Notes To Study For Chemistry Paper 6

Topics
-Salt Preperation
-Filteration, distillation, Dissolving, Chromotography.. fractional
distaillation.. filtration.. precipitation
-Salt Analysis ( Cations and anion tests)
-Testing for Ions
http://www.absorblearning.com/chemistry/demo/units/LR1106.html
-Labelling of apparatus
-Rate of reaction.
-Graph drawing and explaining curves etc..
-Test for gasses
-Fermentation
-Basic knowledge of electrolysis (VERY BASIC)

Salt PreperationTo Prepare Soluble Salts:

1- Add the acid in a beaker then add a solid (base/carbonate/metal)
2- Then solid is in excess so the salt is formed in a solution
3- Filter off the excess solid using a funnel
4- Put it in an evaporation dish, evaporate it to reduce the volume of
the solution.
5- Transfer the hot liquid to a dish and crystals are formed after
leaving it to cool and until the solution is saturated.

To Prepare insoluble salt:

1- Add a soluble salt solution (acid +(base/carbonate/metal)) with
another soluble salt solution. An insoluble salt is formed as a solid
2- Filter it using a funnel to collect the salt.
3- The salt that stays on the filter paper is taken and is washed with a
cold water and left to dry to form insoluble salt.

Salt Preperation- If it is Soluble or Insoluble

For soluble
Use titration...ex:NaCl(use NaOH and HCl) place either one in a
burette and the other in a beaker add universal indicator, then start
adding drops of solution in burette until it goes green...note the
volume used, repeat using same volumes but without indicator, then
apply crystalisation OR evaporation

For Insoluble
Use precipitation or nuetralisation...( Use preciptation only when the
cation is above Hydrogen in the reactivity series) ex: CuCl2 u cannot
use precepitation cause Cu is below Hydrogen so u use nuetralisation
where u react base (CuOH or CuCO3 or Cu(OH)2) with EXCESS HCl to
from CuCl2 +water....u then filter and dry between two sheets
3)precpitaion is basically same procedure as nuetralisation, u just use
a metal higher than hydrogen instead of the base...

There are two types of salts that can be prepared ... Insoluble and the
other ones are soluble .
There are different methods such as ..

For preparing soluble salts - Titration method

1. Put 25cm cube of base eg NaOH soln into a flask using a pipette an
then add 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator which turns pink when
added .
2. Add an acid eg HCl from a burette little at a time ( Mark the starting
point ) .. And mix it carefully by swirling the flask which helps in
mixing of acid and the base .
3. By adding the acid more dr by drop would result in to the solution
getting colourless which means that all the acid is used up and the
solution is neutral ( Mark the ending point ) . By this you can say that
how much acid is needed to neutralise 25cm cube of base .
4. Then , again .. Carry out this reaction WITHOUT the indicator ( this
is because the indicator would make the salt impure ) . Put 25 cm
cube of base into a flask and burette the same amount of acid into it .
5. Then .. Heat the solution from the flask and evaporate the water ..
You'll notice that White crystals of NaCl will be left behind !

Making insoluble salts with metals which depends upon the metals
like eg mg al zn and fe can react properly with the acid .. Na K and Ca
won't react bcz they are too violent .. Lead reacts slowly whereas cu
ag au do not react with the acid !
In this reaction let's use dilute h2so4 as an acid and zn in solid form to
form znso4 as an soluble salt .
1. Add zn to the acid in a beaker . As it starts to dissolve in the acid .. It
releases hydrogen bubbles . This bubbling stops when the acid is used
up .
2. Some zinc is still left as the metal was in excess .. So .. Remove it by
filtering which leaves an aqueous solution of zinc sulphate .
3. Heat the solution to evaporate some of the water and then leave it
to get cool .. The crystals on znso4 soon start to form !

