ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the accomplishment of this project successfully, many

people have best owned upon me their blessings and the
heart pledged support, this time I am utilizing to thank all
the people who have been concerned with project.

Primarily I would thank god for being able to complete

this project with success. Then I would like to thank my
principal

and physics teacher

whose valuable

guidance has been the ones that helped me patch this

project and make it full proof success his suggestions and
his instructions has served as the major contributor
towards the completion of the project.

Then I would like to thank my parents and friends who

have helped me with their valuable suggestions and
guidance has been helpful in various phases of the
completion of the project.

Last but not the least I would like to thank my classmates

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that

, a student of class XII-A has successfully

completed the research on the below mentioned project under the guidance of
( Subject Teacher ) during the year 2013-14 in partial fulfillment of physics practical
examination..

INDEX
1.CERTIFICATE OF EXCELLENCE
2. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
3. AIM OF PROJECT
4. INTRODUCTION
5. THEORY
6. PRACTICAL LOGIC GATES.
7. CONCLUSION

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this topic you will be able to;

Identify and use NOT, AND, NAND, OR, NOR EXOR, and XNOR
gates;
Construct and recognise truth tables for these gates and simple
combinations of them, with up to four inputs.

Introduction.
This course in electronics has been designed to provide you, the student with
a broad introduction to many applications of electronics. The focus of the
course is to provide students with the basic understanding of many aspects
of electronics from, microcomputers to communication systems, hardware
systems to writing software control programs. This will provide the essential
foundation for anyone to continue with their studies in university later.
The emphasis is where-ever possible practical in nature, even though
computer simulations may be used alongside traditional practical systems, as
these often provide the possibility to make rapid changes to a particular
circuit to illustrate a particular effect.
In this module we will be concentrating on the fundamentals of digital and
analogue circuits. We should start by ensuring that you understand the
difference between a digital signal and an analogue signal.
An analogue signal.
This is a signal that can have any value between the minimum and maximum of
the power supply. Changes between values can occur slowly or rapidly
depending on the system involved. Graphically this is represented by a graph
similar to that shown below.
Voltage (V)
Max

Min

time (s)

A digital signal.
This is a signal that can only have two finite values, usually at the minimum
and maximum of the power supply. Changes between these two values occur
instantaneously. Graphically this is represented by a graph similar to that
shown below.
Voltage (V)

Max

Min

time (s)

For the time being we will concentrate on digital systems. We have to

introduce some more terms that are used to describe digital signals, because
there are a number of different power supplies available which may cause
confusion if we start to talk about outputs being at a particular voltage.
Therefore there is a standard terminology used when dealing with digital
systems as we have here.
When an input or output signal is at the minimum power supply voltage (usually
0V) this is referred to as a LOW signal or LOGIC 0 signal.
When an input or output signal is at the maximum power supply voltage this is
referred to as a HIGH signal or LOGIC 1 signal.
So now that we understand the terms lets start by looking at the basic
building block of all digital systems, the logic gate.

Logic Gates.
The term logic gate actually gives a clue as to the function of these devices in
an electronic circuit. Logic implies some sort of rational thought process
taking place and a gate in everyday language allows something through when
it is opened.
A Logic Gate in an electronic sense makes a logical decision based upon a set
of rules, and if the appropriate conditions are met then the gate is opened
and an output signal is produced.
Logic gates are therefore the decision making units in electronic systems and
there are many different types for different applications. We will now spend
some time looking at the different type of gates and the rules each one uses
to decide an appropriate output.
1.

The NOT gate (or inverter)

This is the simplest form of logic gate and has only 1 input and 1 output. So
how can it make a decision if it only has 1 input ? Simply the purpose of this
gate is to invert the input signal so if a Logic 0 is at the input, the output will
be at Logic 1 and vice versa. The symbol for a NOT gate is as follows.
A

You will notice that the input has been given the letter A and the output the
letter Q. Traditionally inputs are given letters from the start of the
alphabet A, B, C etc. but this is more a rule of thumb and is not written in
stone. Do not be put off if an input is labelled something different, e.g.
J it is only a letter after all.
The output is traditionally labelled Q for logic systems, but again under
different circumstances it may be appropriate to change this to something
more meaningful like Red if the output is a red light.
7

The output of a logic gate can also be summarised in the form of a table,
called a Truth Table. The truth table for a NOT gate is the simplest of all
Truth Tables and is shown below.
Input Output
A
Q
0
1
1
0
There is also a shorthand way of writing down the function of this logic gate,
using a special type of algebra called Boolean Algebra. This will seem very
strange at first, but you will learn later how to use it to simplify logic
systems, for now please just learn the format for each gate as it is
introduced. You will soon learn the patterns and look back on this without any
concern. The Boolean expression for a NOT gate is
QA

The bar over the A indicates that the output Q is the opposite of A.

