Sap Fi Bsci

BSCI v2.
0 (642-801)
Table of Contents
The Basics........................................................................................................................................................................ 4
Request for Comments (RFC) ....................................................................................................................................... 4
Cisco Hierarchical Internetworking Model ..................................................................................................................... 4
OSI Protocols ............................................................................................................................................................. 5
Routing ............................................................................................................................................................................. 5
Internet Protocol (IP) Addressing................................................................................................................................... 5
Classfull Addressing................................................................................................................................................... 6
Classless Addressing ................................................................................................................................................. 6
Connection and Non-Connection Protocols ............................................................................................................... 6
IP Helper Addresses .................................................................................................................................................. 7
Passive-Interface........................................................................................................................................................ 7
Network Address Translation (NAT) .............................................................................................................................. 7
RED and WRED ............................................................................................................................................................ 9
Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6).................................................................................................................................. 9
Routing Protocol Concepts .......................................................................................................................................... 10
Distance-Vector Routing Protocols .......................................................................................................................... 10
Link State Routing Protocols .................................................................................................................................... 10
Routing Protocol Types................................................................................................................................................ 11
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) ................................................................................................................................ 12
OSPF Area Types .................................................................................................................................................... 12
Area 0 ....................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Stub and Totally Stubby Area .................................................................................................................................. 13
Router Types ............................................................................................................................................................ 13
LSA Types ................................................................................................................................................................ 14
Quick Review ........................................................................................................................................................... 14
Route Table Updates ............................................................................................................................................... 14
Traffic Types............................................................................................................................................................. 14
Network Types ......................................................................................................................................................... 15
Broadcast MultiAccess Networks............................................................................................................................. 15
OSPF Operations ..................................................................................................................................................... 15
OSPF Startup ........................................................................................................................................................... 16
Special Media........................................................................................................................................................... 16
Virtual Links .............................................................................................................................................................. 16
OSPF and Redistribution.......................................................................................................................................... 17
OSPF Commands (Single Area) Setup.................................................................................................................... 17
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OSPF Multiple-Areas Configuration Commands Enable OSPF on the Router ....................................................... 17
OSPF Multiple-Areas Configuration Commands Enable OSPF on the Router ....................................................... 18
Commands for Stub Area Configuration .................................................................................................................. 18
Commands for Route Summarization on OSPF ...................................................................................................... 18
Commands for Troubleshooting OSPF .................................................................................................................... 18
Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS).................................................................................................. 19
OSI CLNP................................................................................................................................................................. 20
Hello ......................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Metrics ...................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Basic Operation........................................................................................................................................................ 21
Useful IS-IS Terms to Understand ........................................................................................................................... 21
IS-IS on NBMA ......................................................................................................................................................... 22
Areas and the Domain.............................................................................................................................................. 22
Router Types ............................................................................................................................................................ 22
Addressing ............................................................................................................................................................... 23
Security..................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Other Resources ...................................................................................................................................................... 24
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)............................................................................................... 24
DUAL (Diffusing Update Algorithm) ......................................................................................................................... 24
Choosing Routes...................................................................................................................................................... 24
Protocol Dependence............................................................................................................................................... 25
Tables....................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Hello Packets and the EIGRP Discovery Process ................................................................................................... 25
Route Tagging.......................................................................................................................................................... 25
Load Balancing......................................................................................................................................................... 26
Route Age ................................................................................................................................................................ 26
EIGRP Packet Types ............................................................................................................................................... 27
FD, RD, FC, FS and Successors ............................................................................................................................. 27
EIGRP and Dropped Links ....................................................................................................................................... 27
EIGRP and NBMA.................................................................................................................................................... 28
Hub and Spoke......................................................................................................................................................... 28
Stuck-in-Active ......................................................................................................................................................... 28
EIGRP Configuration................................................................................................................................................ 29
Route Summarization for EIGRP ............................................................................................................................. 29
Verifying Operations................................................................................................................................................. 30
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP).................................................................................................................................. 30
CIDR......................................................................................................................................................................... 31
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AS Numbers ............................................................................................................................................................. 31
Synchronization/Full Mesh ....................................................................................................................................... 31
Summarization ......................................................................................................................................................... 32
Peering ..................................................................................................................................................................... 32
BGP Attributes.......................................................................................................................................................... 32
BGP Path Selection.................................................................................................................................................. 33
Scalability Problems (and Solutions) with iBGP....................................................................................................... 34
Next-Hop-Self Command ......................................................................................................................................... 34
Filtering BGP Updates.............................................................................................................................................. 35
Policy Routing .......................................................................................................................................................... 35
Route Dampening .................................................................................................................................................... 35
Route Distribution..................................................................................................................................................... 35
Multi-Homing BGP.................................................................................................................................................... 36
BACKDOOR configurations ..................................................................................................................................... 36
Basic Configuration .................................................................................................................................................. 36
Summary Routes...................................................................................................................................................... 36
Statistic Commands ................................................................................................................................................. 37
Verifying Operations................................................................................................................................................. 37
Redistribution ................................................................................................................................................................ 37
Excellent CCO Links: ............................................................................................................................................... 37
Static Routing and Connected Ports ........................................................................................................................ 38
IGRP and EIGRP ..................................................................................................................................................... 38
OSPF........................................................................................................................................................................ 39
BGP .......................................................................................................................................................................... 40
Policy-Based Routing (PBR) ........................................................................................................................................ 40
Configuration commands for PBR............................................................................................................................ 41
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The Basics
Request for Comments (RFC)
RFCs are a series of numbered Internet informational documents and standards widely followed by commercial
software and freeware in the Internet and UNIX communities. They are unusual in that they are floated by technical
experts acting on their own initiative and reviewed by the Internet at large, rather than formally promulgated through an
institution or standards setting organizations. For this reason, they remain known as RFCs, even once they have been
adopted as official standards.
The RFC tradition of pragmatic, experience-driven, after-the-fact standards writing, done by individuals or small
working groups has important advantages over the more formal, committee-driven process typical of ANSI or ISO.
RFCs usually manage to avoid either the ambiguity often found in informal specifications, and the committeeperpetrated meaningless drivel that often haunts formal standards; and they define a network that has grown to truly
worldwide proportions.
If you really want to understand the history and mechanics of modern networking protocols, you should read the RFCs
that define them. Especially important RFCs to know for this exam include:
RFC 2328 OSPF
http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2328.txt?number=2328
RFC 1142 IS-IS
RFC 1771 BGPv4
RFC 2460 IPv6
As an amusing aside, you might be interested to know that there exists a flourishing tradition of "joke" RFCs (generally
one a year, usually on April 1st). These include:
RFC 527 (ARPAWOCKY) - A sham technical document, written in the style of Lewis Carroll.
RFC 748 (Telnet Randomly-Lose Option) - A parody of the TCP/IP documentation style.
RFC 1149 (A Standard for the Transmission of IP Datagrams on Avian Carriers) - A deadpan skewering of
standards-document legalese, describing protocols for transmitting Internet data packets by carrier pigeon.
Remember that few RFCs are standards, but all Internet standards are recorded in RFCs.
This link is the starting point for RFC searches:
http://www.ietf.org/rfc.html
Cisco Hierarchical Internetworking Model

The Hierarchical model is the basis of most Cisco network designs. There are three levels, each with its own
emphasis:
Access The point at which users join the network.
Distribution The control layer, which includes the aggregation of traffic, access lists, compression, encryption
and other services that provide the glue between Access and Core layers.
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Core Concentrates all traffic traversing the network.
OSI Protocols
Created by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to develop standards for data networking, the
Open System Interconnection (OSI) protocols represent an international standardization program that facilitates multivendor equipment interoperability. In an OSI network there are four significant architectural entities: hosts, areas, a
backbone, and a domain.
Host Any non-routing host or node.
Area A logical entity formed by a set of contiguous routers and the data links that connect them.
Backbone - Many routing protocols use a hierarchical design that defines separate areas, connected through a
shared area, which forms a backbone.
Domain - Any portion of an OSI network that is under common administrative authority.
Routing
Internet Protocol (IP) Addressing
IP is a layer-3 routed protocol with two primary responsibilities: providing connectionless, best-effort delivery of
datagrams; and providing fragmentation and reassembly of datagrams to support data links with different maximumtransmission unit (MTU) sizes.
Addresses (IPv4) are 32 bits long, with the most significant bits specifying the network, as determined by a subnet
mask. This subnet is either derived from the first few bits of the address, or specified directly, depending on if you are
using classful (conforming to major address boundaries) or classless (further subnetting classful addresses)
addressing. IP addresses are written in dotted-decimal format, with each set of eight bits separated by a period. The
minimum and maximum packet headers for IP are 20 and 24 bytes, respectively with the actual length depending on
the application in use. Here is an excellent description of the primary fields:
http://www.erg.abdn.ac.uk/users/gorry/course/inet-pages/ip-packet.html
Here are the basic facts about the different classes of IP addresses:
IP
Address
Class
Purpose
HighOrder
Bit(s)
Few large
organizations
Medium-size
organizations
10
Relatively
small
organizations
110
Multicast
groups (RFC
1112)
1110
Default Subnet
Mask
Address Range
255.0.0.0
1.0.0.0 to
126.0.0.0
255.255.0.0
128.1.0.0 to
191.254.0.0
255.255.255.0
192.0.1.0 to
223.255.254.0
N/A
224.0.0.0 to
239.255.255.255
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E
Experimental
1111
N/A
240.0.0.0 to
254.255.255.255
Remember that the default Subnet Mask is just that, a default; it can be adjusted as necessary (depending on the
routing protocol) by the network designer.
Classfull Addressing
This addressing scheme is commonly used where the subnet mask reflects the number of bits used to calculate the
default gateway (e.g., Class A 10.0.0.0 mask 255.X.0.0, Class B 172.0.0.0 mask 255.255.0.0, Class C 192.0.0.0 mask
255.255.255.0). RIPv1 and IGRP can only be used with a classfull addressing scheme.
Classless Addressing
CIDR - Classless Inter-Domain Routing - is used to conserve and use address space effectively (see VLSM). It is
required for route summarization to work correctly. Careful planning and implementation are both required. An easy
way to identify a classless address is to look at the subnet mask. You will commonly see a Class A address with a
Class B or C subnet mask. Some protocols require additional configuration to support discontiguous subnets. Link
state protocols support classless addressing. RIP version 1 and IGRP do not, because they do not pass subnet
information.
Connection and Non-Connection Protocols

