel and
nickel called invar has an exceptionally small expansion when its
temperature is raised. Differing rates of expansion has many useful
applications.
The Bimetallic Strip
Brass

Before heating

Iron
Brass

After heating

Iron

When heated, the brass expands more than the iron and causes the bimetallic
strip to bend. The brass becomes longer than the iron.

ELECTRIC THERMOSTAT

The principles of a thermostat control the temperature of a room, warmed by

an electric heater. The electrical heater circuit is completed through the two
silver contacts of the thermostat, one of which is attached to a metal strip S
and the other to a bimetallic strip M. If the room becomes too hot, the
bimetallic strip bends, as the brass expands much more than the invar, and
separates the contacts. The electric current is cut off. As the room cools, the
bimetallic strip straightens again. The contacts meet again, current flows and
the heater switches on again. The temperature at which the contacts open is
controlled by a screw which presses against an insulating sleeve on the metal
strip S. If S is moved to the left, the bimetallic strip will have to bend
further before the contacts open, and so a higher temperature will be
maintained in the room.
THE GAS LAWS
One characteristic property which distinguishes a gas from a solid or a liquid
is that a gas always fills any enclosure in which it is placed; its pressure and
temperature adjusting themselves to the volume available.
A gas consists of molecules which are in continuous motion and the
pressure exerted by a gas is the result of the enumerable encounters
between moving molecules and between molecules and the walls of the
container. Since any gas fills any space available to it, if a vessel, say,

containing a given mass of gas is made larger, the molecules will have more
space to move about in, encounters will be fewer, and pressure will fall. The
converse is also true.
BOYLEs LAW
When temperature of a given mass of gas is kept constant, the volume varies
inversely as the pressure.
V
= K x 1__
P
PV = Constant
or P1 V1 = P2 V2
CHARLESs LAW
Deals with what happens when the temperature varies, the pressure being
kept constant
Gases all have the same co-efficient of expansion
The value is 1__
273
The coefficient of expansion of a gas under constant pressure is 1/273; that
is, if the temperature of a given quantity of a gas be raised by 1C, its
volume would increase by 1/273 of its volume at 0C.
The same applies if a gas is cooled. Thus, if we started off with a given
quantity of gas at 0C, and cooled it, for each 1C it would lose 1/273 of its
original volume (its volume at 0C) so that after cooling it for 273C i.e.,
down to a temperature of 273C, there would be nothing left of the original
gas.
This temperature, 273C is known as the Absolute Zero, and a scale of
temperature which starts at the absolute zero is called the Absolute Scale (or
Kelvin Scale).
Thus 0C corresponds to 273 K.
And 100C corresponds to 373 K.
Charless Law
May also be expressed as: The volume of a gas is proportional to its absolute temperature, the pressure
remaining constant.
V1 = T1
V2
T2

Law of Pressures
The pressure of a gas whose volume is kept constant increases by 1/273 of
its pressure at 0C for each C rise in temperature.
Thus, it follows that if the volume is kept constant,
The Pressure Varies Directly As The Absolute Temperature.
P1
P2

= T1
T2

If pressure, volume and temperature all vary, we may combine the last two
laws in the following convenient formula.
PV is constant
T
Then
P1V1 = P2V2
T1
T2
Examples
1) Boyles Law
Air is enclosed in a 24 cm long tube, closed at one end. The atmosphere
pressure is 1006 mb. If the air is now compressed to 2.5 cm in length,
the temperature remaining constant, what is the pressure on the air?
Let cross sectional area of tube =
A
P1 = 1006 mb P2 = X
V1 = 24 x A
V2 = 2.5 x A
P1V1 = P2V2
1006 x 24 x A =
X x 2.5 x A
x
= 1006 x 24 x A
2.5 x A
= 9657.6 mb
= 9.658 Bar
Boyles Law: When the temperature of a given mass of gas is kept constant, the volume
varies inversely as the pressure.
V

