Set Theory

SET
A set is a well-defined collection of objects or elements. Each element in a set is unique. Usually
but not necessarily a set is denoted by a capital letter e.g., A, B, ....., U, V etc. and the elements are
enclosed between brackets { }, denoted by small letters a, b, ....., x, y etc. For example:
A
B
R

=
=
=
=
=

Set of all small English alphabets

{a, b, c, ....., x, y, z}
Set of all positive integers less than or equal to 10
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
Set of real numbers

{x : - < x < }

The elements of a set can be discrete (e.g. set of all English alphabets) or continuous (e.g. set of real
numbers). The set may contain finite or infinite number of elements. A set may contain no elements
and such a set is called Void set or Null set or empty set and is denoted by (phi). The number of
elements of a set A is denoted as n(A) and hence n() = 0 as it contains no element.

Union of Sets
Union of two or more sets is the best of all elements that belong to any of these sets. The symbol used
for union of sets is 'U'
i.e. AUB = Union of set A and set B
= {x : x A or x B (or both)}
e.g. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 4, 5, 6} and C = {1, 2, 6, 8} then AUBUC = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 8}.

Intersection of Sets
It is the set of all of the elements, which are common to all the sets. The symbol used for intersection
of sets is ''.
i.e. AB = {x : x A and x B}
e.g. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} an B = {2, 4, 5, 6} and C = {1, 2, 6, 8}, then ABC = {2}.
Remember that n(AUB) = n(A) + n(B) -(AB).

Difference of Two Sets

The difference of set A to B denoted as A - B is the set of those elements that are in the set A but not
in the set B i.e. A - B = {x : x A and x A}.
In general A-BB-A
e.g. If A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {b, c, d} then A - B = {a, d} and B - A = {e, f}.

Subset of a Set
A set A is said to be a subset of the set B is each element of the set A is also the element of the set B.

The symbol used is '

' i.e. A

B <=> (x A => x B).

Each set is a subset of its own set. Also a void set is a subset of any set. If there is at least one element
in B which does not belong to the set A, then A is a proper subset of set B and is denoted as A
e.g. If A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {b, c, d} then B A or equivalently A

B.

B (i.e. A is a super set of B).

Equality of Two Sets

Sets A and B are said to be equal if A

B and B

A and we write A = B.

Universal Set
As the name implies, it is a set with collection of all the elements and is usually denoted by U. e.g. set
of real numbers R is a universal set whereas a set A = [x : x < 3} is not a universal set as it does not
contain the set of real numbers x > 3. Once the universal set is known, one can define the
Complementary set of a set as the set of all the elements of the universal set which do not belong to
that set. e.g. If A = {x : x < 3 then

(or Ac) = complimentary set of A = {x : x > 3}. Hence we can

say that A U = U i.e. Union of a set and its complimentary is always the Universal set and A
= f i.e. intersection of the set and its complimentary is always a void set. Some of the useful properties
of operation on sets are as follows:

Illustration:
If A = {a, b, c} and B = {b, c, d} then evaluate A B, A B, A - B and B - A.
Solution:
A
A
A
B

U B = {x : x A or x B} = {a, b, c, d}
B = {x : x A or x B} = {b, c}
- B = {x : x A and x B} = {a}
- A = {x : x B and x A} = {d}

Natural Numbers
The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 ......... are called natural numbers, their set is denoted
by N.
Thus N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ......}

Integers
The numbers .....-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 ....... are called integers and the set is
denoted by I or Z.
Thus I (or Z) = {.... -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 ....}. Including among set of integers
are:

Set
Set
Set
Set

of
of
of
of

positive integers denoted by 1+ and consists of {1, 2, 3,....} (N)

negative integers, denoted by 1- and consists of {..., 3, -2, -1}
non-negative integers {0, 1, 2,...} called as set of whole numbers
non-positive integers {..., -3, -2, -1, 0}

Rational Numbers
All numbers of the form p/q where p and q are integers and q 0, are called
rational numbers and their set is denoted by Q.
Thus Q = {p/q : p,q I and q0 and HCF of p,q, is 1}. It may be noted that
every integer is a rational number since it can be written as p/1. It may also be
noted that all recurring decimals are rational numbers. e.g., p = 0.3 =
0.33333.....
And 10p - p = 3 => 9p = 3 => p = 3/9 => p = 1/3, which is a rational
number.

Irrational Numbers
There are numbers which cannot be expressed in p/q form. These numbers are
called irrational numbers and their set is denoted by Qc (i.e. complementary set
of Q) e.g. 2, 1 + 3, p etc. Irrational numbers cannot be expressed as
recurring decimals.

Real Numbers
The complete set of rational and irrational numbers is the set of real numbers
and is denoted by R. Thus R = Q Qc.
It may be noted that N I Q R. The real numbers can also be expressed in
terms of position of a point on the real line. The real line is the number line
where the position of a point relative to the origin (i.e. 0) represents a unique
real number and vice versa.

All the numbers defined so far follow the order property i.e. if there are two
numbers a and b then either a < b or a = b or a > b.

INTERVALS
Intervals are basically subsets of R and are of very much importance in calculus
as you will get to know shortly. If there are two numbers a, b R such that a <
b, we can define four types of intervals as follows:

Open interval: (a, b) = {x : a < x < b} i.e. end points are not included
Closed interval: [a, b] = {x : a < x < b} i.e. end points are also included.
This is possible only when both a and b are are finite.
Open-closed interval : (a, b] = {x : a < x < b}
Closed-open interval : [a, b) = {x : a < x < b}
The infinite intervals are defined as follows:

(a, ) = {x : x > a}
[a, ) = {x : x > a}
(-, b) = {x : x < b)
(-, b] = {x : x < b}
Intervals are particularly important in solving inequalities or in finding domains
etc.

INEQUALITIES
The following are some very useful points to remember:

a < b => either a < b or a = b

a < b and b < c => a < c
a < b => a + c < b + c c R
a < b => -a > -b i.e. inequality sign reverses if both sides are multiplied by a negative number
a < b and c < d => a + c < b + d and a - d < b - c
a < b => ma < mb if m > 0 and ma > mb if m < 0
0 < a < b => ar < br if r > 0 and ar > br if r < 0
(a+(1/2)) > 2 a > 0 and equality holds for a = 1
(a+(1/2)) < -2 a > 0 and equality holds for a = -1

SINOSODIAL CURVE METHOD

In order to solve inequalities of the form (P(x)/Q(x)) > 0, (P(x)/Q(x)) < 0, where P(x) and Q(x) are
polynomials, we use the following method:
If x1 and x2 (x1 < x2) are two consecutive distinct roots of a polynomial equation, then within this
interval the polynomial itself takes on values having the same sign. Now find all the roots of the
polynomial equations P(x) = 0 and Q(x) = 0. Ignore the common roots and write
(P(x)/Q(x)) = f(x) (((x-1)(x-2)(x-3)....(x-n))/((x-1)(x-2)(x-3)....(x-m)))

where 1, 2, ......, n, 1, 2, ........, m are distinct real numbers. Then f(x) = 0

for x = 1, 2, ......, n and f(x) is not defined for x = 1, 2, ........, m. Apart from
these (m + n) real numbers f(x) is either positive or negative. Now arrange 1,
2, ......, n, 1, 2, ........, m in an increasing order say c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, ........,
cm+n. Plot them on the real line. An draw a curve starting from right of
cm+n along the real line which alternately changes its position at these points.
This curve is known as the sinosodial curve.