A connection-oriented data transfer works like a telephone call in that the caller initiates a connection, confirms that
the connection is made, and terminates the session when the data exchange is complete.
A connection-oriented protocol will have a method for establishing a connection, providing flow and error control, and
then providing session termination.
When troubleshooting connection-oriented protocols, check to see if there are multiple retransmissions of segments of
data. If so, you should determine why upper layer protocols are requesting them and verify that sequence numbers,
acknowledgements, window sizes, and other connection-oriented parameters are appropriate and being incremented
or managed correctly.
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Connectionless protocols forward data without prior coordination, and with no guarantee that it will reach its
destination. A higher-layer application reassembles the packets in proper order, and requests the retransmission of
any missing packets, if it is needed. Some applications and protocols dont care about packet lost. An example for
such protocol is Real Time Protocol (RTP), responsible for video and voice transportation.
When troubleshooting connectionless protocol data transfer problems you should look to see problems where errors in
the data are not being reported back to the sender, where data is not being acknowledged, or where data does not
arrive in order.
IP Helper Addresses
By default routers dont forward broadcast packets. The ip helper command is used to forward User Datagram
Protocol (UDP) broadcasts, including BOOTP packets, received on an interface. Since DHCP protocol information is
carried inside BOOTP packets, it is also supported. The ip helper command allows you to control which broadcast
packets a router forwards. The helper address is configured on the interface from which the BOOTP request is going
to be received, and references the final destination of the request packet.
The IP-HELPER command should be entered on the same interface that the BOOTP frame is received. It is converted
to a unicast message and forwarded to the specified destination. Here is a sample configuration:
ip helper-address X.X.X.X (where X.X.X.X is the destination IP)
Passive-Interface
When enabled on an interface, the PASSIVE-INTERFACE router command allows the interface to receive routing
updates, but does not allow it to forward routes out of the interface.
You should know that the passive interface feature behaves differently with different protocols. For most protocols,
passive interface stops the router from sending updates to a particular neighbor, but continues to listen and use routing
updates from that neighbor. However, on EIGRP and OSPF, passive interface causes the router to stop sending and
receiving hello packets, preventing the forming of peers.
The passive-interface command is applied at the global level and allows the specified interface to hear routing
updates, but not repeat them. This is used to control the propagation of routing updates.
Here is a sample configuration:
RouterA(config)# router rip
RouterA(config-router)# passive-interface serial 0
Network Address Translation (NAT)

NAT operates on a router connecting two networks with different addressing schemes together. The translation
operates in conjunction with routing; internal and external address numbers are associated in pairs and translated by
the NATing device. Overloading is using port numbers to allow multiple external addresses to share a smaller number
of internal addresses.
The most common use of NAT is to provide Internet connectivity to internal networks that use private addressing. It is
also commonly used when an organization uses different addressing schemes internally, perhaps during an upgrade
or when one company acquires another and the networks must be merged.
These are the different types of addresses used by Network Address Translation (NAT):
Inside local address - Addresses assigned for use on the local network. These will usually be taken from the
private address pools. These are the normal inside addresses.
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Inside global address - A legitimate IP address that represents one or more inside local IP addresses to the
outside world. This would be the real address that gets translated into one or more outside Local Addresses.
Outside local address - The IP address of an outside host as it appears to the inside network. Not necessarily
a legitimate address, it was allocated from an address space routable on the inside. This is the inside network
address that corresponds to the real address present to the outside world. Using overloading, many outside
local addresses can be combined in a smaller number of inside global addresses.
Outside global address - A legitimate IP address assigned to a host on the outside network by the host's
owner. This is the address that will be allocated from a globally routable address or network space.
To provide an example of Network Address Translation, Ive posted a partial router where R1 is pinged by R3 through
a NATed address on R2. Please see the details below:
Figure 1 Network Diagram
R2#show run
!
interface Ethernet0
ip address 192.168.12.2 255.255.255.0
no ip directed-broadcast
ip nat inside
!
interface Serial0
ip address 172.16.23.2 255.255.255.0
no ip directed-broadcast
ip nat outside
no ip mroute-cache
!
ip nat inside source static 192.168.12.1 172.16.23.1
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RED and WRED

Random Early Detection (RED) is a congestion avoidance mechanism that takes advantage of TCPs tail drop
congestion control mechanism. By randomly dropping packets prior to periods of high congestion, RED tells the packet
source to decrease its transmission rate. Assuming the packet source is using TCP, it will decrease its transmission
rate until all the packets reach their destination, indicating that the congestion is cleared.
Tail drop treats all traffic equally and does not differentiate between classes of service. When the output queue is full
and tail drop is in effect, packets are dropped until the congestion is eliminated and the queue is no longer full.
A variation on RED is Weighted RED (WRED), which drops packets selectively based on IP precedence. Packets with
a higher IP precedence are less likely to be dropped than packets with a lower precedence. Thus, higher priority traffic
is delivered with a higher probability than lower priority traffic.
Underlying the RED mechanism is the premise that most traffic runs on data transport implementations which are
sensitive to loss and will temporarily slow down when some of their traffic is dropped. TCP, which responds
appropriately (even robustly) to a traffic drop by slowing down its traffic transmission, effectively allows RED's trafficdrop behavior to work as a congestion-avoidance signaling mechanism.
Dont be overly concerned with the differences between RED and WRED. WRED is simply RED with the added
features of IP precedence and QoS. If all your traffic is at the same precedence level, you have RED; otherwise the
precedence level signals to WRED the different priorities of traffic, which then allows WRED to drop lower priority
traffic before higher priority traffic.
Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6)

IPv6 offers several enhancements to the IPv4 standard, including greatly expanded addressing space and new partial
broadcast options, like Anycast. The addressing will move from the current 32 bits to 128, and the addresses are
presented in Hex rather than decimal. IP Version 6 allows many more addresses (more than 3.41038 possible
addresses) compared to IPv4. With so available addresses, address conservation techniques, such as NAT, are no
longer necessary.
The Anycast function is one of the new features of IPv6. Anycast can be understood best by comparing with Unicast
and Multicast. IP Unicast allows a source node to transmit IP datagrams to a single destination node. The destination
node is identified by a Unicast address. IP multicast allows a source node to transmit IP datagrams to a group of
destination nodes. A multicast group identifies the destination nodes, and we use a multicast address to identify the
multicast group.
IP Anycast allows a source node to transmit IP datagrams to a single destination node, out of a group of destination
nodes; meaning the datagram will reach the closest destination node in the set of destination nodes, based on routing
measure of distance. The source node need not even know about how to pick the closest destination node, as the
routing system will figure this out (a nice way of saying that the source node has no control over the selection). The
set of destination nodes is identified by an Anycast address.
IPv6 address types are distinguished by the value of the high-order octet of the addresses: a value of 0xFF (binary
11111111) identifies an address as a multicast address; 0x00 indicates loopback or unassigned addresses; any other
value identifies an address as a Unicast address. Anycast addresses are taken from the Unicast address space, and
are not syntactically distinguishable from Unicast addresses. IPv6 addresses can be written in a compressed format by
using a double colon to summarize at least one octet of continuous zeros.
Valid IPv6 Unicast or Anycast addresses:
1080:0:0:0:8:800:200C:417A
1080::8:800:200C:417A
Valid IPv6 Multicast addresses:
FF01:0:0:0:0:0:0:101
FF01::101
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Valid IPv6 Lookback addresses
0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1
::1
This address is equivalent to the IPv4 loopback address of 127.0.0.1.
Valid IPv6 Unspecified addresses
0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0
::
This address is equivalent to the IPv4 unspecified address of 0.0.0.0.
Routing Protocol Concepts

Routing protocols provide dynamic network information to the routers that are part of the domain, and represent one of
the most important areas for a network engineer to master.
Distance-Vector Routing Protocols

These protocols are designed to periodically pass the full contents of their routing tables to all of their immediate
neighbors (usually every 30 to 90 seconds). Each recipient then increments the values and updates its routing table to
send out in the next update. Once this information has made the rounds, each router will have built a routing table with
information about the "distances" to networked resources without learning anything specific about the other routers, or
about the network's actual topology.
The primary benefits of these protocols are how easy they are to configure and maintain. The problems associated
with them include slow convergence, routing loops, counting to infinity problems, and excessive bandwidth utilization
from the size and repetition of the updates.
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) are the primary examples of
Distance-Vector routing protocols.
Link State Routing Protocols

Link State Routing protocols develop and maintain a full knowledge of the network's routers, as well as how they
connect to one another. This information is gathered through the exchange of link-state advertisements (LSAs)
between routers, which develop a topological database that is used by the Shortest Path Algorithm to compute
reachability to networked destinations. This process allows quick discovery of changes in the network topology.
One of the biggest advantages to Link-State protocols is that they avoid the problem of wasted bandwidth that comes
from DV (Distance Vector) routing protocols sending out their full routing tables several times a minute. On a properly
configured network, this will leave more bandwidth available for passing user traffic.
Other advantages to Link-State routing protocols include:
Faster convergence.
Greater scalability, allowing bigger, more robust networks.
Changes in topology can be sent out immediately, so convergence can be quicker.
They take bandwidth into account when determining routes.
The concerns with Link-State protocols include:
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During the initial discovery process, link-state routing protocols can flood the network, decreasing the network's
capability to transport data.
Link-state routing is both memory and processor intensive.
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) and Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS) are the primary
examples of Link State routing protocols.
Routing Protocol Types

Routing Protocols and Their
Attributes
Key
Protocol
Used by
Type
Metrics
Scalability
Range
RIP
IP
DV
Classfull
Hop count
15 Hops
RIPv2
IP
DV
Classless
Hop count
15 Hops
IGRP
IP
DV
Classfull
BDRL
255 Hops (default is

100)
EIGRP
IP, IPX
and
AppleTalk
Hybrid
Classless
BDRL
Thousands of routers
RTMP
AppleTalk
DV
N/A
Hop count
15 Hops
AURP
AppleTalk
DV
N/A
Hop count
15 Hops on each side
IPX RIP
IPX
DV
N/A
Ticks/Hop
count
15 Hops
DV = Distance
Vector
LS = Link State
BDRL =
Bandwidth, Delay,
Reliability and
Load
DVDEE = Default
value, delay,
expense and errors
PV = Path-vector
NLSP
IPX
LS
N/A
Cost/Bandwidth
127 Hops
OSPF
IP
LS
Interior
Cost
50 routers per area

(approximately 100
areas)
IS-IS
IP
LS
Interior
DVDEE
BGP
IP
PV
Exterior
PA
PA = Path
attributes and other
factors
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Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

OSPF is an open standard Link State routing protocol that uses Dijkstras
Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm. Several of OSPFs advantages
include: fast convergence, classless routing, VLSM support, support for
much larger inter-networks, authentication support, the use of areas to
minimize routing protocol traffic, route selection based on cost, and a
hierarchical design.
All OSPF routers must have a unique router ID. The router ID is the highest
IP address on any of its loopback interfaces. If the router doesnt have any
loopback interfaces, then it chooses the highest IP address on any of its
enable interfaces. The interface doesnt have to have OSPF enabled on it.
Loopback interfaces are often used because they are always active and
there is usually more leeway in address assignment.
OSPF information is carried by IP packets, by using IP protocol number 89.
OSPF Area Types