= K x

PV = K

1__ Where K is same constant

P

or
P1V1 =
P2V2
Charless Law: Tells us what happens when the temperature varies, the pressure being kept
constant. In other words, we have a given quantity of gas, and without
bringing any increased pressure to bear on it, we are going to heat it or cool
it a straightforward question of expansion and contraction like any other
substance.
Different solids have different coefficients of expansion. But gases all
have the same coefficient of expansion and it is 1/273.
Definition of Charless Law: The co-efficient of expansion of a gas under constant pressure is 1/273, that
is, if the temperature of a given quantity of gas be raised 1C its volume
would increase by 1/273 of its volume at 0C.
The same applies if a gas is cooled. Thus, if we started off with a given
quantity of gas at 0C and cooled it, for each 1C it would lose 1/273 of its
original volume (its volume at 0C). So that, after cooling it for 273C that is
down to a temperature of minutes 273C there would be nothing left of the
original gas.
This temperature, 273C is known as the Absolute Zero, and a scale of
temperature which starts at absolute zero is called the Kelvin scale (K) (or
Absolute Scale).
273C =
0K
0C = 273K
100C = 373K
In any calculation involving Charless Law, Kelvin scale must be used for
temperature.
Thus

Charless Law Maybe Expressed:The volume of a gas is proportional to its absolute temperature, the pressure
remaining constant.
V1 = T1
V2
T2
Law of Pressures
The pressure of a gas whose volume is kept constant increases by 1/273 of
its pressure at 0C for each 1C rise in temperature.
Therefore, if volume is kept constant pressure varies directly as the
absolute temperature.

P1 = T 1
P2
T2
Combination of Boyles and Charless Law The Equation of a Perfect
Gas:Pressure varies directly as temperature and inversely as volume
P = KxT
V
PV = K
T
Then P1V1 = P2V2
T1
T2
CALCULATIONS - EXAMPLES
Boyles Law:Air is enclosed in a 24 cm long tube, closed at one end, the atmosphere
pressure being 1006 mb. If the air is now compressed to 2 cm in length,
its temperature remaining constant, what is the pressure on the air?
Let cross section area of the tube be A
P1 = 1006mb
P2 = ?
V1 = 24 x A
V2 = 2.5 x A
P1V1 =
1006 x 24 A=
1006 x 24 =
2.5
=

P2V2
P2 x 2.5 x A
9658 mb

(A cancels out)

9.658 Bar

Charless Law
A given mass of gas occupies 150 cm3 at 60C. What will be its volume at
40C, the pressure remaining constant?
The temperatures must be converted to Kelvin
T1 = 60C = 60 + 273 = 333K
T2 = 40C = 40 + 273 = 313K
V1 = T1
V2
T2

150
V2
V2

= 333
313
= 150 x 313

333
3

V2 = 141 cm
Law of Pressures
A cylinder contains a fixed volume of oxygen at 40C, the gauge showing
2.2 bars, what would the gauge read if the temperature fell to 5C?
P1 = 2.2 bar
P2 = ?
T1 = 40C = 313K
T2 = 5C = 278K
P1
P2

= T1
T2

2.2 = 313
P2
278
P2

= 2.2 x 278
313

P2

= 1.954 Bar

EQUATION OF PERFECT GAS

8m3 of air is closed pressure vessel exerts
What pressure would it exert at 60C?
P1 = 60 kn/m2
V1 = 8m3
T1 = 20C = 293K
P1V1
T1

a pressure of 60 kn/m 2 at 20C.

P2 = ?
V2 = 8m3
T2 = 60C = 333K

P2V2
T2

60 x 8 =
293
P2 =

P2 x 8
333
60 x 8 x 333
293 x 8

P2 =

68.19 kn/m3

Exercise 2
1. A cylinder contains 1500 cm3 of oxygen at 400C, the gauge showing
2.2 bar. What would the gauge read if the temperature fell to 50C. ?
2. A gas in a cylinder exerts a pressure of 240 KN/m2 at 500C. What
pressure would it exert when compressed to one quarter of its former
volume, the temperature meanwhile rising to 1850C ?
3. The air in a diving bell occupies 26 m 3 at sea level, where the pressure
is 1 atmosphere and temperature is 360C. What volume would it
occupy when sunk to a depth of 44 m in the sea., where the
temperature was 280C (1 atmos = 10m sea water) ?
4. A car tyre is at 2.1 bar pressure when the temperature is 6 0C. What
would the pressure be when the temperature rose to 220C ?
5. Air is enclosed in a 24 cm long tube, closed at one end, the
atmospheric pressure being 1006 mb. If the air is now compressed to
2.5 cm in length, the temperature remaining constant, what is the
pressure of the air ?