Illustration:
negative.

Let f(x) = ((x-3)(x+2)(x+5))/((x+1)(x-7)). Find the intervals where f(x) is positive or

Solution:

The relevant sinosodial curve of the given function is

f(x) > 0 x (-5, -2) (-1, 3) (7, ) and

f(x) < 0 x (-, -5) (-2, -1) (3, ).
Exercise
(i)

Let f(x) = (x2-3x+2)/(x2-1). Find the intervals where f(x) is negative.

(ii) If ((x-1)(x-2)2(x-3)3)/((x-4)2(x-5)6) > 0, then find the values of x.

INEQUALITIES

LOGARITHM
* The expression logb a is meaningful for a > 0 and for either 0 < b < 1 or b > 1.
*

a = blogb a

loga b = logc b/logc a

logb a = 1/loga b provided both a and b are non-unity

logb a1 > logb a2

ABSOLUTE VALUE
Let x R. Then the magnitude of x is called it's absolute value and is, in general, denoted by |x|. Thus
|x| can be defined as,

Note that x = 0 can be included either with positive values of x or with negative values of x. As we
know all real numbers can be plotted on the real number line, |x| in fact represents the distance of
number 'x' from the origin, measured along the number-line. Thus, |x| > 0. Secondary, any point 'x'
lying on the real number line will have its coordinate as (x, 0). Thus its distance from the origin is
x2.
Hence |x| = x2. Thus we can defined |x| as |x| = x2 or |x| = max (x, -x)
e.g. if x = 2.5, then |x| = 2.5, if x = 3.8 then |x| = 3.8.
Basic Properties of |x|
* | |x| | = |x|
* |x| > a => x < a or x < -a if a R+ and x R if a R* |x| < a => -a < x < a if a R+ and no solution if a R- {0}
* |x + y| < |x| + |y|
* |x - y| > |x| ~ |y|
* The last two properties can be put in one compact form namely,
|x| ~ |y| < |x + y| < |x| + |y|
* |xy| = |x| |y|
* |x/y| = |x/y| y 0

Illustration:

Solve the inequality for real values of x: |x - 3| > 5.

Solution:

|x -3| > 5 => x - 3 < -5 or x - 3 > 5

=> x < -2 or x > 8 => x (-, -2) (8, ).

GREATEST INTEGER AND FRACTIONAL PART

Let x R then [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x and {x} denotes the fractional
part of x and is given by {x} = x - [x]. Note that 0 < {x} < 1.
e.g. x = 2.69 => 2 < x < 3 => [x] = 2, x = -3.63 => -4 < x < -3 => [x] = -4
It is obvious that if x is integer, then [x] = x.
Basic Properties of greatest Integer and Fractional Part
* [[x]] = [x]x, [{x}] = 0, {[x]} = 0
* x - 1 < [x] < x, 0 < {x} < 1
* [n + x] = n + [x] where n I

* [x] + [-x]

* {x} + {-x}

* [x+y]

Hence [x] + [y] < [x + y] < [x] + [y] + 1

* [[x]/n] = [x/n] , n N, x R

INEQUALITIES
Illustration:
If y = 3[x] + 1 = 2[x - 3] + 5, then find the value of [x + y].
Solution:
We are given that 3[x] + 1 = 2([x] -3) + 5
=> [x] = -2 => y = 3(-2) + 1 = -5.
Hence [x + y] = [x] + y = -2 - 5 = -7.

Illustration:
Solve the equation |2x-1| = 3[x] + 2{x} for x.
Solution:
Case I: For x < 1/2, |2x -1| = 1 - 2x => 1 - 2x = 3[x] + 2{x}
=> 1 -2x = 3(x - {x}) + 2{x} => {x} = 5x - 1.
Now 0 < {x} < 1 => = 0 < 5x - 1 < 1
=> 1/5 < x < 2/5 => [x] = 0 => x = {x}
=> x = 5x - 1 => x = , which is a solution.
Case II: For > , |2x - 1|= 2x - 1
=> 2x - 1 = 3[x] + 2{x} => 2x - 1 = 3(x - {x}) + 2{x}.
{x} = x + 1
Now 0 < {x} < 1 => 0 < x + 1 < 1 => -1 < x < 0
Which is not possible since x > 1/2.
Hence x = is the only solution
Even though inequalities do not fetch an independent question but the concept is
invariably used in 2-3 questions every year. This can also help in calculations in
Physics and Physical Chemistry, so this cannot be ignored. For more free online
study material and live classroom programmes visit askIITians.com.

Cartesian Product
Let A and B are two non-empty sets. The Cartesian product A B of these sets
is defined as the set f all ordered pairs (a, b) such that a A and b B. For
example If A = {2, 3. 4} and B = {4, 9, 16} then A B = {(2, 9), (2, 16), (3,
9), (3, 4), (3, 16), (4, 9), (4, 4), (4, 16)}. Out of these ordered paired elements
of some are related with each other (In above example the second elements of a
bold marked ordered pair is the square of the first. Such ordered pairs are called
related ordered pairs.
A subset 'f' of the Cartesian product A X B is called a function from A to B if and
only if to each 'a' A, there exists a unique 'b' in B such that (a, b) f. Thus the
function from A to B can be described as the set of ordered pairs (a, b) such that
a A and b B and for each 'a' there is a unique 'b'. This function may be
written as:

f : A B or A B
Thus, a relation from A to B is a function if and only if
(i) To each a A, there exists a unique 'b' n B such that (a, b) f
(ii) (a1, b1) f and (a1b2), f => b1 = b2.
Graphically, if f(x) is plotted in the y axis against x and if a line parallel to y axis
cuts f(x) at more than one point then f(x) does not fulfill the requirement of a
function, because for same value of x, you will have two values of y. (see fig. 1)

x = y2 is not a function, because of x = 4, y = +2.

e.g. If A = [a, b, c} and B = {d, e, f}
Then f = {(a, d), (b, d), (c, e)} is a function from A to B but g = {(a, d), (a, e)}
is not a function from A to B.
The unique element b B assigned to a A is called the image of 'a' under f for
value of f at 'a'. 'a' is called the pre-image of 'b'. Also 'a' is called
the independent variable, and 'b' is called the dependent variable.

Solved Examples
Method 2:
Case I :
x

x = [x] + {x}; where {x} represent fraction part of x.

x = (x) - (1 - {x})
(x + 1 - {x})2 = (x - {x})2 + 2x (Using given equation)

=> (x + 1 - {x})2 + 1 + 2 (x - {x})2 = (x - {x})2 + 2x

=> 1 - 2 {x} = 0
=> {x} = 1/2
x = n + 1/2, n I
Also, x = 0, by observation.
Example 18:
Find the set x if the function f:[2, ] -> x where f(x) = 5 - 4x + x2 is
bijective.
Solution:
y = x2 - 4x + 5
= (x - 2)2 + 1
When x = 2, y = 1
As

x [2, ) then y [1, ]

Therefore Set X [1, )

Functions: one-one/many-one/into/onto
Functions can be classified according to their images and pre-images
relationships. Consider the function x f(x) = y with the domain A and codomain B.
If for each x A there exist only one image y B and each y B has a unique
pre-image x A (i.e. no two elements of A have the same image in B), then f is
said to be one-one function. Otherwise f is many-to-one function.

e.g. x x3, x R is one-one function

while x x2, x R is many-to-one function. (see figure above)
e.g. x = + 2, y = x2 = 4

Graphically, if a line parallel to x axis cuts the graph of f(x) at more than one
point then f(x) is many-to-one function and if a line parallel to y-axis cuts the
graph at more than one place, then it is not a function.
For a one-to-one function
If x1 x2 then f(x1) f(x2)
or if (x1) = f(x2) => x1 = x2
One-to-one mapping is called injection (or injective).
Mapping (when a function is represented using Venn-diagrams then it is called
mapping), defined between sets X and Y such that Y has at least one element 'y'
which is not the f-image of X are called into mappings.
Let a function be defined as: f : X Y
Where X = {2, 3, 5, 7} and Y = {3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11}

Functions: one-one/manyone/into/onto
The mapping is shown in the figure below.