These include:
Standard - Accepts internal, external and summary LSAs.
Backbone (transit area) - In multi-area OSPF networks all other
areas must connect directly to this area in order to exchange route
information. It must be labeled area 0, and it accepts all LSA types.
This behaves like a normal Standard area, except it happens to reside
in the middle of the network. The basic rule for OSPF is that every
area must share at least one interface in the area 0.
Stub - Refers to an area that does not accept Type-5 LSAs to learn of
external Autonomous Systems (such a domains running under a
different routing protocol). If routers need to route to networks outside
the autonomous system, they must use a default route.
Not-so-stubby (NSSA) This is a non-proprietary extension of the
existing stub area feature that allows the injection of external routes in
a limited fashion into the stub area. Redistribution into an NSSA area
creates a special type of link-state advertisement (LSA) known as type
7, which can only exist in an NSSA area. An NSSA autonomous
system boundary router (ASBR) generates this LSA, and an NSSA
area border router (ABR) translates it into a type 5 LSA, which gets
propagated into the OSPF domain.
Totally Stubby All LSAs except Type 1 and 2 are blocked. Intraarea routes and the default route are the only routes passed within a
totally stubby area. This is Cisco proprietary.
Area 0
The core backbone area for OSPF is area 0. One of the basic rules of OSPF
is that all areas must connect to area 0 (just as all roads lead to Rome). If
there is an area that is not contiguous with area 0, your only option is to use
a virtual-link. This will provide a tunnel through another area in order to
make it appear that the area is directly connected to area 0.
The main dictate in OSPF is that multiple areas must all connect directly to
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the backbone area. The connection to the backbone area is via an ABR, which is resident in both areas and holds a
full topological database for each area. A remote network can connect to area 0 via a virtual link, essentially a tunnel
through the ABR in the intermediate area. From the viewpoint of OSPF, it has a direct connection.
Excess LSA traffic and frequent table recalculations are common problems associated with having too many routers in
an OSPF area.
Stub and Totally Stubby Area

Similarities:
There can only be a single ABR and single exit point from the area.
Stub areas reduce the size of the link-state database into the area, which reduces memory requirements of the
router.
All routers within the stub area must be configured as stub routers. If not, they cannot form adjacencies with the
other stub routers.
A stub area cannot be used as a transit area for virtual links.
An ASBR cannot be internal to a stub area.
Inter-area routing is based on a default route.
Neither will accept Type-5 LSAs (autonomous system entries).
Both are typically used in a hub and spoke topology with the spokes being remote sites configured as stub or
totally stubby areas.
Differences:
Totally stubby areas have smaller routing tables, since the only routes they accept are from area 0, which is the
default route.
Totally stubby areas will not accept Summary LSAs (Type-3 and Type-4).
Totally stubby is Cisco proprietary, while stub is an OSPF standard.
Router Types
These include:
Internal Router (LSA Type 1 or 2) Internal routers are those that have all their interfaces in the same area,
whether that is area 0, or another. Having an identical link-state database and running a single copy of the
routing algorithm would be the defining characteristic of an internal router.
Backbone Routers There are routers that have at least one interface connected to area 0. This is simply an
internal router that happens to be in area 0.
Area Border Router (LSA Type 3 or 4) These are routers that have interfaces attached to multiple areas.
They maintain separate link-state databases for each area. This may require the router to have more memory
and CPU power. These routers act as gateways for inter-area traffic. They must have at least one interface in
the backbone area, unless a virtual link is configured. These routers will often summarize routes from other
areas into the backbone area.
Autonomous System Boundary Router (LSA Type 5 or 7) These are routers that have at least one
interface into an external network, such as a non-OSPF network. These routers can redistribute non-OSPF
network information to and from an OSPF network. Redistribution into an NSSA area creates a special type of
link-state advertisement (LSA) known as type 7. This router will be running another routing protocol besides
OSPF, such as EIGRP, IGRP, RIP, IS-IS, etc.
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Area Border Routers (ABRs) are responsible for maintaining the routing information between areas. Internal routers
receive all routes from the ABR except for those routes that are contained within the internal area.
Traffic destined for networks outside of the AS must traverse Area 0 to an Autonomous System Border Router (ASBR).
The ASBR is responsible for handling the routing between OSPF and another AS using another routing protocol, such
as EIGRP.
LSA Types
These include:
Router link entry - Type 1 LSAs, which broadcast only in a specific area. Contains all the default Link State
information. This information is generated by each router for each area to which it belongs. It describes the state
of the routers link to the area. The link status and cost are two of the descriptors provided. It sends information
about the routers links.
Network entry - Type 2 LSAs, which multicast to all area routers in a multi-access network by the Designated
Router (DR). They describe the set of routers attached to a particular network, and are flooded only within the
area that contains the network.
Summary entry - Type 3 and 4 LSAs. Type 3 LSAs have route information for the internal networks and are
sent to the backbone routers. Type 4 LSAs have information about the ASBRs. This information is broadcast by
the ABR, and it will reach all the backbone routers.
Autonomous system entry - This is a Type 5 or 7 LSA. These come from the ASBR and contain information
related to external networks. Type 7 LSAs are only found in NSSA areas. Type 5 LSA is flooded through all
autonomous systems except the stub, totally stubby and no so stubby area.
Quick Review
Just to make sure this sticks in your mind, here is a list of the OSPF area types and the LSAs they accept:
Area 0 (backbone) - LSA types 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Non-backbone, non-stub - LSA types 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Stub - LSA types 1, 2, 3
Totally Stub - LSA types 1, 2
Not-so-Stubby (NSSA) - LSA types 1, 2, 7
Route Table Updates

Routers primarily use Type 1 and Type 2 LSAs to calculate routes. They will also use Type 3 and Type 4 LSAs to
calculate a route for areas within the wider internetwork. When a router has both intra- and inter-area routes available,
the intra-area will always be preferred. An easy way to remember this is, Why go around the block to go next door?
Only stub area routers do not expect type 5 LSAs. All other routers perform path calculations to external ASs.
Traffic Types
These include:
Intra-area - Traffic passed between routers within a single area.
Inter-area - Traffic passed between routers in different areas.
External - Traffic passed between an OSPF router and a router in another autonomous system.
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Network Types
When OSPF is enabled on an interface, it defines itself based on the physical network:
Broadcast - For FDDI, Ethernet and Token Ring.
Point-to-point For most conventional point-to-point WAN technologies.
Non-broadcast - For Serial, Frame Relay and ATM.
Broadcast MultiAccess Networks

Under OSPF, there is one DR (Designated Router) and one Backup Designated Router (BDR) per shared network
segment. This then distributes updates for all the routers on that segment, conserving bandwidth and avoiding
confusing routing tables.
Rather then having every router on a shared network segment (such as a LAN subnet), one router is selected to be the
Designated Router (DR), with a backup called the Backup Designated Router (BDR). The election for DR and BDR is
performed using the Hello protocol via IP multicast packets on each segment.
The router with the highest OSPF priority on a segment becomes the DR, and then the process is repeated for the
BDR. In the event of a tie, the router with the highest Router ID (RID) will win.
The default for the interface OSPF priority is one. Remember that the DR and BDR concepts are per multiaccess
segment. Setting the ospf priority on an interface is done using the ip ospf priority <value> interface command. A
priority value of zero indicates an interface that has been configured as not available to be elected as a DR or BDR.
Once the OSPF election is complete, and the DR and BDR are selected, other routers will establish full adjacency with
the DR and the BDR. If all the other routers were to form adjacencies with each other, quite a bit of bandwidth would
be wasted passing unnecessary link-state advertisements (LSAs). To avoid this, all non-DR/BDR routers form two-way
adjacencies instead.
If a router joins the network with a priority somewhere between the existing DR and BDR, the network does not
recalculate until the DR fails, then the BDR becomes the DR, and the new router will become BDR.
You can control the selection of DRs through the use of the IP OSPF Priority command; the highest priority wins, and
a setting of 0 makes the router ineligible to become the DR.
OSPF Operations
(Summary from RFC 2328):
Router starts and initializes the protocol, then waits for an indication that all the interfaces are up and
operational.
OSPF Hello Protocol is used to discover neighbors. OSPF sends and receives hello packets. On broadcast and
point-to-point networks, hello packets are sent via multicast AllSPFRouters address - 224.0.0.5. Non-broadcast
networks need neighbor configuration in order to form a proper adjacency.
A designated router (DR) is elected (if necessary) to determine which routers should be adjacent.
Routers form adjacencies with neighbors, and then synchronize their link-state databases. Routing updates are
only sent to adjacent neighbors, and routers send state updates, also known as Link State Advertisements
(LSAs).
All routers send their changes in the LSA to the 224.0.0.6 address, which is the address of all OSPF DR and
BDRs.
Flooding of LSAs throughout the area ensures that all link-state databases are identical. This database is used
to construct the shortest-path tree, and ultimately, the routing table.
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The default OSPF hello and dead intervals on Broadcast MultiAccess and on Point-to-point intervals are 10
seconds and 40 seconds.
The default OSPF hello and dead intervals on NBMA are 30 seconds and 120 seconds.
On OSPF Cisco routers the default metric is based on media bandwidth.
By default, four equal routes to the same destination are kept in the routing table. With a maximum-path
command you can increase this value to six.
OSPF Startup
After router1 startup, it is in down state. It doesnt have information about other routers. It sends hello packets
through its OSPF enabled interfaces to the multicast address 224.0.0.5.
All running routers add the router1 to their list of neighbors. This is the init state.
All routers that received the router hello packets send the unicast hello packet to the router1. The neighbor field
includes all neighbor router information.
Router1 adds received neighbor information to its neighbor table. This is two-way state.
The router realizes who are the DR and BDR.
Special Media
OSPF has some specialized functionality for certain configurations:
Demand circuits The Hello protocol sends and receives packets on set intervals. If Hello packets are not
received within 4 times of the hello interval (dead interval), the link will be torn down. This can cause issues
over ISDN links, because OSPF will keep the link up trying to form an adjacency. The solution to the problem is
the command, ip ospf demand-circuit. This stops router to router communication once their databases have
been exchanged.
Broadcast Media OSPF relies on multicast to function, and if it cannot, problems will result. Manual
configuration is required to ensure proper adjacencies over non-broadcast media. The neighbor <ip address>
command will ensure proper communications take place.
Virtual Links
All areas must have at least one router that is connected to the backbone. In some rare instances, you might have a
router that needs to cross another area to get to the backbone. To do this you need to create a virtual link. The virtual
link is not recommended, and is usually used during a migration. VLs have two main purposes:
Linking an area that does not have a physical connection to area 0.
As a patch, in the event the ABR that connects an area to the backbone fails.
VLs must be configured on both routers, and cannot be configured through stub areas. Below are the commands for
VLs:
Router(config-router)#area area-id virtual-link router id This is the most basic form of the command. To
display information about VLs on the router, use sh ip ospf virtual-links.
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OSPF and Redistribution