NATURAL SOURCES OF HEAT

Heat is energy cannot be created. It can only be obtained from the natural
reserves of heat in the earth, or by methods which themselves depend on the
earths reserves of heat. The principal commercial source of heat is by the
combustion of fuel.
Fuel is any substance capable of chemical combination with the oxygen
in the atmosphere and may be solid, liquid or gas.
The efficiency of fuel is generally defined by its calorific value. This
means the quantity of heat given out by the complete combustion of unit
quantities of the fuel for example:Wood
18 x 106 J / kg
Soft Coal 26 x 106 J / kg
Anthracite 33 x 106 J / kg
(Hard Coal)
6
Fuel Oil 44 x 10 J / kg
Such figures vary somewhat according to the grade of any particular fuel.
PETROLEUM FUELS

In the widest sense, petroleum embraces a branch of hydrocarbon deposits

including liquid, gaseous and solid (such as Bitumen or Asphalt). In the
commercial sense the term is usually restricted to crude oil is refined by
distillation into four main categories of fuel:- Gasoline, Kerosene, Gas oil
(including diesel oils) and fuel oil.
Other products include Propane and Butane. The fuels under
consideration are burnt under widely varying conditions and each type of
fuel must have combustion characteristics appropriate to its use.
The most important characteristics are:Volatility:The ability to give off vapour, gasoline is a liquid that
vaporizes readily, while kerosene and other fuel oils
require higher temperatures to induce vaporization.
Boiling Point:-

The temperature at which a liquid boils and remains

constant until all the liquid has evaporated. Volatility is
associated with boiling point. A liquid with a low boiling
point is more volatile than one with a higher boiling
point.

Flash Point:-

The lowest temperature at which a combustible material

will give off enough vapour to form an inflammable
mixture with air. Thus the flash point assesses both the
volatility and the inflammability of a fuel. The flash point
of gasoline is well below normal atmosphere
temperatures.
Ignition Point (Fire Point):- If an oil is heated above the flash point it
will reach a temperature where combustion occurs. This
is the ignition point.
Crude Oil its distillates and their uses.
GASOLINE
Very volatile fuel; highly inflammable, can have boiling point as low as
30C. Mainly used in spark-ignition internal combustion engines, but direct
injection engines have been developed in recent years.
KEROSENE

Has variety of uses including Jet Fuel, for oil lamps, oil heaters etc. less
volatile and less inflammable than gasoline.
DIESEL OIL
Comes in many grades; various blends of all distillates which are heavier
than kerosene. The various grades are marketed to suit the type of engine
under consideration. For the relatively slow speed diesel engine for marine
use, the grade would be quite thick and heavier, whilst a road vehicle will
use a much lighter grade.
Engines that use this type of fuel are compression-ignition engines. The
lighter grades are referred to as gas oil.
FUEL OILS
Consist almost entirely of the residue from the distillation of the heavier
crude oils. They are viscous and are hard to vaporize and need to be heated
first to reduce viscosity. Fuel oils are burnt in conventional boilers to
produce steam. For a number of years now fuel oils have been use to operate
slow speed and medium speed marine diesel engines.

HEAT
Heat is a form of energy and when a substance absorbs heat, it gains energy.
The energy is given to the molecules of any substance receiving heat. A
substance is heated, the molecules vibration increases. When the substance
cools, or gives out heat, the vibration of the molecules diminishes.
Heat must not be confused with Hotness, all substances contain some
heat. Even a block of ice contains some heat.
Heat is a measurable quantity and is measured as a quantity of energy
(i.e. Joules of heat energy). Temperature is the measure of the Degree of
Hotness, when a body absorbs heat it becomes Hotter it is in fact a
measure of the average Kinetic Energy of the molecules in the body. In a cup
of boiling water the average Kinetic energy of the molecules is higher than
that of the molecules in a block of ice. (Boiling water is at a higher
temperature than ice).
TRANSFER OF HEAT
Difference of temperature is the essential requirement for heat energy to
transfer or flow from one body to another. Heat will pass from a body with a
higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature. It cannot pass from a
cooler to hotter body. When two bodies are at the same temperature, no
transfer of heat will take place.
Kinetic Energy is the energy a body possesses in virtue of its motion.
Transmission of Heat
There are 3 ways
1) Conduction
2) Convection
3) Radiation
Conductions:- is the transfer of heat by direct contact with heat source. It is
the flow of heat through an unequally heated body from
higher temperature to lower temperature.