Preparation of Soluble salts from insoluble base and an acid

( neutralisation )
Copper will not react with dilute h2so4 .. So to make a copper salt ,
you must start with a base like copper(2)oxide which is insoluble and
.. Blue cuso4 forms with h2o .
1. Add copper(2)oxide to dilute h2so4 . It dissolves on heating and
turn the solution to blue . Keep it excess until no more of it is
dissolved .. Which will mean that no more acid is left to be used up !
2. Remove the excess solid by filtering which leaves up a blue solution
of copper(2)sulphate in aqueous state .

3. Heat the solution to evaporate some of the water .. And then leave
it to be get cooled . blue crystals of copper (2) sulphate start to form !

Preparation of insoluble salts .

Theres only one way given in our syllabus to prepare them . Which is
by precipitation .
Eg barium sulphate is an insoluble salt which can be prepared by
adding barium chloride and magnesium sulphate .
1. Make up solutions of barium chloride and magnesium sulphate .
2. Mix them . A White precipitate of barium sulphate forms at once .
3. Filter the mixture .the precipitate is trapped in the filter paper .
4. Rinse the precipitate by running distiller water through it .
5. Then place it in a warm oven to dry .
Keep in mind that - to precipitate an insoluble salt , you must mix a
solution that contains it's positive ions with the one that contains it's
negative ions
Like in this experiment ..
BaCl2 - Ba2+ and ClMgSO4 - Mg2+ and SO4 2-

Summary of above notes

For soluble salt, you may use a solid base (or metal) and an acid, OR a
soluble base (alkali) and an acid..
For an insoluble salt, you use the titration method.
So therefore, we have three types of experiments we need to learn:
1) Solid base (or metal) and an acid to make a SOLUBLE salt.
2) Soluble base (alkali) and an acid to make a SOLUBLE salt.
3) Precipitation method to make an INSOLUBLE salt.
Here are the steps you need to learn for each experiment, and you
should be able to recognize from the reactants they give you which
method you need to talk about, because if you misread the question,
and write another method, all your answer will be wrong...
1) - Add excess metal (metal oxide or metal carbonate.. Etc) (for
example zinc) to acid (for example sulpharic acid) in which zinc
sulphate and hydrogen gas will be formed. Excess solid settles down.
- As the gas (hydrogen) escapes, filter the mixture to remove the
excess solid.
- Collect the filtrate ( aqueous zinc sulphate solution).
- Heat to evaporate water to collect salt.
2) - I will use sodium hydroxide as an example for alkali, and sulpharic
acid as an example for acid.
- Transfer sulpharic acid from a biuret gradually into a flask containing
an alkali (Sodium hydroxide) and universal indicator.

- as the colour of the solution changes, stop adding the acid in which
neutralization has been reached. This method is called TITRATION!
- Repeat the experiment using same volumes of acid and alkali but
without indicator.
- Heat the solution (sodium sulphate) to evaporate water and collect
the salt.
3) - To precipitate an insoluble salt, you should mix a solution
containing it's positive ion with another solution that contains it's
negative ion.
- Add the correct solutions.
- Filture the mixture ( the residue will be the insoluble salt).
- Wash he residue to purify it.
- Leave the residue to dry then collect.
Last but not least, sometimes they ask you for crystals, so you writ the
appropriate meod above followed by:
- Heat the solution till point of crystallization which can be figures by
placing a glass rod in the beaker and observe the formation of the first
crystals on it.
- leave the solution to cool gradually.
- Filter, dry and collect the crystals!

Tips for Chemistry ATP (both IGCSE and O-level):