There is an important keyword with OSPF - subnets. You will need to use the SUBNETS argument on the
redistribution command whenever there is a major network that is subnetted and is being redistributed into an OSPF
domain. Without this keyword, OSPF only redistributes major networks that aren't subnetted. It doesnt hurt to use this
command if it is not needed, so you should get used to putting it on every redistribution into OSPF. Here is a sample
use of the command:
router ospf 1
network 192.168.99.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
redistribute static metric 200 subnets
redistribute rip metric 200 subnets
redistribute igrp 1 metric 100 subnets
redistribute eigrp 1 metric 100 subnets
redistribute isis metric 10 subnets
OSPF Commands (Single Area) Setup

router (config)#router ospf # (#=process ID)
Enables ospf on the router
router (config-router)#network address wildcard-mask area # (#=area id)
Address can be a subnet, network or the address of the interface
Selects the networks that will be in the OSPF network
router (config-if)#interface loopback #(#=the loopback address)
OSPF has been proven more reliable with a loopback number
Loopback address can override the highest ip address for the router id
router (config-if)#ip ospf priority 0-255
router (config-if)#ip ospf cost # (#= the cost value 1-65535)
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OSPF Multiple-Areas Configuration Commands Enable OSPF on the Router

router(config)# router ospf X (X=process id)
The next step is to tell the router which networks are on the OSPF network
router(config-router)#network address wildcard-mask area (area id)
Commands for Stub Area Configuration

router(config-router)#area area-id stub
Configures Regular Stub area
router(config-router)#area area-id stub no-summary
Configures A Total Stub Area
Commands for Route Summarization on OSPF

For ASBRs:
router(config-router)#summary-address address mask
Condenses inter-area routes into summary
For ABRs:
router(config-router)#area area-id range address mask
Condenses inter-area routes into summary
Commands for Troubleshooting OSPF

router#show ip route
Gives the route information learned by the router.
router#show ip protocol
Router information along with metrics and networks. Used to verify how OSPF is configured.
router#show ip ospf
Displays how many times the SPF algorithm was calculated and the update interval time.
router#show ip ospf interface
Displays hello interval, adjacencies, and the ospf area id.
router#show ip ospf neighbor detail
Shows the list of neighbors, DR and BDR info priorities and states.
router#show ip ospf database
Displays the database topology, link state database, router id and ospf process id.
router#show ip ospf border-routers
List the ABRs in the AS.
router#show ip ospf virtual-links
Shows the status on all the virtual links.
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router#show ip ospf process-id
Shows the information about each area to which the router is connected, and shows the type of the OSPF router
ABR, an ASBR or both.
Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS)

IS-IS is the other Link State protocol that Cisco supports. While not as popular as OSPF, IS-IS can be found in the
backbone of several major ISPs because it was stable before the bugs were worked out for OSPF, and because even
today it still scales better than OSPF. It is an Open System Interconnection (OSI) dynamic routing protocol designed
to be used in the OSI Connectionless Network Service (CLNS). Features of the protocol include:
Classless behavior
Fast convergence
High level of scalability
Hierarchical routing
Support of Cisco IOS route-leaking, multi-area routing and overload-bit
The term end system (ES) refers to any non-routing host or node; intermediate system (IS) refers to a router. These
terms are the basis for the OSI End System-to-Intermediate System (ES-IS) and Intermediate System-to-Intermediate
System (IS-IS) protocols
To configure IS-IS you must create an IS-IS routing process and assign it to specific interfaces (rather than to
networks). Only one IS-IS routing process is allowed per router. It summarizes networks to reduce the size of the
routing tables, and is a classless protocol that supports VLSM.
IS-IS has many things in common with other Link State routing protocols, including OSPF. IS-IS characteristics
include:
Hierarchical segmenting of the routing domain into areas with one backbone and multiple non-backbone areas.
Inter-area traffic must traverse the backbone.
Routers within an IS-IS domain use a hello mechanism to discover neighbors and form adjacencies.
The information exchanged between adjacent routers concerns type and status of links or interfaces, not actual
routes.
Each router builds a Link State Database (LSDB), which in a stable environment will be identical between
routers in an area.
There are three types of IS-IS routers:
Level-1 routers - Similar to totally stubby areas in OSPF. A Level-1 router can only communicate with other
Level-1 routers in its area and Level-1 / Level-2 routers in its area.
Level-2 routers - Similar to backbone routers in OSPF. Level-2 routers communicate with other Level-2 and
Level-1 / Level-2 routers.
Level-1 / Level-2 routers - Similar to OSPF ABRs. A Level-1 / Level-2 router can communicate with Level-1
routers within its area and other Level-2 routers.
IS-IS adjacencies form between routers based on their level. L1 routers form adjacencies with other L1 routers, L2
routers form adjacencies with other L2 routers, and L1/L2 routers form two separate adjacencies with each other (L1L1 and L2-L2). L1/L2 routers also form adjacencies with L1 and L2 routers.
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Please remember that IS-IS domains are broken into areas, which are connected using L2 routers. This means that L2
routers form adjacencies with other L2 routers with different Area IDs. L1 routers, on the other hand, can only form
adjacencies with routers with matching Area IDs.
OSI CLNP
OSI connectionless network service is implemented by using the Connectionless Network Protocol (CLNP) and
Connectionless Network Service (CLNS) (both described in the ISO 8473 standard).
CLNP is an OSI network layer protocol that carries upper-layer data and error indications over connectionless
links. It provides the interface between the Connectionless Network Service (CLNS) and upper layers.
CLNS provides network layer services to the transport layer via CLNP. It does not perform connection setup or
termination because paths are determined independently for each packet that is transmitted through a network.
This contrasts with Connection-Mode Network Service (CMNS). In addition, CLNS provides best-effort
delivery, which means that no guarantee exists that data will not be lost, corrupted, misordered, or duplicated.
CLNS relies on transport layer protocols to perform error detection and correction.
Even though IS-IS is primarily used with TCP/IP, it was designed to be (and still is) an OSI CNLP protocol, with a
completely different set of transport methods, requiring a CLNP addressing structure in order to support the flow of ISIS packets. These are carried without any encapsulation. Normally one CLNP-based address is assigned to reach
router in the domain. This address (configured in the router configuration section) is software based (like a loopback
interface), which means it will not go down as long as the router is running. Because connectivity is based on CNLP
instead of IP, it is possible to have an IS-IS network that is at full convergence with all the routing traffic being passed,
but with no IP connectivity available.
Remember that CLNS is a network layer service that is used for peer communication. In this system, routers are
Intermediate Systems (IS) and hosts are called Host Systems (HS). Below is a description of the operation:
An End System (ES) does not have routing information; they discover routers through Intermediate System
Hellos (ISHs). An ES will also send hellos (ESHs), to help the protocol determine how best to optimally route
traffic.
There is no ARP or ICMP for CLNS, but there is an ES-IS protocol that provides these services. IS-IS is the
protocol for routing OSI, and operates at the data-link layer.
Hello
IS-IS makes use of two Hello packet formats: one for point-to-point links and one for LAN (broadcast) links. When two
routers disagree on the packet format, no adjacency can be formed. There is no equivalent of the 'IP OSPF
NETWORK' command in IS-IS; the network type is entirely dependent on the interface type:
Frame Relay Configuration
IS-IS Network Type
Physical Interface / frame relay map clns
Broadcast
Physical Interface / frame interface-dlci
Not supported
Point to Point Sub-Interface
Point-to-point
Point to Multi Point Sub-Interface
Not supported
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Link types are based on the interface configuration, and Cisco does not offer anything for IS-IS like OSPF's "network
type" command to change the type of Hello packets, so if this problem exists, it is necessary to change the format of
an interface to resolve this issue.
Metrics
Unlike OSPF, which uses a formula to determine a cost associated with each link, IS-IS uses an almost arbitrary cost
value. Valid metric settings for cost are between 1 and 63, the Cisco default metric value being 10 for all interfaces,
regardless of bandwidth (with the exception of the lo0 interface, which has a default metric of 0). It is often necessary
to modify this default metric to efficiently direct traffic flow across IS-IS backbones.
The total cost of a path is determined by adding all the costs en route. Originally, 1023 was the highest path cost, but
Cisco added the use of a 24-bit metric, deemed a wide metric, which now allows values to be between 1 and 224-1
(16,777,215).
There is an excellent discussion of IS-IS metrics on pages 110-112 of the Cisco Press book IS-IS Network Design
Solutions by Abe Martey.
The original IS-IS specification uses four types of metrics. Cost, being the default metric, is supported by all routers.
Delay, expense, and error are optional metrics.
The Cisco implementation uses cost only.
Basic Operation
Hello packets are sent out of all IS-IS interfaces to allow neighbors to be discovered, and adjacencies to be
established.
Adjacencies are formed when three main criteria are matched: authentication parameters, IS-type and MTU size.
Link-state packets (LSPs) are built for active interfaces, along with information from adjacent routers. Flooding
generally occurs to all adjacent neighbors.
Each router constructs a link-state database from these LSPs.
Each IS constructs a shortest-path tree, and uses this to build a routing table.
Adjacency Creation
Two routers will become neighbors if the following parameters are agreed:
Level 1 - The two routers sharing a common network segment must have their interfaces configured to be in the
same area if they are to have a Level 1 adjacency.
Level 2 - The two routers sharing a common network segment must be configured as Level 2 if they are in
different areas and want to become neighbors.
Useful IS-IS Terms to Understand

These include:
Routing Domain - The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines a domain as a collection of
connected areas. A large domain may be divided into multiple areas. Each individual system resides in one area, with
routing within an area being referred to as Level 1 routing; routing between areas is referred to as Level 2 routing.
Routing domains provide full connectivity to all end systems within them. You can think of an IS-IS routing domain as
similar to a BGP autonomous system; it is a collection of areas under an administration that implements routing
policies within the domain.
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Backbone - IS-IS does not have a separate backbone area like the OSPFs
area 0. The IS-IS backbone is a contiguous collection of Level 2-capable
routers, each of which can be in different areas.
Areas In an IS-IS environment, the border between areas is on the link
that connects two routers in different areas. This is in contrast to OSPF, in
which the area borders are within the Area Border Routers (ABRs).
Intermediate System - The International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) defines an intermediate system as any router (routing network node)
that delivers and receives Network Protocol Data Units (NPDUs) from
other systems, and relays them to other destination systems.
IS-IS Addressing - An IS-IS NSAP (Network Service Access Point)
address is divided into two parts: an Area Address (AA) and a System ID.
Level 2 routing uses the AA, while Level 1 routing uses the system ID
address.
IS-IS on NBMA
IS-IS allows control of link state packet (LSP) flooding. This is vitally
important on meshed point-to-point links over NMBA. There are two ways to
reduce LSP flooding:
Block flooding at the interface level.
Configuration of mesh groups Mesh groups allow grouping of
interfaces. When an LSP is received on an interface that is a member
of a mesh group, the LSP is not forwarded to interfaces that are
members of the group (normally it would be forwarded out all
interfaces).
Areas and the Domain