Convection:- is the motion of the hot body itself carrying its heat with it.
Air, for example, when heated, expands, becomes less dense,
and begins to rise. Liquids behave in the same way.
Radiation:-

is where the hotter body losses heat and the colder body
gains this heat by transmission through some intervening
medium which does not itself become hot.

Effects of Heat
When a body receives or loses heat, various effects are produced.
The main effects:1) Change of physical properties.
e.g. iron heated to red hot state loses magnetism.
2)

Chemical Change
The most common change occurs when combustion occurs. Coal,
wood, oil, for example, when heated sufficiently combine vigorously
with the oxygen in the air and change chemically into other substances
such as carbon and gas giving out large amount of heat as they do so.
This process is called Combustion.

3) Change of Temperature
As already mentioned, it is difference of temperature that causes heat
to flow. When heat is put into a body, temperature; conversely,
temperature falls when heat is taken out. The only exception to this is
when a body is changing its state.
4)

Change of State
Nearly all substances may exist in three states; Solid, Liquid, Gas. A
substance is said to be changing its state when it is changing from
Solid into Liquid or from Liquid into Gas.
A good example:- ice water steam
Heat has to be put into a block of ice to turn it into water, but while
the change of state is taking place, no rise of temperature occurs. All
the heat energy is absorbed in working the conversion, and only when
the last particle of ice is melted will the temperature finally start to
rise. The temperature will rise until the water boils, then no rise in
temperature will occur whilst changing into steam.

5)

Expansion and Contraction

Almost all substances expand when heated and contract when cooled.
The only notable exception to this rule is water. Water, whilst being
cooled, contracts until the temperature reaches 4C, but then expands
again as the temperature falls to freezing point at 0C. Thus, a given
quantity of water occupies its smallest bulk at 4C, which is another
way of saying that water is at its greatest density. At that temperature
(4C), this fact has important implications. It explains why water
always freezes on the surface first; the less dense water at 0C rises to
the top over the denser water at 4C. It also partly explains why ice
floats.
Further Notes on Conduction

Good and Bad Conductors

On a cold day (i.e. at temperatures much below that of the hand), a good
conductor feels colder to the touch than a bad conductor. This is because the
good conductor conducts heat away more rapidly from the hand. A piece of
steel feels colder than a piece of wood even though both may be at the same
temperature.
On a hot day (i.e. at temperature much above that of the hand), a good
conductor feels hotter to the touch than a bad conductor. This is because the
good conductor allows heat to flow more rapidly into the hand. All metals
are good conductors, substances like wood and stone are bad conductors. Air
is a bad conductor; clothes and the fur of animals contain insulators and
keep body heat in.
Further Notes on Convection
Convection in Liquids
When a liquid in a vessel is heated from below, the convection currents
caused by the heating establish a system of circulation in the liquid. What
starts the convection is that the liquid in direct contact with the heat source
becomes heated, expands, becomes less dense, and rises to the top above the
denser liquid. As it rises, colder, more dense liquid takes its place, becomes
heated, and rises and so on. Under this system, the liquid circulates round
and round, every part of it in turn being brought near the heat source until
finally the liquid boils. A kettle full of water being heated on a Gas Ring is a
good example.

The Domestic Hot water supply system is another example of heating water
by Convection.

mains inlet
Expansion Pipe
O
overflow
cold supply
tank

Supply to hot taps

Hot
Water
Storage
Tank

Cold
Return

Boiler

A convection current of hot water from the boiler rises up the flow pipe A
while cold descends to the boiler through return pipe B where it becomes
heated in turn. In this way a circulation is set up with the result that the hot
water storage tank gradually becomes filled with hot water from the top
down.
Further Notes on Radiation
Brightly polished bodies radiate badly; a silver tea pot is a good example. It
keeps the tea hotter than other teapots. On the other hand, hot water radiators
should be painted with a dull paint to increase their radiating power.