Clearly, element 9 and 11 of Y are not the f-image of any of x X

So the mapping is into-mapping
Hence for into mappings:
f[X}
Y and f[X] Y. => f [X]
domain.

Y that is range is not a proper subset of co-

The mapping of 'f' is said to be onto if every element of Y is the f-image of at

least one element of X. Onto mapping are also called surjection.
One-one and onto mapping are called bijection.
Illustration
Check whether y = f(x) = x3; f : R R is one-one/many-one/into/onto function.
We are given domain and co-domain of 'f' as a set of real numbers.
For one-one function:
Let x1, x2 Df and f(x1) = f(x2)
=>X13 =X23
=> x1 = x2
i.e. f is one-one (injective) function.
For onto-into:
Ltxa

y = Ltxa (x)3 =

Ltxa

y=

Ltxa

(X)3 =

Therefore y = x3 is bijective function.

Functions: one-one/manyone/into/onto
Illustration:
What kind of function does the Venn diagram in figure given below represent?

Solution: This many-one into function

Domain = Df = {a, b, c}
Co-domain = {1, 2, 3}
Range = Rf = {1, 2}
f(a) = 1 ; f(b) = 2; f(c) = 2
Examples
Classify the following functions.

Ans.
(i) Many-one and onto (surjective).
(ii) One-one (injective) and into.
(iii) One-one (injective) and onto (surjective) i.e. Bijective.
(iv) and (v) are not functions.

Functions: one-one/many-one/into/onto
Examples:
1. Given the sets A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {a, b, c} construct a
(i) Many-one into
(ii) Many-one onto function
2. Given the sets c = {1, 2, 3} and D = {a, b, c}
(i) How many one-one onto functions can be constructed.
(ii) How many-one into functions can be constructed.

Ans.1
f:AB

2.

(i)

(ii)

33 - 6 = 21

f:AB

Illustration:
What is the domain and range of the following functions?
(a) y = 3x + 5 (b) y = (x2 +x)/(x2 - x)
Domain of y = f(x) is the set of values of x for which y is real and finite.
Range is the set of values of y for which x is real and finite.
Solution:
(a) For all real and finite x, y is also real and finite
Therefore Df = R = (-, ) and Rf = R = (-,)
(b) y = (x(x+1))/(x(x-1)) = (x+1)/(x-1) , x 0
when x = 0, y is 0/0 from (i.e. indetermined form)
when x = 1, y = (infinite)
Therefore Df = R -{0, 1}
also xy - y = x + 1
=> x (y - 1) = y + 1
x = (y+1)/(y-1)
when y = 1, x = (infinite) => y 1
also, for 0
Therefore Rf = R - {-1, 1}

=> y -1

Functions: one-one/manyone/into/onto
Illustration:
What is the domain of the following functions?
(a) y =((x-1)(3-x))

(b)

(((x-1)(x-5))/(x-3))

(c)

y=

sin x

Solution:
(a) y is real and finite if (x - 1)(3 - x) > 0
or (x - 1)(x - 3) < 0
i.e. x - 1 < 0 and x - 3 > 0 or
=> x < 1 and x > 3
which is not possible

x - 1 > 0 and x - 3 < 0

=> 1 < x < 3
=> 1 < x < 3
=> Df = [1, 3]

(b) Numerator becomes zero for x = 1, x = 5

Denominator becomes zero for x = 3

These three points divide x-axes into four intervals

(-, 1), (1, 3), (3, 5), (5, )
Therefore Df = [1, 3) [5, ); at x = 3, we here open interval,
Because at x = 3, y is infinite.
(c)

y = sin x
sin x > 0

Examples:

x [2n, (2n + 1) ], n I

1. What is domain of the following?

(a)

y =((x-1)(3-x))

(b)

y = xsinx

(c) y = Sin-1((1+x2)/(2x))

2. What is domain and range of the following?

(a)
y =|x

(b)

Functions: one-one/manyone/into/onto
Ans.
1.

2.

(a)

Df = [1, 3)

(b)

Df = [-(2n-1), -2(n-1)] [2n ,

(c)

Df = {-1, 1}

(a)

Df = [a, b[ and Rf = [c, d]

(b)

Df = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4,......}

(2n + 1)],

nN

Rf = {1, 2, 6, 24, ......}

Increasing or decreasing function

The function f is said to be an increasing function in its domain D if

x2 > x1 => f(x2) > f(x1); x1, x2 D

However if

 x2 > x1 => f(x2) > f(x1), x1, x2 D

The function 'f' is said to be strictly increasing
The function 'f' is said to be decreasing function in its domain D if
x2 > x1 => f(x2) < f(x1); x1, x2 D

However if
x2 > x1 => f(x2) < f(x1); x1, x2 D

Then it said to be strictly decreasing.

Strictly increasing and decreasing functions are also called Monotonic Function.
Illustration:
Is y = 2x + 3 increasing/decreasing function.
Solution:

Since, x R, y R
Therefore Df = R
Let x2 > x1; x1, x2 R
=>

2x2 > 2x1

=>

2x2 + 3 > 2x1 + 3

=>

f(x2) > f(x1)

=>

y = f(x) = 2x + 3 is strictly increasing function.

Increasing or decreasing function

Examples:
1. Are the following function increasing/decreasing?
(a)

y = x3 + 8

(b)

y = -2x + 4

Ans. (a) Decreasing

(b) Strictly decreasing

Basic Transformations on Graphs

Drawing the graph of y = f(x) + b, b R, from the known graph of y = f(x)

It is obvious that domain of f(x) and f(x) + b are the same. Let us take any point
x0in the domain of f(x). y|x=x0 = f(x0).

The corresponding point on f(x) + b would be f(x0) + b.

For b > 0 => f(x0) + b > f(x0) it means that the corresponding point on
f(x) + b would be lying at a distance 'b' units above point on f(x).
For b > 0 => f(x0) + b < f(x0) it means that the corresponding point on
f(x) + b would be lying at a distance 'b' units below point on f(x).
Accordingly the graph of f(x) + b can be obtained by translating the graph of
f(x) either in the positive y-axis direction (if b > 0) or in the negative y-axis
direction (if b < 0), through a distance |b| units.
Drawing the graph of y = |f(x)| from the known graph of y = f(x)
|f(x)| = f(x) if f(x) > 0 and |f(x)| = -f(x) if f(x) < 0. It means that the graph of
f(x) and |f(x)| would coincide if f(x) > 0 and the portions where f(x) < 0 would
get inverted in the upwards direction.