A routing domain is a group of areas under the same administrative
authority, and subject to the same routing policies. The backbone is simply a
collection of Level 2 routers. There is no specifically defined backbone area
like that found under OSPF.
A router is only in a single area, and an area border consists of two routers,
each within a distinct area. This is different than OSPF, where the ABR is a
member of both areas.
As is true in most link state implementations, it is not possible to summarize
address space within an ISIS area. Routing information can only be
summarized as it enters the ISIS domain or is passed between L1 and L2
routers.
Router Types
Large routing domains use a two-level hierarchy. A large domain will be
divided into several areas, with each system residing in its own area.
Routing within a single area is referred to as Level 1 routing. Routing
between areas is called Level 2 routing. Routers can be Level 1, Level 2, or
support both functions (L1/L2).
Level 1 Intermediate Systems track routing within their areas. If a
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packets destination is outside the area, Level 1 IS sends the packet to the Level 2 IS nearest to it.
On local area networks, the protocol uses a Designated Intermediate System (DIS) to conduct flooding (the
DIS is elected). The DIS is elected by priority and can be compared to the DR in OSPF. If there is a priority tie,
the highest MAC is used.
Peers must share common physical links to transmit information between them. This does not require that a common
IP subnet be shared across the physical link as IS-IS adjacency determination is based on CLNP, not IP.
Addressing
The protocol conveys both OSI network layer information, along with subnetwork addresses. The address identifies
either:
Network Service Access Point (NSAP) The interface between layers-3 and -4.
Network Entity Title (NET) The network layer entity for OSI IS.
Subnetwork addresses, also called Subnetwork Point-of-Attachment Addresses (SNPAs), are the physical
attachment points, and uniquely identify each system on the network. The SNPA is the 48 bit MAC address. Systems
transmit NSAP and NET to SNPA mapping information to help define the network.
The command SHOW ISIS DATABASE displays the IS-IS link state database; basically, the list of IS-IS Link State
Protocol Data Units (LSP) that the router has received on its IS-IS enabled interfaces.
An NSAP address consists of two parts: the initial domain part (IDP) and the domain specific part (DSP). The IDP
consists of a 1-byte authority and format identifier (AFI) and a variable-length initial domain identifier (IDI), and the
DSP is a string of digits identifying a particular transport implementation of a specified AFI authority. Everything to the
left of the system ID is the area address of a network node.
The big difference between NSAP addressing and IP addressing is that there will be a single NSAP address for the
entire router, whereas with IP there will be one IP address per interface.
Security
IS-IS provides the ability to configure a password for a specified link, area, or domain. Password exchange becomes a
prerequisite for routers to become neighbors. Passwords are passed in clear text. The three types are used for:
Link Authentication Between ISs in a common subnet. It is possible to use a separate configuration for L1 and
L2, but L1 is the default.
Area Authentication Between ISs in the same IS area.
Domain Authentication Only available on L2 and L1/L2 ISs.
Designated Intermediate System and Pseudonodes

The idea behind the DIS is the same as behind the designated router in OSPF. The DIS creates a pseudonode, and all
the routers on a LAN, form an adjacency with the pseudonode instead of forming adjacencies with each other router in
a full mesh.
On a LAN, one of the routers will elect itself the DIS based on interface priority (the 64 is the default). If all interface
priorities are the same, the router with the highest subnetwork point of attachment (SNPA) is selected. MAC addresses
are the SNPA on LANs.
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The DIS election is pre-emptive (unlike the OSPF). If a new router boots on the LAN with a higher interface priority it
becomes the DIS.
Other Resources
The Cisco Press book IS-IS Network Design Solutions by Abe Martey is an excellent resource to learn more about
the IS-IS protocol.
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)

EIGRP is a Cisco proprietary protocol that is considered a hybrid because it combines attributes of both Link State
and Distance Vector routing protocols. It was released as an enhancement to Cisco's other proprietary routing
protocol, IGRP, and can detect and resolve a link failure within one second. It converges rapidly and scales well into
large networks. EIGRP sends routing updates to directly connected neighbors sending only the changes, rather than
the entire routing table. EIGRP does not send periodic updates; updates are only sent when there has been a change,
and only to the routers that need these updates, in contrast to pure link-state protocols.
EIGRP supports Variable Length Subnet Masking (VLSM) by carrying subnet information in its updates, allowing for
automatic network summarization. It maintains interoperability with IGRP routers; in fact EIGRP provides for automatic
redistribution of routes to and from the IGRP protocol, provided the AS number is configured the same for both.
The EIGRP routing process is based on transport layer of the OSI model and uses IP protocol number 88.
DUAL (Diffusing Update Algorithm)

DUAL is the routing engine behind EIGRP. It allows for multiple routers to update at the same time, and provides for
multi-protocol routing. It tracks route updates sent by neighbors and ensures against black holes. DUAL uses various
metrics to select the most efficient path, and inserts it into the routing table, based on the concept of feasible
successors (more about that later).
Choosing Routes
DUAL selects primary and backup routes based on the composite metric, and guarantees that the selected routes are
loop free. The primary routes are then moved to a routing table. The rest (up to 6) are stored in the topology table as
feasible successors.
EIGRP uses the same composite metric as IGRP to determine the best path*. The default criteria (**) used are:
Bandwidth - The smallest bandwidth cost between source and destination.
Delay - Cumulative interface delay along the path.
Reliability - Worst reliability between source and destination based on keepalives.
Load - Utilization on a link between source and destination based on bits per second on its worst link.
MTU - The smallest Maximum Transmission Unit.
* Only Bandwidth and Delay are used by default.
** To help you remember, think of Bob Doesnt Really Like Me for Bandwidth, Delay, Reliability, Load and
MTU.
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Protocol Dependence
EIGRP can provide routing services for IP, IPX, and AppleTalk. Each is managed by a different module, and maintains
a separate set of tables. The IPX EIGRP module is responsible for sending and receiving EIGRP packets that are
encapsulated in IPX. The Apple EIGRP module is responsible for AppleTalk packets. The IP EIGRP module is
responsible for IP packets. They route like strangers in the night, except they dont even exchange glances.
Tables
Tables include:
Neighbor table This contains the current configuration of all the routers immediately adjacent neighbors.
EIGRP keeps a table of adjacent routers for each of the protocols that are running (IPX, IP, and AppleTalk).
This table is responsible for maintaining all neighbor information: it holds the neighbors address and interface,
along with information required by RTP (sequence numbers and a transmission list), and round-trip information
to dynamically adjust transmission intervals. Remember that each protocol module maintains its own unique
neighbor table.
Topology table - This table is maintained by the protocol dependent modules, and is used by DUAL. It has all
the destination networks advertised by the other neighbor routers, and is a table of all the route entries the router
has learned. Each entry in the table includes the destination, and a list of all the neighbors that can reach it,
along with metric information and link costs. There are two states for a destination within the topology table:
active and passive. Each protocol module maintains its own topology table.
Routing table - EIGRP chooses the best routes to a destination network from the topology table and places
these routes in the routing table. EIGRP calculates the best route, or successor, from the topology table and
puts the entry in the routing table. Each protocol maintains its own routing table. The routing table contains:
How the route was discovered.
Destination network address and the subnet mask.
Metric Distance: This is the cost of the metric from the router.
Next hop address.
Route age.
Outbound interface.
Hello Packets and the EIGRP Discovery Process

EIGRP sends hello packets every 5 seconds on high bandwidth links, like PPP and HDLC leased lines, Ethernet, TR,
FDDI and Frame Relay (FR) point-to-point and ATM. It sends hellos every 60 seconds on low bandwidth multipoint
links, like FR multipoint and ATM multipoint links.
These multicast hello messages are sent out through all interfaces that belong to the EIGRP process, and listen for
similar multicast messages from other routers coming through the same set of interfaces. When a router receives a
hello packet from a router belonging to the same autonomous system (AS), it attempts to establish a neighbor
relationship (adjacency).
Route Tagging
There are two types of routes within EIGRP: internal and external. Internal are originated within the AS. External are
learned from the outside (redistribution). External routes are tagged with the following:
Router ID of the router that performed the route injection.
AS number of the destination.
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An administrator tag.
External protocol ID.
Metric (external protocol).
Default routing bit flag information.
Load Balancing
EIGRP can have up to six parallel equal-cost paths for load balancing, with the variance command used to adjust the
metrics if there is a need to provide unequal-path load balancing.
Route Age
An important point to remember with EIGRP is that very old routes are to be expected in a healthy network. Since
updates only occur when there is a change, and change is bad (indicating an unstable network), like fine wines,
EIGRP routes should be seasoned by time. Here is a sample output from a show IP route on an EIGRP network.
Router#show ip route
Codes: C - connected, S - static, I - IGRP, R - RIP, M - mobile, B - BGP
D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF, IA - OSPF inter area
N1 - OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 - OSPF NSSA external type 2
E1 - OSPF external type 1, E2 - OSPF external type 2, E - EGP
i - IS-IS, L1 - IS-IS level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2, * - candidate default
U - per-user static route, o - ODR
Gateway of last resort is not set
172.16.0.0/16 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks
D 172.16.0.0/16 is a summary, 4d06h, Null0
C 172.16.1.0/24 is directly connected, TokenRing0
C 192.168.4.0/24 is directly connected, Loopback3
D 10.0.0.0/8 [90/832000] via 172.16.1.3, 4d06h, TokenRing0
Router#
Notice that some routes have designations of 4d06h, which mean the routes are over four days old. Short aging
periods in an EIGRP network indicates change, and should be monitored carefully.
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EIGRP Packet Types

EIGRP packet types include:
Updates Used to build the topology table, EIGRP routing updates are sent to EIGRP neighbors to determine
the reachability of destinations.
Query Sent to neighbors when a route is not available.
Reply Replies to queries with the status of the route.
Hello Used to establish EIGRP neighbor relationships.
Acknowledgement Ensures reliable delivery of EIGRP packets.
All five have guaranteed delivery using the Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP). EIGRP packets are sent using a mix
of both unicast and multicast packets, with the packets being sent to the multicast address 224.0.0.10, which every
EIGRP interface automatically listens to. The first three packet types are considered reliable packets, because the
recipient sends an acknowledgement. Hello packets do not require an acknowledgement; and acknowledgements
obviously dont require an acknowledgment.
FD, RD, FC, FS and Successors

Feasible Distance (FD) is the minimum distance (metric) along a path to a destination network. If there are multiple
links to a destination, FD is the lowest metric (if there is only one way to get there, then it has to be the FD).
Reported Distance (RD) is the distance (metric) towards a destination as advertised by an upstream neighbor. This
is the value that is reported in queries, replies and updates. Remember that this is not a distance from THIS router,
but rather the metric the neighbor advertises for a specific destination.
A neighboring EIGRP router meets the Feasibility Condition (FC) if its RD is smaller than this routers FD. If the
neighbor router meets the FC and has the lowest cost path to a destination, it becomes the SUCCESSOR, and the
router begins to use it as the next hop for forwarding packets. Keep in mind that multiple successors are possible (load
balancing).
The Feasible Successor (FS) is a neighbor whose RD is less than the FD, but does not have the lowest cost path to
a destination. Think of this as a backup route that has already been calculated, just in case the primary fails.
EIGRP and Dropped Links