Black bodies radiate heat more rapidly than polished or light coloured
bodies. Black bodies also absorb heat more rapidly than light coloured
bodies. For this reason dark clothing is unsuitable for very hot weather.
Practical Applications of Radiation
THE VACUUM OF THERMOS FLASK
Cork
Vacuum
Silvered Surfaces

The flask consists of a double walled glass vessel having a vacuum between
the walls. Both walls are silvered on the vacuum side. This contained in an
outer container made of plastic or metal. No heat can enter or leave the inner
flask by convection or conduction, because of the vacuum.
A certain amount of heat can be transferred through radiation, but this is
kept to a minimum owing to the silvering. Also, some heat can be
transmitted by conduction through the thin glass walls at the neck and
through the poorly conducting cork. But the sum total of heat transfer is very
small so that a hot liquid remains hot for a long time. Equally, cold liquids
will remain cold.
THE GREENHOUSE
Act as a very efficient heat trap. Heat from the sun in short wavelength
passes easily through the glass into the greenhouse. The earth and objects
inside absorb the heat, then re-radiate. The temperature inside is raised
through conduction & convection. The re-radiated heat is of long
wavelength and cannot penetrate the glass, thus keeping the inside
temperature much higher than outside.
HEAT ENERGY
Heat energy is measured in Joules.
Joules of Thermal Energy

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

The specific heat capacity of a substance is the quantity of heat required to
raise 1 kg of that substance through a temperature change of 1C.
For example, 4180 J of heat are required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of
water through 1C. Thus, the specific heat capacity of water is 4180 J/kg C.
Therefore, the amount of heat required to raise 2 kg of water through 1C
would be
4180 x 2 J = 8360 J
The amount of heat required to raise 10 kg water through 10C would be
4180 x 10 x 10 = 418000 J
= 418 kJ
Hence the formula:Q = MCT
Q = Quantity of Heat
M = Mass of Substance
C = Specific Heat Capacity
T = Change in Temperature (t2-t1)
Example
To find the quantity of heat to raise 3 kg iron from 5C to 90C; given that
specific heat capacity of iron is 450 J/kg C.
Change in temperature:
90 5 = 85C
Then Q = MCT
= 3 x 450 x 85 J
= 114750 J or 114.75 kJ
Example
1.26 MJ of heat energy is extracted from 5 kg of water at an initial
temperature of 80C. Calculate the final temperature of the water (C for
water = 4200 J/kg C).
Q = MCT
1.26 x 106 = 5 x 4200 x T

1.26 x 106 = T
5 x 4200
T = 60C (this is change of temperature)
Then Final Temperature = 80 60 = 20C
Example
4.5 kg of lead require 63 kJ of heat to raise its temperature by 100C.
Calculate specific heat capacity.
Q = MCT
63000 = 4.5 x C x 100
C =
63000
4.5 x 100
= 140 J/kg C
EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION
The Vaporization or Evaporation of water takes place at all temperatures.
The reverse process, of converting water vapour back into a liquid is called
Condensation.
In both processes, latent heat is involved. When evaporation occurs, heat
is required; this heat is taken from the surroundings. The latent heat required
to convert 1 kg water into water vapour is 2.5 MJ (an average figure). When
condensation occurs, the latent heat is released.
One illustration of the heat required when evaporation takes place is the
Hygrometer. Air in contact with the wet bulb requires heat in order to absorb
moisture from around the wet bulb. Heat is taken from the surrounding
environment, causing the temperature of the wet bulb to fall, hence the
depression of the wet bulb.
THERMODYNAMICS
Means movement of heat (heat and motion), the movement of heat or heat
transfer a vital requirement for the working of a steam engine
(reciprocating or turbine) can also be defined as the transfer of heat from one
place to another.
The very basic consideration of heat flow is:- heat (which is energy
cannot vanish into nothing, this the law of the conservation of energy. It may
be used in moving parts of an appliance (converting into mechanical
energy); it may be dissipated apparently lost into some unavailable form; it
will still exist somewhere, usually by warming some part of its surroundings
and creating internal molecular energy of the surroundings.