The above figure would make the procedure clear.

Drawing the graph of y = f(|x|) from the known graph of y = f(x)

It is clear that, f(|x|) =

Thus f(|x|) would be a even function. Graphs of f(|x|) and f(x) would be
identical in the first and the fourth quadrants (as x > 0) and as such the graph
of f(|x|) would be symmetrical about the y-axis (as (|x|) is even).

The figure would make the procedure clear.

Drawing the graph of |y| = f(x) from the known graph of y = f(x)
Clearly |y| > 0. If f(x) < 0, graph of |y| = f(x) would not exist. And if
f(x) > 0, |y| = f(x) would give y = + f(x). Hence graph of |y| = f(x) would exist
only in the regions where f(x) is non-negative and will be reflected about the xaxis only in those regions.

Graphical Representation of a Function

10. Trigonometric or Circular Functions:

11. Inverse circular Functions

Basic Transformations on Graphs

Illustration:
Solution :

Draw the graph of f(x) = cosx cos(x + 2) - cos2(x + 1).

f(x) = cox cos(x + 2) - cos2(x + 1)
1/2 [cos(2x + 2) + cos 2]

-(1/2)[cos(2x + 2) + 1]
= (1/2) cos 2 -(1/2) < 0.

Composite Functions
Another useful combination of two functions f and g is the composition of these
two functions. Let f : X Y and g : Y Z be two functions.

We define a function h : X Z by setting h(x) = g(f(x). To obtain h(x), we first

take the f-image f(x), of an element x in X so that f(x) Y, which is the domain
of g(x) and then take the g-image of f(x), that is, g(f(x)), which is an element of
Z. The scheme is shown in the figure.
The function h, defined above, is called the composition of f and g and is written
gof. Thus (gof)(x) = g(f(x)). Domain of gof = {x : x in domain f, f(x) in domain
g}.
e.g. Let f : R R be a function defined by f(x) = x2 + 4 and g[0, ) R be a
function defined by g(x) = x. Then gof(x) = g(f(x)) = (x2 + 4). Domain of gof
= R. Thus we have gof : R R defined by (gof)(x) = (x2 + 4). Similarly, we
shall have fog : [0, ) R defined by (fog)(x) = x + 4. Note that (gof)(x)
(fog)(x).

Illustration: Two functions are defined as under:

Find fog and gof.

Solution: (fog)(x) = f(g(x))

Let us consider, g(x) < 1 :

(i) x2 < 1, -1 < x < 2 => -1 < x < 1, -1 < x < 2 => -1 < x < 1
(ii) x2 + 2 < 1, 2 < x < 3 => x < -1, 2 < x < 3 => x =
Let us consider, 1 < g(x) < 2,
(iii) 1 < x2 < 2, -1 < x < 2
=> x [-2, -1) (1,2] , -1 < x < 2 => 1 < x < 2
(iv) 1 < x+2 < 2, 2 < x < 3 => -1 < x < 0, 2 < x < 3, x =

Let us consider -1 < f(x) < 2 :

(i)

-1 < x+1 < 2, x < 1 => -2 < x < 1, x < 1 => -2 < x < 1

(ii)

-1 < 2x+1 < 2, 1 < x < 2 => -1 , x < , 1 < x < 2 => x=

Let us consider 2 < f(x) < 3:

(iii)
(iv)

2 < x+1 < 3 , x < 1 => x < 2 , x < 1 => x = 1

2 < 2x+1 < 3, 1 < x < 2 => 1 < 2x < 2, 1 < x < 2
=> < x < 1 , 1 < x < 2 => x =

If we like we can also write g(f(x)) = (x+1)2, -2 < x < 1.

Composite Functions
Problem of finding out fog and gof can also be handled using graphical
methods

f(g(x))

Here g(x) becomes the variable that means we would draw the graph of g(x). It
is clear that g(x) < 1 x [-1, 1] and 1 < g(x) < 2 x (1, 2]

In this case f(x) becomes the variable and we will draw the graph of f(x). From
the graph we observe that -1 < f(x) < 2 x [-2, 1) and f(x) = x + 1.
2 < f(x)) < 3 => x = 1 and f(x) = x + 1.

i.e. g(f(x)) = (x + 1)2, -2 < x < 1

Inverse Function
Let f : X Y be a function defined by y = f(x) such that f is both one - one and
onto. Then there exists a unique function g : Y X such that for each y Y,
g(y) = x <=> y = f(x). The function g so defined is called the inverse of f.
Further, if g is the inverse of f, then f is the inverse of g and the two functions f
and g are said to be the inverses of each other. For the inverse of a function to
exists, the function must be on-one and onto.

Method to Find Inverse of a Function

If f-1 be the inverse of f, then fof-1 = f-1 of = I, where I is an identity function.
fof-1 = I => (fof-1(x)) = I (x) = x.
Apply the formula of f on f-1 (x), we will get an equation in f-1 (x) and x.
Solve it to get f-1 (x).
Note : A function and its inverse are always symmetric with respect to the line y
= x.
Illustration:
Let f : R R defined by f(x) = (ex-e-x)/2 . Find f-1 (x).
Solution: We have f(f-1(x)) = x
=> (ef-1(x) - e-f-1(x))/2 = x
=> e2f-1(x) - 2xef-1(x) -1 = 0
=> ef-1(x) = x + (x2 +1).
But negative sign is not possible because L.H.S. is always positive.
Thus ef-1(x) = x + (x2 +1) . Hence, f-1(x) = log(x + (x2 +1)) .
We give below some standard functions along with their inverse
functions:

Inverse Function
FUNCTIONS
1. f:[0,)[0,) defined by
f(x)=x2
2. f:[-/2,/2] [-1,1] defined by
f(x)=sin x
3. f:[0,][-1,1] defined by
f(x)=sinx
4. f:[-/2,/2] (-,) defined
by f(x)=tan x
5. f:(0,)(-,) defined by f(x)
= cot x
6. f:[0,/2)U(n/2,n](-, 1]U[1,) defined by f(x) = sec x

INVERSE FUNCTION
f-1:[0,)[0,) defined by f-1(x) =
x
f1 [-1,1][-(/2),/2] defined by f1
(x)=sin-1x
f1:[-1,1][0,] defined by f1(x)=cos1
x
f1:(-,)[-(/2),/2] defined by
f1(x)=tan-1 x
f-1:(-, )(0,) defined by f1
(x)=cot-1 x
-1
f :(-,-1]U[1,)
[0,/2)U(/2,] defined by f-1 (x)
= sec-1 x
7. f:[-(/2),0)(0,n/2](-,f-1:(-,-1]U[1,) [0,1]U[1,) defined by f(x) = cosec (/2))U(0,/2] defined by f-1 (x) =
x
cosec-1 x
8. f:R R+ defined by f(x) = ex
f-1(x):R+ R defined by f-1 (x) = In
x.

Constant Function and the Identity

Function
The function f: R a where 'a' is a constant, is called a constant function. It is
denoted by f(x) = a. The graph of a constant function is as shown in the figure
given below; clearly a constant function is all-to-one.

The function f(x): R R defined such that f(x) = x x R is an Identify

function. The graph of an identity function is shown in the figure given below.

Since an identity function is on-one and onto, so it is invertible.