When EIGRP discovers a down link, the router does a lookup in its topology table for a successor. If a suitable one is
found, it changes to the new route. The router then does a recalculation for the next successor. Keep in mind that
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this allows for almost immediate recovery from a network failure, because the successor is already defined.
If no route updates for a successor or feasible successor are found, then the router deletes the entry from the topology
database and routing table. If routers do not respond within 180 seconds, their routes are also put into blocked state,
and the query router begins to look for the additional routes it lost though the lost router.
EIGRP and NBMA

When configuring EIGRP for NBMA Interfaces (Frame Relay, X.25, ATM) it is particularly important to configure the
interfaces and sub-interfaces correctly, otherwise EIGRP packets could be lost. There are three basic rules:
1. The traffic that EIGRP is allowed to send on a single virtual circuit (VC) cannot exceed the capacity of that
virtual circuit.
2. The total EIGRP traffic for all virtual circuits cannot exceed the access line speed of the interface.
3. The bandwidth allowed for EIGRP on each virtual circuit must be the same in each direction.
There are three different scenarios for NBMA interfaces.
Pure Multipoint Configuration (No Sub-interfaces) If all the virtual circuits are all the same size, simply
divide the configured bandwidth evenly across each virtual circuit. For example, if you have a T1 access line with
four 56Kbps VCs (virtual circuits), you should configure the bandwidth to be 224Kbps (4 * 56Kbps) in order to
avoid dropping packets. If the virtual circuits are of different capacities, the bandwidth should be set based on
the lowest capacity virtual circuit. For instance, if a T1 access line has three 256Kbps VCs and one 56Kpbs VC,
the bandwidth should be set to 224Kbps (4 * 56Kbps). In such configurations, putting at least the slow virtual
circuit onto a point-to-point sub-interface is strongly recommended (so that the bandwidth can be raised on the
others). If the total bandwidth of the virtual circuits equals or exceeds the access line speed, configure the
bandwidth to equal the access line speed.
Pure Point-to-Point Configuration (each VC on a separate sub-interface) - This configuration allows maximum
control, since the bandwidth can be configured separately on each sub-interface, and is the best configuration if
the virtual circuits have different capacities. Each sub-interface bandwidth should be configured to be no greater
than the available bandwidth on the associated virtual circuit, and the total bandwidth for all sub-interfaces
cannot exceed the available access line bandwidth. If the interface is oversubscribed, the access line bandwidth
must be divided across each of the sub-interfaces. For instance, if a T1 access line (1544 Kbps) has ten virtual
circuits with a capacity of 256Kbps, the bandwidth on each sub-interface should be configured to be 154Kbps
(1544/10).
Hybrid Configuration (point-to-point and multipoint sub-interfaces) - Hybrid configurations should use
combinations of the two individual strategies, while ensuring that the three basic rules are followed.
Hub and Spoke

The most common problem in an EIGRP hub-and-spoke environment occurs when routes cannot be advertised back
out to the spokes over the same interface they were received on at the hub. Use of sub-interfaces would overcome the
split horizon restriction.
Stuck-in-Active
A stuck-in-active (SIA) condition occurs when a neighbor fails to reply to an EIGRP query for a better route within
three minutes. This causes the neighbor relationship of the router to be reset. There is an excellent description of this
problem in chapter 7 of Cisco Press Troubleshooting IP Routing Protocols by Shamim, Aziz, Liu and Martey.
Reasons for this condition can include:
The router is too busy to answer the query (generally due to high CPU utilization).
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The router is having memory problems, and cannot allocate the memory to process the query or build the reply
packet.
The circuit between the two routers is not good enough for packets getting through to keep the neighbor
relationship up. That can mean that some queries or replies are getting lost between the routers.
Unidirectional links (a link on which traffic can only flow in one direction because of a failure).
EIGRP Configuration
Router(config)#router eigrp autonomous system This enables the routing process for the specified AS. You
should remember that an EIGRP AS is not the same as a BGP AS number.
Router(config-router)#network network-number This associates networks with the router process. EIGRP
sends updates to the interfaces specified with the network statement. If you do not specify an interfaces
network, it will not be advertised.
Router(config-router)#auto-summary This enables auto summarization.
Router(config-router)#maximum-paths Sets the maximum paths (4 is the default).
Router(config-if)#ip summary-address eigrp as-number address mask This interface level command enables
summarization.
Router(config-router)#passive-interface interface This prevents EIGRP updates and hello packets from being
sent on the named interface.
Router(config-router)#variance metric-variance-multiplier Use this to allow load balancing over unequal cost
paths. This includes routes with a metric less than or equal to the multiplier times the minimum metric for the
route to the destination.
Route Summarization for EIGRP

This is on by default, but only at the network or class boundaries. Manual configuration for route summarization is
primarily done at the core or distribution layers. An example of the syntax for configuration is as follows:
ip summary-address eigrp 100 10.98.0.0 255.255.0.0
Important! By default, EIRGP does not support VLSM. You must use the no auto-summary command. Summaries
are done at the interface level rather than at the router level. Use no auto-summary command to enable support of
discontiguous subnets.
Example:
router eigrp 100
network 10.0.0.0
network 192.64.0.0
no auto summary
interface serial 1
ip address 10.98.98.24 255.255.255.0
bandwidth 128
ip summary-address eigrp 100 192.64.0.0 255.255.0.0
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Verifying Operations
Router#show ip protocols Shows routing protocol information.
Router#show ip eigrp neighbors Displays neighbor information within the same AS.
Router#show ip eigrp interfaces Shows interfaces that are participating in the EIGRP process.
Router#show ip eigrp topology Shows the topology database.
The Cisco Press book EIGRP Network Design Solutions by Ivan Pepelnjak is an excellent resource for learning
EIGRP.
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

BGP version 4 is a path-vector routing protocol used to exchange routing information between Autonomous Systems
(ASs), and is considered the routing protocol of the Internet. It carries route information such as a sequence of AS
numbers that provide a path to follow to a destination network. This allows massive-scale inter-Autonomous System
routing (the Internet routing table currently registers over 100,000 routes!).
BGP neighbors are defined in the router configuration, not by their physical location in the network. Even if two routers
are physically connected, they are not necessarily neighbors unless a network engineer defines a TCP connection.
To ensure reliable packet delivery, BGP uses TCP (port 179) as its transport protocol. When BGP talkers (routers)
communicate for the first time, they exchange their entire routing tables. The protocol then maintains a table version
number to track the current instance of the BGP routing table. Keepalive messages are sent between neighbors to
make sure theyre up.
BGP routes can be learned through manual configuration, redistribution, or from what other BGP routers have learned.
BGP routers pass along information learned from one peer to others. Several years ago Cisco said hosting the BGP
routing table would require at least 128 MB, and it has grown significantly since then. While it is possible to configure
mutual redistribution between BGP and various IGP's, because IGP's cannot adequately scale and don't carry path
attributes, this is generally not recommended.
There are two flavors of BGP, internal and external (iBGP and eBGP).
Interior Border Gateway Protocol (iBGP) - Used to exchange information between routers within the same AS.
Neighbors dont need to be directly connected, but they do need IP connectivity via an IP Internal Gateway
Protocol (IGP), such as OSPF or EIGRP. iBGP is flexible, scalable, and efficient for controlling the exchange of
information within an AS, and shows a consistent view of the AS to external neighbors.
Exterior Border Gateway Protocol (eBGP) - Used when routers belong to different ASs and need to exchange
external updates. Neighbors normally require direct connectivity; however, Cisco does provide the ebgpmultihop router configuration command to override this behavior (more about that later).
Any time you make changes to a routers BGP configuration, your BGP neighbor connections must be reset. This is
done using the Cisco IOS command "clear ip bgp *". You can use the "show ip bgp" command to view the existing
BGP table.
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CIDR
BGPs effective use of Classless Inter-domain Routing (CIDR) has been a major factor in slowing the explosive
growth of the Internet routing table. A network is called a super-net when the prefix boundary contains fewer bits than
the networks natural mask.
Situations that may require BGP include:
Extremely large networks.
A network that is connected to more than one AS.
Networks that are connected to two or more Internet Service Providers.
When you have a unique routing policy that requires it.
If you manage the network for a major ISP.
When youre preparing for, or taking the CCIE Lab exam.
AS Numbers
On the Internet, an Autonomous System (AS) is a unit of router policy; meaning either a network or a group of
networks that is controlled by a common network administrator (or group of administrators) on behalf of a single
administrative entity (such as a university, a business enterprise, or a business division).
Networks within an AS communicate routing information to each other using an IGP. An Autonomous System shares
routing information with other Autonomous Systems using the BGP. An AS (sometimes referred to as a routing
domain) will be assigned a globally unique number, called an Autonomous System Number (ASN).
BGP routes carry a list of AS numbers between the source and destination called the AS path. You might want to think
of the AS paths as similar to a traceroute for IP, but instead of IP addresses, the route contains a list of AS numbers.
Each AS along the path prepends its AS number to the AS_PATH.
By default, BGP will choose one best path among the possible equal-cost paths learned from a remote AS, but this
can be changed. It is possible to load balance a single router in the local AS with multiple routers in a single remote AS
(a single homed BGP environment) using the maximum-paths command.
AS numbers from 64512-65535 are private AS numbers and are similar in fashion to the RFC 1918 IP addresses of
10.0.0.0/8; 172.16.0.0/16-172.31.0.0/16 and 192.168.0.0/24. These AS numbers arent used anywhere in the Core
BGP route tables, and are understood to be non-unique. They are used to keep the AS number requirement down.
Smaller BGP users will often use Private AS numbers, and then have them translated to public AS numbers by routers
upstream toward the core of the Internet. Many of the larger ISPs may have multiple public AS numbers. Smaller ISPs
will usually only have one public AS number.
Synchronization/Full Mesh
The synchronization rule states that BGP will not advertise routes to external neighbors learned via iBGP, unless the
IGP has knowledge of the destination. This means that BGP must either maintain a full mesh within an AS, or use
route reflectors to simulate this mesh.
With synchronization enabled (the default condition), BGP waits until the IGP has propagated routing information
across the Autonomous System before advertising transit routes to other ASs. This ensures networks are reachable
before eBGP advertises a route. This feature prevents routing blackholes, by ensuring consistency throughout the
routing domain.
This can be turned off using the Cisco IOS no sync command. But, this isnt recommended unless all the routers in
your AS are running BGP and are fully meshed, or if your AS isnt a transit AS. The inappropriate use of the no sync
command can cause non-BGP routers within an Autonomous System to receive traffic for destinations that they dont
have a route for.
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Summarization
When BGP auto-summary is enabled (which it is by default) locally originated BGP networks are summarized at their
classfull address boundaries. When auto-summary is disabled, routes that are locally introduced into the BGP table
are not summarized at their classfull boundaries (obviously). When a subnet exists in the routing table AND there is a
classfull network statement for a network in the routing table AND a classfull mask on that network statement AND
auto-summary is enabled, then when any subnet of that network is put into the local routing table, BGP will install the
whole classfull network into the BGP table.
If the AS doing BGP does not own the complete classfull network, Cisco recommends disabling BGP auto-summary.
Peering
RFC 1771 specified four Border Gateway Protocol 4 (BGP-4) messages used by routers running BGP (BGP
speakers):
Initial Exchange The OPEN message passes the BGP version number, the AS of the sending router, an
identifier, the hold time, and a set of optional fields, including the parameter field length and the defined
parameter itself.
Updates Once the initial exchange is complete, the routers then send UPDATE messages. The initial update
is the entire routing table. Once the peers have passed all their routes, the updates are only done as needed.
These messages contain path information, along with attributes.
Keepalives BGP routers constantly ensure that all neighbors are reachable. This is done with a KEEPALIVE
message.
Notifications The NOTIFICATION message is sent when there are errors between the peers. This message
either terminates the negotiation, or gracefully closes the connection.
In eBGP peering, the next hop is the IP address of the neighbor that announced the route. However, when the route is
advertised on a multi-access media (such as Ethernet or Frame Relay), the next hop is usually the IP address of the
router interface connected to that media that originated the route.
BGP Attributes
BGP routes have properties, or attributes, that are used to determine the best route to a destination.
These properties include:
Weight A Cisco defined attribute that is known only to the local router. If more than one route exists to a
destination, the one with the highest weight will be preferred.
Local preference Used to prefer an exit from the local Autonomous System. The local preference attribute is
known throughout the AS, with the higher local preference chosen exit point.
AS_Path The ordered list of ASs through which an advertisement has passed. BGP uses this to prevent
loops, as it will never accept an advertisement that includes its own AS in the path.
Multi-exit Discriminator (MED) Allows an AS to advertise a preferred entry point to a neighbor AS.
Origin This describes how BGP has learned a route. There are three possible values:
IGP The route was learned within the AS. These are routes advertised via the network command.
EGP Routes learned via the External Gateway Protocol.
Incomplete - The route was redistributed into BGP.
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Next Hop For eBGP, it is the IP address that is used to reach the
advertising router. For eBGP, this is the peer. Note that this
information is passed throughout an AS using iBGP.
Community A group of routers to which a set of specific rules can be
applied; a community is a group of destinations that share some
common property. It is not restricted to one network or AS, and has no
physical boundaries. The purpose of the community attribute is to
simplify routing policies by identifying routes based on a logical
property rather than an AS number or IP prefix. It filters traffic in and
out and is used in redistribution. BGP uses route maps to apply the
community attribute, and there are three predefined attributes:
No-export Do not advertise through eBGP.
No-advertise Do not advertise to any peer.
Internet Advertise to all.
BGP Path Selection