First Law of Thermodynamics

The total energy of a closed system remains constant. This presupposes that
there is such a thing as a closed system (Nothing getting in, nothing getting
out, or assuming no losses). The production of mechanical energy (as in
the steam engine) by the combustion of fuel is anything but a closed system.
Wastage is enormous.
In previous heat calculations mixing hot with cold, we have assumed
that all the energy is transferred across, in reality. However, there must be
some loss of available energy.
The First Law could also written as:Heat and mechanical work are mutually convertible and in any operation
involving such conversion of one form of energy to the other, within a
closed system, the total energy present remains constant.
What is made clear is that in no circumstances can one extract more
energy from a closed system than the total energy present.
The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
In any closed system, heat will flow from a Hot Region to a Cold Region.
Consider a Steam Engine:The heat flow is from the Hot Region (boiler) to the Cold Region (The
Condenser) and it is dependent on the difference of temperature between the
two that governs the availability of energy. Moreover, the availability of
energy requires that the temperature difference be maintained. In a closed
system the temperature difference would ultimately diminish to zero. In a
steam engine, an injection of fresh fuel keeps the boiler temperature up and
cold water keeps the condenser temperature down.
Not only is it impossible to extract more energy from a system than the
total energy present; it is a fact that the available energy is always less than
the total energy.
Mixing Hot with Cold
If we mix hot water with cold then the resulting mixture will be at some
temperature between that of the hot water and that of the cold.
Therefore, we can say that the heat lost by the hot water is equal to the
heat gained by the cold water. This is not strictly true because it assumes that
no heat is lost to the container or to the surroundings.

Example 1
44 kg of water at 92C is mixed with some cold water at 20C. The final
temperature of the mixture is 69.5C. Calculate the mass of the cold water.
(Assuming that no heat is lost to the container), specific capacity of water
4200 J/kg C.
Heat lost by hot water = MCT
= 44 x 4200 x (92 69.5)
Heat gained by cold water =
MCT
= M x 4200 x (69.5 20)
______________________________________
Heat lost =
44 x 4200 x 22.5 =
M =

Heat gained
M x 4200 x 49.5
20 kg

Example 2
20 kg water at 18C is mixed with 35 kg water at 90C.
What is final temperature?
Heat lost = Heat gained
35 x 4200 x (90 t) =
20 x 4200 x (t 18)
147000 (90 t) =
84000 (t 18)
13230000 147000 t =
84000t 1512000
13230000 + 1512000 =
84000t + 147000t
t = 63.82C
Example 3
A piece of iron of mass 5 kg and specific heat capacity 450 J/kg C is at a
temperature of 100C. It is quickly immersed in 6 kg of water at 25C. Find
the resulting temperature of the mixture (specific heat water 4200 J/kg C).
Let t be the final temperature
Iron:Heat lost = MCT
= 5 x 540 x (100 t) Joules
For water:-Heat gained = 6 x 42000 x (t 25) J
Heat lost = Heat gained
5 x 450 x (100 t) = 6 x 4200 x (t 25)

225000 2250 t = 25200 t 630000

225000 + 630000 = 25200 t + 2250 t
855000 = 27450 t

t = 31.15C
Still using above example:
Now suppose that container has a mass of 0.75 kg and a specific heat
capacity of
424 J/kg C.
Then heat gained by container = 0.75 x 424 x (t 25)
= 318 x (t 25)
Note:-

We have assumed that container was initially at the same

temperature as the water it contains.

Then,
Heat lost by iron = heat gained by water + heat gained by
container.
2250 x (100 t) = 25200 x (t 25) + 318 x (t 25)
225000 x 2250 t = 25200 t 630000 + 318 t 7950
225000 + 630000 + 7950 = 25200 t + 318 t + 2250 t
862950 = 27768 t
t = 31.08 C
Example 4
30 kg of water at 90C are poured into a vessel of mass 10 kg and specific
heat capacity 1344 J/kg C containing a block of iron of mass 7.8 kg and
specific heat capacity
450 J/kg C. If the initial temperature of the iron
and vessel was 22C;
Find the final temperature of the mixture.
Heat lost by water

= MCT
= 30 x 4200 x (90 t)

Heat gained by Vessel & Iron

= 10 x 1344 x (t 22) + 7.8 x 450 x (t 22)
30 x 4200 x (90 t) = 10 x 1344 x (t 22) + 7.8 x 450 x (t 22)
126000 (90 t) = 13440 (t 22) + 3510 (t 22)
11340000 126000 t = 13440 t 295680 + 3510 t 77220
11340000 + 295680 + 77220 =
13440 t + 3510 t + 126000 t