We will now consider four of the most common logic gates in use in electronic
circuits. These are the :

AND gate
OR gate
NAND gate
NOR gate

Note : These logic gates have a minimum of 2 inputs but can have up to
8 inputs, however for this course the maximum number of inputs
we will deal with is 4 although it is possible for you to use larger
gates in your project work later on in the course.

2.

The AND gate.

We will start with a 2 input AND gate. The symbol for a 2 input AND gate is
as follows.
A

The truth table for the 2 input AND gate is shown below.
Inputs
B
0
0
1
1

A
0
1
0
1

Output
Q
0
0
0
1

We can see that the output is only at a Logic 1 when Input A AND Input B
are at a Logic 1.
The Boolean expression for a 2 input AND gate is
Q A.B

The . between the A and B means AND in Boolean Algebra.

Now we will consider a 3 input AND gate.
The symbol is:
A
B
C

The truth table for the 3 input AND gate is shown below.

Inputs
B

Output
Q

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1

We can see that the output is only at a Logic 1 when Input A AND Input B
AND Input C are at a Logic 1.
The Boolean expression for a 3 input AND gate is
Q A.B.C

Now try to complete the following for a 4 input AND gate.

Symbol:

Boolean Expression:

10

Inputs
D

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

Output
Q

Practical Logic Gates.

Logic gates are usually supplied in plastic d.i.l. (dual in line) packages
containing multiple copies of one type of logic gate. The following diagram
shows a picture of this type of package, although logic gates are usually
contained in 14 or 16 pin packages. (A larger device has been shown here for
clarity but the principle of identification are the same for smaller packages)
Pin 1 identification

Pin 1

There are two common types available, TTL or 74xx series and CMOS or
4xxx series. It is likely that you will come across both types in your practical
work, so whats the difference between them ?
The key differences are outlined in the table below:
Parameter
Supply Voltage

TTL (74xx family)

5V 0.25V only

Logic 0 range

0 to 0.8V

Logic 1 range

2.0 to 5.0V

Frequency of operation
Power consumption

50 MHz
10mW / gate

CMOS (4xxx family)

3V to 18V
Below 30% of
supply voltage
Above 70% of
supply voltage
4 MHz
0.1mW / gate

This information will be needed when you carry out your practical work, as you
will need to know which type of logic gate you are using.

11

You will also need to be careful how you connect each logic gate into your
circuit as each package can contain up to six individual gates. To be able to
identify which leads are connected to which gate you need to look at a data
sheet for the actual logic gate you are using. A couple of these have been
reproduced below.

It is important that you check the connections every time you use a logic gate
as connecting these incorrectly can result in the whole logic chip being
destroyed.
From an examination situation you will not be required to know the difference
between TTL and CMOS devices, this is required for any practical tests that
you carry out, and will be particularly important for your project work.

12

Analysis of simple logic circuits.

In the examination you may have to recognise truth tables for these basic
gates individually, but it is much more likely that these gates will be linked
together in simple combinations and you will be asked to complete a truth
table for a larger system. We will now consider a couple of examples of these
systems.
1.

Study the following logic system carefully and then complete the truth
table that follows:

Inputs
B

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

Outputs
C
Q

In this problem, the output of the NOT gate has been labeled C. The first
stage is to complete the output column for C which is the NOT of A as
shown below.
Inputs
B

Outputs
C
Q

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

1
0
1
0

13

Now we need to complete the final column Q which is the output of the AND
gate with B and C as the inputs.
Inputs

2.

Outputs
C
Q

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

1
0
1
0

0
0
1
0

Study the following logic system carefully and then complete the truth
table that follows:

Inputs
B

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

Outputs
G

First complete the output column for the NOT gate (Column F)
{Remember the input is B.}
Then complete the output column for the AND gate (Column G)
{Remember the inputs are F and C.}
Finally complete the final output from the NOR gate (Column Q)
{Remember the inputs are A and G}
14

Solution:

Inputs
B

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

Outputs
G

1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0

0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0

1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0

Heres a couple for you to try:

1.

Study the following logic system carefully and then complete the truth
table that follows:

Inputs
B

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

Outputs
K
Q

15

2.

Study the following logic system carefully and then complete the truth
table that follows:

Inputs
B

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

Outputs
G

We will look more at the design of logic circuits to meet a given

specification in Topic 1.2 - Logic system design.

16