Note: The inverse of an identity function is the identity function itself.
Examples:
Check whether the following functions are identical with their inverse.
(a)

xy = 1

(b)

x2 + y2 = 1

Ans. (a) Yes

(b) Only for 0 < x < 1, 0 < y < 1

Logarithmic Function
We have observed that y = ax is a monotonic function (either strictly) decreasing
or strictly increasing). Hence it is invertible,

So y = ax <=> x = loga y
Where x [-, ] and y [0, ]
The inverse exponential function x = loga y is known as logarithmic function.
Writing it in conventional form it becomes
y = loga x = f(x), x [0,]

The inverse exponential function x = loga y is known as logarithmic function.

Writing it in conventional form it becomes
y = loga x = f(x), x [0, ].
Properties of logarithmic Function:
(i)

y = logb x is defined for x > 0, b > 0, b 1.

(ii)

if logb a = c then a = bc

(iii)

logb 1 = 0

(iv)

logb b = 1

(v)

logb a = 1/loga b

(vi)

logb xy = logb x + logb y

(vii)

logb XY = logb x - logb y

(viii) logb xm = m logb x

(ix)

logbn x = 1/n logb x

(x)

logb bx = x

(xi)

(b)logbx = x

Illustration: Prove logb a = 1/loga b

Solution:
Let c = logb a

and

d = loga b

=>

a = bc

and

b = ad

=>

a = bc

and

a = b(1/d)

=>

c = 1/d

=>

logb a = 1/loga b

Illustration: Prove logb xm = m logb x

Solution:
Let
=>

c = logb xm
xm = bc

and
and

d = logb x
x = (b)d

=>

((b)d)m = bc

=>

md = c

=>

logb xm = m logb x.

Signum Function
The signum function is defined as f(x) = |x|/x;

= 0;

x0

x=0

is called the signum function

The graph of a signum function is as shown in the figure given above.

Absolute Value Function

The function defined as:

is called an absolute value function.

Note : x2 = |x| x R

The graph of an absolute value function is shown in the figure given above. Its
properties are:
(i) An absolute value function is an even function
(ii) It is strictly increasing in [0, ) and strictly decreasing in (-, 0].
Illustration 12: Draw the graph of the following functions.
(a) y = |x - 1| + |x - 4|
(b) y = |sin x|
(c) y = sin |x|

(a) Note: x - 1 = 0 => x = 1 and x - 4 = 0 => x = 4 i.e. y changes its

definition at x =1 and x = 4.
y = |x - 1| + |x - 4|
let - < x < 1
y = -(x - 1) - (x - 4) = -2x + 5
Now, let 1 < x < 4
y = (x - 1) - (x - 4) = 3
Again, Let 4 < x
y = (x - 1) + (x - 4) = 2x - 5

Absolute Value Function

(b)

y = |sin x|
y>0xR

(c)

y = sin |x|
x > 0,

y = sin x

x < 0,

y = sin (-x) = -sinx

Invertible Function
Let us define a function y = f(x): X Y. If we define a function g(y) such that x
= g(y) then g is said to be the inverse function of 'f'.

Think: If f is many-to-one, g : Y X will not satisfy the definition of a function.

So to define the inverse of a function, it must be one-one.
Further if f : X Y is into then there must be a point in Y for which there is no
x. This again violates the definition of function for 'g' (In fact when f is one tone
and onto then 'g' can be defined from range of f to domain of i.e. g : f(X) X.
Hence, the inverse of a function can be defined within the same sets
Y only when it is one-one and onto or Bijective.

for x and

Note: A monotonic function i.e. bijection function is always invertible.

Illustration: Let f : R R be defined as
y = f(x) = x2. Is it invertible?
Solution:
No it is not invertible because this is a many one into function
This is many-one because for x = + a, y = a2, this is into because y does not
take the negative real values.
Illustration: Let f : R [0, ) be defined as y = f(x) = x2. Is it invertible?
(see figure below)

Solution:
No it is not invertible, it because it is many one onto function.
Illustration: Let f : [0, ) [0, ) be defined as y = f(x) = x2. Is it invertible?
If so find its inverse.
Solution:
Yes, it is invertible because this is bijection function. Its graph is shown in figure
given below.

Invertible Function

Let y = x2 (say f(x))

=> x = +y
But x is positive, as domain of f is [0, )
=> x = + y
Therefore Inverse is y = x = g(x)

Figure (A)
f(g(x)) = f(x) = x, x> 0
g(f(x)) = g(x2) = x2 = x, x > 0
i.e. if f and g are inverse of each other then f(g(x)) = g(f(x)) = x
Illustration: How are the graphs of function and the inverse function related?
These graphs are mirror images of each other about the line y = x.
Solution:
Also, if the graph of y = f(x) and y = f-1 (x), they intersect at the point where y
meet the line y = x.

Figure (B)
Graphs of the function and its inverse are shown in figures given above as Figure
(A) and (B)
For Figure (A)
y = f(x) = x2; f : [0, ) [0, )

Invertible Function
Examples:
1. Define y = f(x) = x2 in some other ay so that its inverse is possible.
2. What is the inverse of y = loge (x + (x2 + 1))
Ans.1

f : (-, 0] [0, )
y = f(x) = x2 and its inverse is
y = -x

Ans.2

(Figure B)

y = (ex - ex)/2

Exponential Function
(i) As x becomes very large, f(x) approaches x axis
i.e. y = 0 is the asymptote of f(x) for a < 1
(ii) y = ax decreases strictly as x increases for 0 < a < 1
So it is a strictly decreasing function. Hence, y = ax is a monotonic function for
any a 1.

For a < 0 the exponential function in not defined precisely and for a = 1 it turns
out to be constant function.

Absolute Value Function

The function defined as:

is called an absolute value function.

Note : x2 = |x| x R

The graph of an absolute value function is shown in the figure given above. Its
properties are:
(i) An absolute value function is an even function
(ii) It is strictly increasing in [0, ) and strictly decreasing in (-, 0].
Illustration 12: Draw the graph of the following functions.
(a) y = |x - 1| + |x - 4|
(b) y = |sin x|
(c) y = sin |x|

(a) Note: x - 1 = 0 => x = 1 and x - 4 = 0 => x = 4 i.e. y changes its

definition at x =1 and x = 4.
y = |x - 1| + |x - 4|
let - < x < 1
y = -(x - 1) - (x - 4) = -2x + 5
Now, let 1 < x < 4
y = (x - 1) - (x - 4) = 3
Again, Let 4 < x
y = (x - 1) + (x - 4) = 2x - 5

Absolute Value Function

(b)

y = |sin x|
y>0xR

(c)

y = sin |x|
x > 0,

y = sin x

x < 0,

y = sin (-x) = -sinx

Explicit and Implicit Functions

If, in a function the dependent variable y can be explicitly written in terms of
independent variable x i.e. terms of 'x' must not involve y in any manner then
the function is called an explicit function e.g.
y = x2 + 1
y = sin x + cos x
If the dependent variable y and independent variable x are so convoluted in an
equation that y cannot be written explicitly as function of x then f(x) is said to be
an implicit function.
e.g. x2 + y2 = tan-1 xy.