11712900 = 142950 t
t = 81.84C
The Effect of Heat in causing change of state
As already mentioned, that while a substance is changing state that although
heat is continuously supplied, there will be no rise in temperature until the
change of state has been completed.
When ice is heated, no rise in temperature will occur until all the ice has
melted into water. The temperature will then rise until the water boils, when
it will again stop rising until all the water is converted into steam.
This is because whilst the change of state is occurring, all the heat energy
is absorbed in achieving the conversion, and is therefore is not used to
stimulate the molecular energy, which is necessary for temperature to rise.
The heat used in effecting a change of state is called Latent Heat.
Specific Latent Heat of Fusion of Ice
(Fusion = Melting)
The amount of heat energy required to convert 1 kg of ice at 0C into
water at
0C = 334 x 103 J/Kg
Specific latent heat of vaporization of water:
The amount of heat energy required to convert 1 Kg of boiling water at
1000C into steam (vapour) at the same temperature is called Specific latent
heat of vaporization of water and it is about 2260 x 103 J/Kg
Example 1
How much heat is required to bring 20 kg ice at 0C Up to 30C (specific
heat of water 4200 J/kg C)
Heat required to melt the ice
Heat req. = ML
= 20 x 334000 J
= 6,680 000 J
Heat req. to raise 20 kg of water through 30C
Q = MCT
= 20 x 4200 x 30 J
= 2,520 000 J
Total heat required = 6,680 000 + 2,520 000 J

= 9,200 000 J

(or 9.2 MJ)

Example 2
12 kg ice (0C) is dropped into 30 kg water at 62C. Find the final
temperature of the mixture if the container holding the water has a mass of
90 kg and specific heat of 700 J/kg C (specific heat of water 4200 J/kg C)
Let Final Temperature be t C
Heat gained by ice = Heat lost by water and container.
Heat gained by ice = 12 x 336000 + 12 x 4200 x t
= 4032000 + 50400 t
Heat lost by water/container
=30 x 4200 x (62 t) + 90 x 700 x (62 t)
=11718000 189000 t
4032000 + 50400 t =11718000 189000 t
Final temperature = 32.1C
Example 3
Find heat required to raise 10 kg dry ice at 12C
To water at 15C
(specific heat dry ice = 2100
J/kg C)
(i) Heat req. to raise ice from 12C to 0C
= 10 x 2100 x 12 = 252000 J
(ii) Heat req. to convert ice to water
= 10 x 336000

= 3360000 J

(iii) Heat req. to raise water from 0C to 15C

= 10 x 4200 x 15 = 630000 J
Total heat req. = 252000 + 3360000 + 630000 J
= 4242000 J (4.242 MJ)

Example 4
Find heat required to convert 100 kg water at 90C into
Steam at 100C
(specific heat of water 4200
J/kg C)
(i) Heat req. to raise water from 90C to 100C
= 100 x 4200 x 10 = 4 200 000 J
(ii) Heat req. to convert water to steam
= 100 x 2250000 J
= 225 000 000 J
Total heat req. (i)+(ii)=
229.2 MJ
Example 5
20 kg steam at 100C is passed into a mixture of ice (30 kg) and water (100
kg) (Temp 0C). The container has a mass of 48 kg and a specific heat of
875 J/kg C.
Find final temperature
Heat given up by steam = Heat gained by ice, water, container
(i) Heat given up converting steam to water at 100C
= 20 x 2250 x 103 J
(ii) If t is final temperature,
Heat given up falling to this temp
= 20 x 4200 x (100 t) J
(iii) Heat used melting ice
= 30 x 336 x 103 J
(iv) Heat used in raising 130 kg ice/water plus container
= (130 x 4200 x t) + (48 x 875 x t)
Now (i) + (ii) =
(iii) + (iv)
t = 64.5C = Final Temperature

Exercise 3
1. A copper vessel of mass 12 kg contains 60 kg of water, both being at
room temperature, 360 C. Into it is passed 4 kg of steam at 1000C. Find
the resulting temperature of the vessel and contents.?
2. 6 kg of ice at 00C is dropped into 11 kg of water in a vessel of mass
1.5 kg and spec. heat capacity of 800 J/Kg0 C, both at 720C. Find the
temperature of the vessel and contents at the instant all the ice is
melted ?
3. A drum of negligible mass contains 26 kg of water at 250c. Steam is
passed through it until the temperature of the water is 85 0C. What
mass of steam has been passed through it ?
4. 6 kg of steam at 1000c is passed through a brass vessel of mass 32 kg,
containing 125 kg of water at 120C. Find the resulting temperature of
vessel and contents ?