Some precautions:
=> Experiments involving poisonous gases like Nitrogen DIOXIDE, Ammonia and
Bromine -> Carry out the exp. in Fume Cupboard or in a well Ventilated Room.
=> Experiments involving heat -> Use a polystyrene cup for insulation to prevent heat loss!
+ Always take the same initial readings for better accuracy;
=> Experiments involving Acids, Liquids or Solids -> Always use the same concentration;
Same Volumes; Same Surface Area or Same Masses exceptions are some variables!
=> Experiment involving Crystallisation -> Allow to cool SLOWLY and Use more water and
more salt for better results!
SOME COMMON and USEFUL precautions for all experiments (use these when your mind
is BLANK)
=> Repetition of the exp.
=>Taking Average > Put your tie in shorts
=> Use Goggles
=> Taking measurements carefully and multiple measurements , to achieve accuracy ( by
finding the average )
=> When drawing the best fit line in a graph , do not include points that seem to be out of
the curve ,use a sharp and make the curve as smooth as possible , and remember to plot the
independent Variable ( Temprature in a Time-of-reaction ( Y ) / Temprature ( X ) graph )
and NEVER forget to write the labels.
Tests
1.For Water:
> By adding anhydrous Copper(II) Sulphate , which will turn from white to blue.
> By adding anhydrous Cobalt(II) chloride , which will turn from blue to pink.
2.For unsaturated hydrocarbon ( Alkenes )
>Liquid : By adding Bromine water to it and shaking. (it'l go from Brown to colourless)
>Gas : By passing the compound through Bromine water. (Colour change = Brown to
colourless)
3.For purity of substance
Solids => Test for melting point , if it is the correct value ( like the data says ) it is pure , if
not, it is impure. e.g. Ice at 0 C
Liquids => Test for boiling point , if it is the correct value ( like the data says ) it is pure , if
not, it is impure. e.g. Water at 100 C
COLLECTION TECHNIQUES:
=> upward delivery is for -> gases less dense than air (Hydrogen and Ammonia)
=> Downward delivery is for -> gases more dense than air (Carbon Dioxide
=> Displacement of water method -> insoluble gases ( Methane )

Fermentation:
=> Glucose and Yeast are used! (just rememeber that Yeat contains enzymes -> Biological
Catalysts)
=> Suitable Temperature 37 degrees (Optimum for Enzyme)
=> Bung is used -> To Let Carbon Dioxide out, and prevent the entry of Oxygen.
=> Why is Oxygen's entry prevented (-> because it'l oxidize the alcohol to Carboxylic Acid
and also it'l affect the anaerobic respiration)
=> Why does the reaction stop? -> Due to an excess in the conc. of alcohol, Yeast dies. Or
Glucose finishes up!
Chromatography:
=> Draw a baseline with a pencil (pencil being insoluble) about 1-2 cm above the end of the
chromatogram
=> Use a pipette to put a concentrated spot of dye on the paper
=> Dip it in a solvent (Water, if it's soluble in it otherwise an organic solvent e.g Ethanol)
=> the solvent level MUST be below the baseline
=> The solvent would start to rise up the paper producing a no. of spots (depending on the
no. of dyes present in the substance)
=> Spray a locating agent for colourless dyes like amino acids or simple sugars
=> Or identify with RF value (formula = (distance moved by the dye)/(distance moved by
the solvent)
Oxidising Agents!
=> KMn04 (V11) -> FROM PURPLE TO COLOURLESS!
=> K2Cr2O7 (VI) -> From Orange to Green!
=> All metals are reducing agents! (Mention the Group I metals, when asked)
=> Dehydrating Agents : Sulfuring Acid
=> Drying agent : Calcium Oxide

Ethene test: Add bromine water and bromine water will go colourless with alkenes (ethene)
and it will remain orange for alkanes (ethane)
For precautions .. Tie your hair at the back .. Wear gloves .. Lab suit !
Universal Indicators:
Acid ( Red - Yellow) , Neutral ( Green) , Alkaline ( Blue - Violet)
Phenolphthalein: Alkaline ( Pink) For Strong ( Colourless) , Neutral ( Colourless) , Acid (
Orange)
Methyl Orange: Alkaline: ( Yellow) , Neutral ( Colourless) , Acid ( Red)

Bromothymol Blue: Acid (Yellow) , Neutral (Dark green) , Alkaline (Blue)

Here's a link to another great thread about ATP
tips: https://www.xtremepapers.com/community/threads/chemistry-atp-tips.25439/