Periodic Function
These are the function, whose value repeats after a fixed constant interval called
period, and which makes a class of a widely used function.
A function f of x, such that:
f(T + x) = f(x) x domain of f.
The least positive real value of T for, which above relation is true, is called the
fundamental period or just the period of the function.
e.g. for f(x) = sin x x R.
We know that sin (2 + x) = sin x, x R
so f(x) = sin x is a periodic function with a period of 2 radians.

Rules for finding the period of the periodic functions

(i) If f(x) is periodic with period p, then a f(x) + b, where a, b R (a0) is also a
periodic function with period p.
(ii) If f(x) is periodic with period, then f(ax + b), where a R -{0} and b R, is
also periodic with period p/|a|.
(iii) let us suppose that f(x) is periodic with period p and g(x) is periodic with
period q. Let r be the L.C.M. of p and q, if it exists.
(a) If f(x) and g(x) cannot be interchanged by adding a least positive number k,
then r is the period of f(x) + g(x).
(b) If f(x) and g(x) can be interchanged by adding a least positive number k and
if k < r, then k is the period of f(x) + g(x). Otherwise r is the period.
Illustration: Find the period of the following functions
(i) f(x) = sinx + {x}
(ii) f(x) = tan(x/3) + sin 2x.
(iii) f(x) = |sinx| + |cosx|
(iv) f(x) = ((1+sin x)(1+sec x))/((1+cos x)(1+cosec x))
Solution:
(i) Here f(x) = sinx + {x}
Period of sinx is 2p and that of {x} is 1. But the L.C.M. of 2p and 1 does not
exist. Hence sinx + {x} is not periodic.
(ii) Here f(x) = tanx/3 + sin2x. Here tan(x/3). Here tan(x/3) is periodic with
period 3p and sin2x is periodic with period p.
Hence f(x) will be periodic with period 3p.
(iii) Here f(x) = |sinx| + |cosx|

Periodic function
Now, |sinx| = sin2x = ((1+cos2x)/2),
.

which is periodic with period

Similarly, |cosx| is periodic with period .

Hence, according to rule of LCM, period of f(x) must be .

But |sin((/2)+x)| = |cos x| and |cos((/2)+x)| = |sin x|.

Since /2 < , period of f(x) is /2.
(iv)

f(x) =((1+sin x)(1+sec x))/((1+cos x)(1+cosec x)) =

((1+sin x)(1+cos x)sin x)/((1+cos x)(1+sin x)cos x) = tan x

Hence f(x) has period .

Note:

For f(x) = |sin x| + |cos x|

The period of both |sin x| and |cos x| is
But they are related with phase difference /2 i.e.
|sin x| = |cos (x + /2)|
|cos x| = |sin (x + /2)|

So the period of the function f(x) is /2.

Illustration:

Prove that the period of y = sin x is 2

Solution:
Let T be the period of f(x) = sin x
i.e.

f(T + x) = f(x)
=> sin (T + x) = sin x
=> T + x = n + (-1)nx, n 1

Let

n=0
T+x=x
=> T = 0

But we want a positive real value for T.

Let n = 1,
T+x=-x
=> T - = 2x

(Is it possible? Think)

.........(i)

Periodic Function
No it is not possible because LHS is constant and RHS is a continuous variable.
Now, Let n = 2 in equation (i)
T + x = 2 + x
=> T = 2
Therefore period of y = sin x is 2
Note: If we cannot find T independent of x, then y = f(x) is not periodic.
Example:
Find the period of y = cos x and y = x sin x if possible
Ans. These are non-periodic function

Bounded and Unbounded Function

Let a function be defined as f(x): A B and we can find two real numbers m
and M such that m < f(x) < M x A then f(x) is called the bounded function. m
and M are called the lower-bound and the upper-bound of f(x) respectively. The
range of f(x) is [m, M] (see figure given below), If however, m and M or either
of them is not defined (i.e. infinite) then f(x) is said to be unbounded function.

Linear Function
When the degree of P(x) and Q(x) in a rational function, are one then it is called
a linear function.
So, the linear fraction is defined as
f(x) = (ax+b)/(cx+d)

Domain of linear fraction function is R - {-d/c}

And its range is R - {a/c} (Therefore x = (b-dy)/(cy-a)).

Polynomial And Rational Function

A function of the form
y = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ......... + an-1xn-1 + anxn
where ai R (I = 0, 1, 2, ........., n) and an 0 is called a polynomial function of
degree n. The domain of every polynomial function is R.

x P(x)/Q(x) , Q(x) 0.

Greatest Integer Function

The function f(x) : R Z defined as:
f(x) = [x] = greatest integer less than or equal to x is called the greatest integer
function. The graph of a greatest integer function is shown in figure given below.
The graph shows that it is increasing (not strictly) many-to-one function.

Illustration: Let [x + 1] = 3 then find x.

Solution:
From definition of greatest integer function
3<x+1<4
=> 2 < x < 3

Note :

Any number x can be written as

x = [x] + (x)

where [ ] denotes the integral part

and ( ) denotes the fractional part
i.e.
[3.7] = 3
(3,7) = 0.7
[-3,7] = -4
(-3.7) = 0.3.
Note :

0 < (x) < 1

-2 < x < -1 => [x] = -2
-1 < x < 0 => [x] = -1
0 < x < 1 => [x] = 0
1 < x < 2 => [x] = 1
2 < x < 3 => [x] =2

n < x < n + 1 => [x] = n, n I

Greatest Integer Function

Examples

1.

[x + 1] = [x] + 1 x R

True/False

2.

|-(x/)| = -1-|x/|, x n , n I

True/False

3.
If [(x) + x] = 3 then x =? where [ ] represents greatest integer function
and ( ) represents integer greater than or equal to x.
Ans.1

True

Ans.2

True

Ans.3

1<x<2

Even And Odd Function

A function f(x) : X Y defined such that
f(-x) = f(x) x X
is called an even function and
if f (-x) = -d(x) x x, then the function f(x) is called an odd function.
Graphically, an even function is symmetrical w.r.t. y-axis and odd function is
symmetrical w.r.t. origin.
Note : In general all functions can be represented as sum of an even function
and an odd function.
Let, a function be defined as y = f(x). It can be written as:
=> y = (f(x) + f(-x))/2 + (f(x) - f(-x))/2
y = F1(x) + F2(x)
Whereas,
F1(-x) = (f(x) + f(-x))/2 = F1(x)
And F2(-x) = (f(-x) - f(x))/2
= -((f(x) - f(x))/2)
= -F2(x).
Here F1(x) is an even function and F2(x) is an odd function.
Exercise
State whether the following functions are odd or even or neither.
(1)

y = x3

(2)

y = x4

(3)

y + x + cos x

(4)

y = loge(x + (x2 + 1))

Algebra of Functions
Given functions f : D R and g : D R, we describe functions f + g, f - g, gf an
f/g as follows:
f + g : D R is a function defined by (f + g) (x) = f(x) + g(x)
f - g : D R is a function defined by (f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)
fg : D R is a function defined by (fg) (x) = f(x) g(x)
f/g : C R is a function defined by (f/g) (x) = f(x)/g(x) , g(x) 0,

where C = {x D : g(x) 0}.