BGP will select what it considers the one best path, which is then put into the
BGP routing table and propagated to its neighbors. The ten-step criterion for
selecting the path for a destination is:
1. If the path specifies a next hop that is not accessible, the update is
dropped.
2. The path with the largest weight is preferred.
3. If the weights are the same, the path with the larger local preference
is preferred.
4. If the local preference is the same, then prefer the path that
originated on this router.
5. If no route originated on this router, then prefer the one with the
shortest AS-path.
6. If they have the same AS-path, then prefer the path with the lowest
origin path.
7. If the origin codes are the same, then prefer the path with the lowest
Multi-Exit Discriminator (MED).
8. If the MED is the same, then prefer an external path to an internal
path.
9. If these are the same, then prefer a path through the closest IGP
neighbor.
10. Lastly, prefer the path with the lowest IP address, as specified by the
BGP router ID. If a loopback is configured, this will be used as the
router ID.
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Scalability Problems (and Solutions) with iBGP

Autonomous systems consisting of hundreds of routers can create management problems for network administrators.
Remember that iBGP must be fully meshed unless you use one of the techniques listed below, which requires BGP
neighbor statements to and from every iBGP router in a given AS.
Peer Groups - Several BGP routers that share the same update policies can be grouped into a peer group to
simplify configuration and to make updating more efficient. The power of this function will be obvious the first
time you need to configure hundreds of routers and type the same commands over, and over, and over again.
The members of a peer group will inherit changes made to the peer group, simplifying updates. Peer group
members inherit the following:
Remote-as (if configured)
Version
Update-source
Out-route-map
Out-filter-list
Out-dist-list
Minimum-advertisement-interval
Next-hop-self
Confederations - Confederations eliminate the need to fully mesh BGP communications in a given AS by
splitting a single AS into sub-ASs and using eBGP between them. The sub-ASs will usually use private AS
numbers. In most BGP environments it is too cumbersome to have all the BGP routers peered to each other.
ASs external to the confederation group look like a single AS to the routers inside.
Route Reflectors - Route reflectors can also reduce the number of BGP peering statements by configuring
some of the iBGP routers as route reflectors. The route reflector clients only peer with the route reflectors, and
not each other. This setup can greatly reduce the number of BGP peering configurations required in an AS. You
can cluster BGP Route Reflectors to provide redundancy. This prevents the failure of a single router from
bringing down your iBGP domain.
Next-Hop-Self Command
The rules of BGP state that if a route is learned via iBGP, then the next-hop information does not change. With eBGP
peers, the next hop information is modified at each eBGP router (in each AS), so the next-hop appears as the
advertising router.
In a non-meshed environment where you know that a path exists from the current router to a specific address, the
BGP router command neighbor {ip-address | peer-group-name} next-hop-self can be used to disable next-hop
processing. This will cause the current router to advertise itself as the next hop for a specified neighbor, simplifying
the network. Other BGP neighbors will then forward packets for that destination to the current router.
This feature allows you to set BGP attributes for a BGP route reflector and turn off the next-hop calculation for eBGP
peers. This, in conjunction with iBGP Multipath Load Sharing, allows you to use an outbound route map to include
BGP route reflectors in the forwarding path.
This would not be useful in a fully meshed environment, since it will result in unnecessary extra hops where there may
be a more direct path.
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Filtering BGP Updates

Several methods exist for filtering BGP updates, including community lists, prefix filters, distribute lists, AS path filters
and route maps. Each tool has its use, and the fact that there are so many should indicate how deep the topic of BGP
configuration is. An excellent book on the topic is Habibis Internet Routing Architectures by Cisco Press.
Policy Routing
Policy routing is a means of managing routes and the paths used with manually configured rules. It makes routing
decisions based on a variety of parameters such as source address or source and destination address rather than just
destination address alone. Policy routing can be used to manipulate traffic inside an AS or between ASs. Policy
routing has many of the same drawbacks as static routing.
Route Dampening
A network that has a router with flapping routes (routes that go up and down) can often cause problems, as the BGP
routers must continuously update their routing tables. Route dampening is used to control this route instability.
Dampening classifies routes as "well-behaved" or "ill-behaved" based on their past reliability and penalties are
assigned each time a route flaps. When a set penalty is reached, BGP suppresses the route until it is well behaved
and trusted again. There is no penalty limit at which a route is permanently barred from joining the domain. Route
dampening is not enabled by default.
Commands:
bgp dampening - Enables route dampening for BGP.
clear ip bgp dampening address mask - Use the clear command to reverse dampening.
show ip bgp flap-statistics -Use the flap-statistic command to show flapping routes.
clear ip bgp flap-statistics - Use the clear command to clear the statistics.
Route Distribution
Static Routes BGP is one method of dealing with flapping networks and preventing BGP instability. The drawback
with static routes is BGP will show the route to be active even if the route is down. Static routing with BGP enables the
route to always be advertised and always in the routing database. Use the redistribute static command and use the
following syntax to distribute static routes.
router bgp 100
neighbor 131.108.0.0 mask 255.255.0.0
neighbor 131.108.32.5 remote-as 300
redistribute static
ip route 10.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 null 0
null 0 is a null interface. With the configuration above it will cause any packet destined for the 10.x.x.x network to be
discarded.
Default Route (Gateway)
0.0.0.0
is the default gateway. It is also the gateway of last resort, usually an interface on the border router
leading to your ISP. Use the following syntax:
ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 s1
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Multi-Homing BGP
Running BGP connected to multiple ISPs is called multi-homing. There are several ways to implement multi-homing,
including:
Receiving full Internet routes (this requires huge amounts of memory and processing power).
Receiving directly connected routes (which will only give you your ISP networks, along with a default route, but is
much easier on the router resources).
Receiving default routes only (this is preferable when your router has minimal memory and processing power,
and usually gets the job done if you are just looking for redundancy).
There is an excellent Cisco document on this topic at:
http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/459/27.html
BACKDOOR configurations
The BACKDOOR argument of the NETWORK command changes the normal eBGP Administrative distance on a link
(20, by default) to the AD of an iBGP route (200, by default), thus making an IGP route preferred for a local link. This
is done when you must use BGP, but an IGP route is more efficient locally. There is an excellent example of this
statement being used in a configuration on page 326 of the Cisco Press book Internet Routing Architectures by Sam
Halabi. To enable a backdoor route, use the following command.
Network address backdoor
Basic Configuration
Router(config)#router bgp Autonomous System This command enables the bgp process on a router, and
assigns an AS number.
Router(config-router)#neighbor ip address remote-as autonomous-system This designates the neighbor with
its IP address, along with the AS of the peer. Note that this statement is how BGP determines whether the peer
is an Internal or External peer. An internal peer is configured with the same AS as the router itself. An external
peer has another AS.
Router(config-router)#network net-address mask netmask This command tells BGP to advertise this route to
neighbors. Note that BGP will only advertise this route if it knows how to reach it (if it is in its routing table). If
the destination cannot be reached by the router, this will not be advertised.
Summary Routes
Use the aggregate-address command to summarize network routes.
Syntax:
Aggregate-address address mask
or
Aggregate-address address mask summary-only
There are more variations of this command.
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Statistic Commands
Show ip bgp summary - Use the summary argument to display the status of all BGP connections.
Show ip bgp paths - Use the paths argument to view the BGP database.
Show ip bgp neighbors address - Provides a detailed list of the bgp neighbors and the TCP information.
Verifying Operations
Show ip bgp neighbor This command will show information about the BGP neighbors, and the current state.
An ESTABLISHED state indicates that peer relationship is established, and routes are being exchanged.
Show ip bgp This gives information about the BGP process, Network Layer Reachability Information
(NLRI), attributes, and path information.
The Cisco Press books Internet Routing Architectures, 2nd edition by Sam Halabi, Routing TCP/IP, volume 2
by Jeff Doyle and the Cisco BGP-4 Command and Configuration Handbook by William Parkhurst are excellent
resources for BGP.
Redistribution
It is not always possible or desirable to use a single routing protocol on your entire Internetwork. In this case, you will
need to implement a way of passing the networks learned by one routing protocol into another so that every server,
host and networked device can find every other. Redistribution provides this tool.
Steps for Redistribution:
1. Enable the relevant routing protocols on the border routers.
2. Specify the networks to be advertised within each specific routing entry domain.
3. Determine how you want to redistribute (one- or two-way).
4. Determine what metrics need to be established to facilitate redistribution, and, if the protocol being
redistributed into is OSPF, that the "subnet" parameter is being used.
5. Apply any distribute-lists, if required.
6. Apply any route-maps, if required.
7. Address any VLSM/FLSM issues that remain.
Excellent CCO Links:

Redistribute Command
Redistributing Routing Protocols
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Static Routing and Connected Ports

If you want to advertise static and connected routes to a dynamic routing protocol, you must specify that these should
be shared. No metric is necessary when redistributing static and connected routes into RIP, IGRP, EIGRP and OSPF.
The commands are:
Router (config-router)# Redistribute Static
Router (config-router)# Redistribute Connected
There is an exception to the rule listed above. RIP will automatically advertise out the default route (0.0.0.0) regardless
of whether its static or not.
IGRP and EIGRP

Metrics are an essential part of redistributing routes into IGRP and EIGRP.
When a metric is not supplied for routes injected into an IGRP routing domain, the entries will appear with a metric of
1 (meaning the network is unreachable). Supplying appropriate metrics for redistributed routes resolves this problem.
IGRP and EIGRP use five metrics when redistributing other protocols:
Bandwidth
Delay
Reliability
Load
MTU
By the way, a good mnemonic device for remembering this is Bob Doesnt Really Like Me. The table below provides
a definition of these metrics:
Metric
Value
bandwidth
A value based on the bandwidth of a specific interface; for example, 10000 for
10Mbps Ethernet.
delay
100 x 10 microseconds = 1 ms.
reliability
255 for 100% reliability.
loading
Effective bandwidth of the route in Kilobits per second (Kbps).
MTU
Minimum MTU of the router, usually equals the Ethernet bandwidth.
The following output shows an EIGRP router redistributing static, OSPF, RIP, and ISIS routes using the defaultmetric command:
router eigrp 1
network 131.108.0.0
redistribute static
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redistribute ospf 1
redistribute rip
default-metric 10000 100 255 1 1500
Multiple IGRP and EIGRP processes can run on the same router, with redistribution between them, but this is rarely
necessary, and will consume memory and CPU cycles. Redistribution of an IGRP/EIGRP routing process into another
IGRP/EIGRP routing process doesn't require any metric conversion, so there is no need to define metrics or use the
default-metric command during redistribution.
IGRP and EIGRP will automatically redistribute if they share the same AS#.
OSPF
A metric is not required for OSPF, however, if you redistribute an IGP into OSPF without specifying a default-metric, it
will be assigned a metric of 20.
There is an important keyword with OSPF - subnets. If you omit the subnets parameter of the redistribution
command, subnetted (non-major subnets) routes will not be redistributed into OSPF. Since it doesnt hurt your
configuration to have this parameter, even if you dont need it, get used to always including it.
The OSPF metric is based on 108/ bandwidth of the link. For example, the OSPF cost of Ethernet is 10: 108/107 = 10
Multiple OSPF processes can run on the same router, with redistribution between them, but this is rarely necessary,
and will consume memory and CPU cycles.
Whenever you use the redistribute or the default-information router configuration commands to redistribute routes
into an OSPF routing domain, the router automatically becomes an Autonomous System Boundary Router (ASBR).
However, an ASBR does not, by default, generate a default route into the OSPF routing domain.
Keywords:
The keyword internal indicates the OSPF intra-area and inter-area routes.
The keyword External 1 is the external route type 1.
The keyword External 2 is the external route type 2.
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The following output shows an OSPF router redistributing static, RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, and ISIS routes:
router ospf 1
network 131.108.0.0 0.0.255.255 area 0
redistribute static metric 200 subnets
redistribute rip metric 200 subnets
redistribute igrp 1 metric 100 subnets
redistribute eigrp 1 metric 100 subnets
redistribute isis metric 10 subnets
redistribute connected metric 10 subnets
BGP
You dont generally want to redistribute BGP routes into an IGP, or IGP routes into BGP.
It is, however, somewhat common to redistribute one or two routes and to make them exterior routes for IGRP, or to
allow BGP to generate a default route for your entire autonomous system. When redistributing from BGP into IGP,
only the routes learned using eBGP get redistributed.
To allow the redistribution of internal Border Gateway Protocol (iBGP) routes into an Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP)
such as Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS) or Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), use the bgp
redistribute-internal command in address family configuration mode. To restore the system to the default condition,
use the no form of this command.
You would not generally redistribute your IGP into BGP, but rather list the networks in your autonomous system with
network commands within the BGP router configuration. Networks that are listed this way are referred to as local
networks and have a BGP origin attribute of "IGP." They must appear in the main IP routing table and can have any
source; for example, they can be directly connected or learned via an IGP. The BGP routing process periodically scans
the main IP routing table to detect the presence or absence of local networks, updating the BGP routing table as
appropriate.
If you do choose to redistribute into BGP, you must be very careful about the validity of the routes coming from your
IGP, especially if the routes were redistributed from BGP into the IGP elsewhere. This can create a situation where
BGP is injecting information into the IGP and then sending such information back into BGP, and vice versa. Incorrectly
redistributing routes into BGP can result in the loss of critical information, such as the AS-path, which is required for
BGP to function properly.
Networks that are redistributed into BGP from the EGP protocol will be given the BGP origin attribute "EGP." Other
networks that are redistributed into BGP will have the BGP origin attribute of "incomplete." The origin attribute in our
implementation is only used in the path selection process.
Policy-Based Routing (PBR)

PBR provides a flexible way of routing packets by defining policies for traffic flows and allowing greater control by
extending and complementing existing routing protocol mechanisms. They allow sophisticated if/then logic to be
applied on a router to manage redistribution, control and modify routing information, add granularity to NAT
configurations, implement BGP policy-based routing, and other functions.
Policies can be based on IP address, port numbers, or protocols. Route maps are similar to access lists, in that they
both perform if/then programming, defining the criteria used to determine how packets are handled. The main
difference being that route maps have the ability to define an action based on that criteria; meaning if a packet
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matches a criteria, a predefined action is taken to change or manage the packet. Access Control Lists (ACLs) can
only permit or deny the matched packet.
All packets received on a PBR enabled interface are passed through enhanced packet filters known as route maps.
The route maps used by PBR dictate the policy, and determine where packets are forwarded. They can use standard
or extended IP access lists.
The following characterize the operation of route map statements:
The route map statements used for policy-based routing can be marked as permit or deny.
Only if the statement is marked as permit and the packet meets the match criteria will the accompanying Set
commands be applied.
The statements in a route map correspond to the lines of an access list. Specifying the match conditions in a route
map is similar to specifying the source and destination addresses and masks in an access list. Also like ACLs, lines in
the route map are processed sequentially until a match is made.
Sequence numbers are used to specify the order in which conditions are checked. If there are multiple statements in a
route map with different sequence numbers, the lower value is checked first. If there is no match for the first condition,
the next will be checked; and so on down the list.
A route map can contain logical ANDs as well as logical ORs:
A single match statement can contain multiple conditions, at least one of which must be true for a match to be
made. This is a logical OR.
A route map statement can contain multiple match statements, in which all the match statements in the route
map statement must be considered true for the route map statement to be considered matched. This is a logical
AND.
A criteria is created using the Match statement that either permits or denies. They are interpreted in the following
ways:
If a statement is marked as deny, the packets meeting the match criteria are sent back through the normal
forwarding channels and destination-based routing is performed.
If the statement is marked as permit and a packet matches the access-lists, then the first valid set clause is
applied to that packet.
Once the criteria is defined, then how they will be handled is defined through the use of the set statement.
Configuration commands for PBR

The basic configuration steps are to use the route-map command to define the route-map, and define its criteria using
a list of match and set commands. The match commands specify the match criteria - the conditions under which
policy routing occurs. The set commands specify the set actions - the particular routing actions to perform if the criteria
enforced by the match commands are met. The ip policy route-map interface command is used to apply a route map
by name.
PBR is a significant topic, worthy of further study, but Ive included some of the more common commands below:
Router(config)# route-map map-tag - Defines a route map to control where packets are output. This command puts
the router into route-map configuration mode. The map-tag is the name of the route map.
Router(route-map)# match interface interface-type interface-number - Used to define any routes that have their next
hop out one of the interfaces specified.
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Router(route-map)# match ip address {access-list-number | access-list-name} - Used to define any routes that have a
destination network number address that is permitted by a standard or extended access list.
Router(route-map)# match ip next-hop {access-list-number | access-list-name} - Used to define any routes that have
a next hop router address passed by one of the access lists specified.
Router(route-map)# match ip route-source {access-list-number | access-list-name} - Used to define routes that have
been advertised by routers and access servers at the address specified by the access lists.
Router(route-map)# match length minimum-length maximum-length - Used to define policy routing based on the Level
3 length of a packet.
Router(route-map)# set interface interface-type interface-number - Used to define where to send output packets that
pass a match clause of a route map for policy routing.
Router(route-map)# set ip precedence number|name - Used to define how to set the precedence value in the IP
header of the output packets that pass a match clause of a route map for policy routing.
Router(route-map)# set next-hop next-hop - Used to specify the address of the next hop of the output packets that
pass a match clause of a route map for policy routing.
Router(interface)# ip policy route-map map-tag - Used to apply a route map to outbound packets on an interface.
Here is a sample configuration:
access-list 1 deny ip 192.168.10.1
access-list 1 permit ip 192.168.10.0 0.0.0.255
access-list 2 permit ip 192.168.10.1
access-list 2 permit ip 192.168.20.2
!
interface ethernet 1
ip policy route-map Gimli
!
route-map Gimli permit 10
match ip address 1
set ip next-hop 192.168.30.3
!
route-map Gimli permit 20
match ip address 2
set ip next-hop 192.168.30.5
To learn more about PBR, here is an excellent link from the Cisco website:
http://www.cisco.com/en/US/products/hw/switches/ps4324/products_configuration_guide_chapter09186a008011c8c7.html#10065
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BSCI v2.

BSCI v2.0 (642-801)

BSCI v2.0 (642-801)

BSCI v2.0 (642-801)

Cisco Hierarchical Internetworking Model

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BSCI v2.0 (642-801)

Connection and Non-Connection Protocols

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Network Address Translation (NAT)

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Figure 1 Network Diagram

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RED and WRED

Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6)

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Routing Protocol Concepts

Distance-Vector Routing Protocols

Link State Routing Protocols

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Routing Protocol Types

255 Hops (default is

15 Hops on each side

50 routers per area

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Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

OSPF Area Types

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Stub and Totally Stubby Area

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Route Table Updates

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Broadcast MultiAccess Networks

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OSPF and Redistribution

OSPF Commands (Single Area) Setup

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OSPF Multiple-Areas Configuration Commands Enable OSPF on the Router

Commands for Stub Area Configuration

Commands for Route Summarization on OSPF

Commands for Troubleshooting OSPF

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Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS)

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Frame Relay Configuration

IS-IS Network Type

Physical Interface / frame relay map clns

Physical Interface / frame interface-dlci

Point to Point Sub-Interface

Point to Multi Point Sub-Interface

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Useful IS-IS Terms to Understand

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Areas and the Domain

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Designated Intermediate System and Pseudonodes

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Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)

DUAL (Diffusing Update Algorithm)

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Hello Packets and the EIGRP Discovery Process

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