Illustration: Let f : [-1, 1] R and g : R R be functions defined by f(x) =
(1-x2) and g(x) = x3 + 1. Find the domain of f + g, fg and f/g.
Solution:
(f+g)(x) = f(x)+g(x) = (1-x2) + x3 + 1, (f-g)(x) - g(x) = (1-x2) - x3 = 1,
(fg)(x) = f(x) g(x) = (x3 + 1) (1-x2) and (f/g)(x) = f(x)/g(x) = ((1x ))/(x3- 1), x 1.
2

The domain of each of f + g. f - g and fg is [-1, 1] and of f/g is

{x [-1, 1] : g(x) 0} = (-1, 1].

Illustration: Let f(x) =

Describe the function f/g.
Solution:
We redefine the functions f(x) and g(x) in the intervals as shown below:

Solved Examples
Example 1:
Given are two sets A {1, 2, -2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 3, 5}. Is the function f(x) = 2x
- 1 defined from A to B?
Solution :
Out of all the ordered pairs, the ordered pairs which are related by the function
f(x) = 2x - 1 are {(1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 5) But for (-2) in A, we do not have any
value in B. So, this function does not exist from
A->B.
Example 2:
A function f is defined as f: N -> N (where N is natural number set) and f(x) =
x+2. Is this function ONTO?
Solution :
Since, N = {1, 2, 3, 4, .........} and A = B = N
For : A->B
When x = 1

f(x) = 3

When x = 2

f(x) = 4

So f(x) never assume values 1 and 2. So, B have two elements which do not
have any pre-image in A. So, it is not an ONTO function.
Example 3 :
Find the range and domain of the function f(x) = (2x+1)/(x-1) and also find its
inverse.
Solution :
This function is not defined for x = 1. So, domain of the function is
R -{1}.
Now, for finding the range
Let,(2x+3)/(x-1) = y
=> 2x + 3 = yx - y
=> yx - 2x = y + 3

=> (y - 2)x = y + 3
=> x =(y+3)/(t-2)
So, y cannot assume value 2
Range of f(x) is R - {2}.
Inverse is y =(x+3/x-2) .
Example 4:
Find domain and range of the function f(x) = (x2+2x+3)/(x2-3x+2)
Solution :
This function can be written as : f(x) =(x2+2x+3)/(x-1)(x-2) .
So, domain of f(x) is R - {1, 2}
For range, let (x2+2x+3)/(x2-3x+2) = y
=> (1 - y)x2 + (2x + 3y) x + 3 - 2y = 0
for x to be real, Discriminant of this equation must be > 0
D>0
=> (2 + 3y)2 - 4(1 - y)(3 -2y) > 0
=> 4 + 9y2 + 12y - 4(3 + 2y2 - 5y) > 0
=> y2 + 32y - 8 > 0
=> (y + 16)2 - 264 > 0
=> y < - 16 - 264 or y > - 16 + 264.

Solved Examples
Example 5:
Find the period of following functions
(a) cos3 x + sin 5 x
(b) |cos x| + |sin2 x|
(c) x - |x|.

Solution :
(a) f(x) = cos 3x + sin 5x
period of cos 3x = 2/3 and period of sin 5x = 2/53
L.C.M. of 2/3 and 2/5 is 2p
So period of f(x) is 2p.
Note:

Let g(x) = cos 3x

g((2/3)+x) = cos3 ((2/3)+x)
= cos (2 + 3x)
= cos 3x
= g(x)

(b)

f(x) = |cos x| + |sin2 x|

Period of |cos x| =
Period of |sin 2 x| = /2
So, period of f(x) is

(c)

f(x) = x [x]
Let T be the period of this function
=> f(T + x) = f(x)
=> T + x - [T + x] = x - [x]
=> T = [T + x] - [x]

.......... (1)

=> T = integer - integer

= integer
Let T = 1 (Therefore 1 is the smallest positive integer)
Equation (1) becomes
1 = [1 + x] - [x]
which is true for all x R
Period of f(x) is 1.

Example 6:
Show that the inverse of a linear fraction function is always a linear fraction
function (except where it is not defined).
Solution:
Let, f(x) = (a+bx)/(c+dx) be the said linear fraction function.
Let at some x it attains value y, so,
(a+bx)/(c+dx) = y
=> a + bx - cy - dxy = 0
=> a - cy + x (b - dy) = 0
=> x = (cy-a)/(b-dy).
Which is again a linear fraction function defined in R except
at x = -c/d and y = b/d
and inverse of the given function is, y = (cx-a)/(b-dx).

Solved Examples
Example 7:
If graph of function f(x) is as shown in the figure given below, then plot the
graph of |f(x)|.
f(x) + 1, f(x + 2) and f-1 (x)

Solution:
(a) |f(x)| will reflect the graph of f(x) below x axis to the (-) ve y axis side. So
the graph will be as shown in the figure given below.

(b) f(x) + 1 will just shift the graph by one unit position up. So the required
graph is as shown in the figure given below.

(c) f(x + 2) will shift the graph of f(x) by two units to left, the graph will be as
shown in the figure given below.

(d) f-1(x) is obtained by reflection of graph f(x) on the line y = x as shown in the
figure given below.

Example 8:
Show that the following functions are even
(a) f(x) = x2/(2x2-1) + x2/2 + 1
(b) f(x) = (ax+a-x)/2
(c) f(x) = x2 - |x|

Solved Examples
Solution:
(a)

f(x) = x2/(2x2-1) + x2/2 + 1

so, f(-x) = (-x)2/(2(-x)2-1) + (-x)2/2 + 1

= x2/(2x2-1) + x2/2 + 1 = f(x)
so, f(x) in sum function.
(b)

f(x) = (ax+a-x)/2
=> f(-x) = (a-x+ax)/2 = f(x)

so, f(x) is even function

(c)

f(x) = x2 - |x|
=> f (-x) = (-x)2 - |-x| = x2 - |x| = f(x)

so, f(x) is even function.

Example 9:
Show that following functions are odd.
(a)

f(x) = (ex-1)/(ex+1)

(b)

f(x) = log((1-x)/(1+x))

(c)

f(x) = (1+x+x2) - (1-x+x2)

Solution:
(a)

f(x) = (ex-1)/(ex+1)
=> f(x) = (e-x-1)/(e-x+1) = (1-ex)/(1+ex)

= -((ex-1)/(ex+1)) = -f(x)
=> f(-x) = -f(x)
=> so, f(x) is an odd function
(b)

f(x) = log ((1-x)/(1+x))

=> f(-x) = log((1+x)/(1-x)) log((1-x)/(1+x))-1
=> -log((1-x)/(1+x))
=> f(-x) = -f(x)

so, f(x) is an odd function.

(c)

f(x) = (1+x+x2) - (1-x+x2)

f(-x) = (x2-x+1) - (1+x+x2)
= -[(1+x+x2) - (1-x+x2)]
f(-x) = -f(x)

so, f(x) is an odd function

Solved Examples
Example 10:
If f(x) = 1 + x; 0 < x < 2
= 3 - x; 2 < x < 3
Determine
(a) g(x) = f(f(x))
(b) f(f(f(x)))
(c) f([x])
(d) [f(x)]
Where [ ] represents the greatest integer function.
Solution:

(b) Let 0 < x < 1

f(f(f(x)))
= f(2 + x) 2 < 2 + x < 3
But we observe that there is no single definition f(f(x)) for this interval.
Therefore we reduce the interval 0 < x < 1 to 0 < x < 1.
Let 0 < x < 1
f(f(f(x)))
= f(2 + x); 2 < x + 2 < 3
= 3 - (2 + x)
=1-x
Let 1 < x < 2

= f(2 - x); 0 < 2 - x < 1

=1+2-x
=3-x
Let 2 < x < 3
= f(f(f(x)))
= f(4 - x); 1 < 4 - x < 2
= 1 + (4 - x)
=5-x

Solved Examples
f(f(f(x))) = f(f(1)) = f(2) = 3

(c) f([x])
Let 0 < x < 1
f[x] = f(0) = 1
Let 1 < x < 2
f[x] = f(1) = 2
Let 2 < x < 3
f[x] = f(2) = 3
Let x = 3
f([x]) = f(3) = 0

(d) [f(x)]

First draw the graph of y = f(x)

Let

0<x<1
1 < f(x) < 2 => [f(x)] = 1

Let

1<x<2
2 < f(x) < 3 => [f(x)] = 2

Let

x=2
f(x) = 3
[f(x)] = 3

Let

2<x<3
0 < f(x) < 1 => [f(x)] = 0

Example 11:
If x2 + y2 = 1
prove that - 2 < x + y <2 .

Solved Examples
Solution:
Since, x2 + y2 = 1 => x = cos , y = sin
Consider,

x + y = cos + sin
= 2((1/2)sin + (1/2)cos )
= 2sin((/4) + )
Recall : sin((/4)+) can take maximum value 1 and minimum value -1.
=>|2 sin((/4)+)| 2
=> - 2 < x + y < 2.

Hence proved.

Example 12:
Check the invertibility of the function f(x) = (ex - e-x); and then find its inverse.
Solution:
We have
f(x) = ex - e-x; x R
limx-> f(x) =
limx->- f(x) = -
f'(x) = ex + e-x > 0

Therefore f : R -> R
f(x) = ex - e-x is a bijective function
Therefore f(x) is invertible
Now, f(x) = y = t - 1/t [where t = ex]
=> t2 - 1 = ty
=> t2 - ty - 1 = 0
=> t = (y+(y2+4))/2 [t cannot be negative]
Now
t = ex
=> ex = (y+(y2+4))/2
=> x = loge ((y+(y2+4))/2)

Therefore Inverse of y = ex - e-x is y = loge ((x+(x2+4))/2)

Example 13:
If f(x) = ((1-x)/(1+x)) x 1 and x R.
Then show that
(i) f(1/x) = -f(x), x 0
(ii) f(f(x)) + f(f(1/x)) > 2 for x > 0.

Solved Examples
Solution:
f(x) = (1-x)/(1+x), x 1 and x R
=> f(1/x) = (1-(1/x))/(1+(1/x)) = (x-1)/(x+1), x 0
=> - f(x)
Now f(f(x)) = (1-(1-x)/(1+x))/(1+(1-x)/(1+x)) = (2x)/2 = x
and

f(f(1/x)) = (1-(x-1))/(1+x))/(1+(x-1)/(1+x)) = 2/2x = 1/x

=> f(f(x)) + f(f(1/x)) = x + 1/x
= (x-(1/x))2 + 2

R.H.S. = 2 + a positive number

> 2

so f(f(x)) + f(f(1/x)) > 2

Example 14:
Let A = R - {3},
B = R - {1}, let f: A -> B be defined by f(x) = (x-2)/(x-3). Is f bijective? Give
reasons.
Solution:
(a)

Let us test the function for injectivity

Let

x1, x2 A and f(x1) = f(x2)

=>( x1-2)/(x1-3) = (x2-2)/(x2-3)

=> x1 = x2
Therefore f is one-one function (injective)

.........(1)

(b) Let us test the function for surjectivity

Let y be any arbitrary element of B and suppose there exists an x such that f(x)
=y
(x-2)/(x-3) = y => x = (3y-2)/(y-1)
since y 1, x is real
Also, x 3, for if x = 3, then 3 = (3y-2)/(y-1)
or 3y - 3 = 3y - 2 => - 3 = - 2, which is false
Thus x = (3y-2)/(y-1) A such that f(x) = y i.e. y B, we have x A.
and so f is surjective
This proves that f is bijective.

Solved Examples
Tricky Examples
Example 15:
Show that if an odd function is invertible, then its inverse is also an odd function.
Solution:
Let y = f(x) be an odd function
Then
f(-x) = -f(x) = -y
Since it is invertible, so we can write
x = g(y)
Where g(x) = f-1 (x)
Consider,
g(-y) = g(-f(x))

= g(f(-x)) = -x = -g(y)
So g(x) is also an odd function.
Example 16:
Sketch the graph of each of the following functions
(a)

f(x) = x4 - 2x2 + 3

(b)

f(x) = 2x/(1+x2)

(c)

f(x) = sin2x - 2sinx.

Solution:
(a)

y = f(x) = x4 - 2x2 + 3
(i) Domain of f(x) is R
(ii) f(x) is even so graph will be symmetrical about y axis.
(iii) y = x4 - 2x2 + 3 = (x2 - 1)2 + 2.

So minimum value of y is at x2 = 1(x = + 1).

(iv) When x = 0 the value of y = 3

The graph of the function is as shown in fig.
(b)

y = f(x) = 2x/(1+x2).
(i) Domain = R

(ii) f(x) = -f(x), so function is odd the graph is not symmetric about any
axis but symmetric about origin.
So it is sufficient to consider only. x > 0
(iii) y = 0 when x = 0 there is no other point of intersection with coordinate axes.

Solved Examples

(iv) As (x - 2)2 > 0

=> x2 + 1 > 2x
So 2x/(x2+1) < 1 and equality holds at x = 1. Also from 0 to 1 the function
increases and from 1 to a it decreases. So the graph is as shown in fig.
(c) y = f(x) = sin2 x - 2sinx
(i)

Domain of y is R

(ii)

0 < (sin x - 1)2 < 4

=> 0 < sin2 x - 2sinx + 1 < 4
=> -1 < sin2 x - 2sinx < 3

(iii) f(x) has period 2 so it is

Sufficient to draw the graph for domain [0, 2]
(iv)

y = 0 for x = 0, n

Note : More about increasing/decreasing we shall study in Module 5.

Example 17:
Solve (x)2 = [x]2 + 2x

Where [x] represents greatest integer less than or equal to x.

(x) represents integer just greater than or equal to x.
Solution:
Method 1:
Case I :
Let x = n I
=> Given equation becomes:
n2 = n2 + 2n
=> n = 0
Case II:
Let x I
i.e. n < x < n + 1
Given equation becomes:
(n - 1)2 = n2 + 2x
=> x = n + 1/2, n I
Therefore x = 0 or x = n + 1/2; n I

Solved Examples
Method 2:
Case I :
x

x = [x] + {x}; where {x} represent fraction part of x.

x = (x) - (1 - {x})
(x + 1 - {x})2 = (x - {x})2 + 2x (Using given equation)
=> (x + 1 - {x})2 + 1 + 2 (x - {x})2 = (x - {x})2 + 2x
=> 1 - 2 {x} = 0

=> {x} = 1/2

x = n + 1/2, n I
Also, x = 0, by observation.
Example 18:
Find the set x if the function f:[2, ] -> x where f(x) = 5 - 4x + x2 is
bijective.
Solution:
y = x2 - 4x + 5
= (x - 2)2 + 1
When x = 2, y = 1
As

x [2, ) then y [1, ]

Therefore Set X [1, )